Ancient History Final terms

Romano-Syrian War

(192-188) conflict between Rome and the Seleucid empire. With Egypt and Macedonia now weakened, the Seleucid Empire under the control of Antiochus III became increasingly aggressive and successful in its attempts to conquer the entire Greek world. The Seleucids are very strong now (rule what was basically Persia) and have teamed up with Hannibal who had become one of their chief military advisors. Fearing the worst, the Romans began a major mobilization, all but pulling out of recently pacified Spain and Gaul. They even established a major garrison in Sicily in case the Seleucids ever got to Italy. This fear was shared by Rome's Greek allies, who had largely ignored Rome in the years after the Second Macedonian War, but now followed Rome again for the first time since that war. Even Philip allied with Rome. A major Roman-Greek force was mobilized under the command of the great hero of the Second Punic War, Scipio Africanus, and set out for Greece, beginning the Roman-Syrian War. The Seleucids allied with Aetolians tried to turn the Roman strength against them at the Battle of Thermopylae 191. The Seleucids lost the battle, and were forced to evacuate Greece. The Romans pursued the Seleucids by crossing the Hellespont, which marked the first time a Roman army had ever entered Asia. The decisive engagement was fought at the Battle of Magnesia 190, resulting in a complete Roman victory. The Seleucids sued for peace, and Rome forced them to give up their recent Greek conquests. Antiochus must pay a huge enmity and restrictions placed on navy. Though they still controlled a great deal of territory, this defeat marked the beginning of the end of their empire. Following Magnesia, Rome pulled out of Greece again, assuming (or hoping) that the lack of a major Greek power would ensure a stable peace, though it did the opposite.

The second Macedonian War

(200-196 BC) The Macedonian Wars were between Macedonia under the rule of King Philip V and the Romans. Philip refused to step down, and Rome used these wars to solidify control over the eastern mediterranean During the 2nd Punic War, King Philip had taken over Illyria, a Roman allie, which they allowed him to keep in 205 after the Peace of Phoenice. But then Philip then began harrying Rhodes, Pergamum, and other Greek city-states of the Aegean, and refused to leave them alone, so Rome declared war Rome had just been to war w/hannibal but Consuls feel this is necessary...BUT the war gets voted no...so Consuls call another vote. This time, Scipio's veterans had been serving in Africa, and the consuls agree to not make them serve...so they vote yes this time! Philip V tries to block passes and sweeps away Roman armies with pike phalanx which unnerves Titus Flamingos Battle of Cynoscephalae 197: an encounter battle, both sides trying to find each other (hilly and misty) Thessaly is important to Macedonia Philip phalanx marches along a ridge and he forms up and attacks-charge is successful, romans on the left driven back Flaminus then tries to use his right side to assault which goes well! 20 maniples led down the ridge who then assault Philip's rear-5,000 killed 5,000 captured. A truce is achieved, Philip must surrender most of his ships and can only keep army of 5000 (probably to keep Northern barbarians out of Greece). In the resulting Treaty of Tempea, Philip V was forbidden from interfering with affairs outside his borders, and was required to relinquish his recent Greek conquests. Flamininus announces Freedom of the Greeks w/ no Roman garrisons in Acrocorinth. They had created a power vacuum. At the Olympiad in 196 BC Rome proclaimed the "Freedom of the Greeks", which constituted Rome's (arguably misguided) new policy towards Greece. This was that Greece was now stable and Rome could completely remove itself from Greek affairs without risking more instability.It seemed that Rome had no further interest in the region, as they withdrew all military forces without even attempting to consolidate any gains, and subsequently returned to their prior apathy even when their Greek allies ignored later Roman requests

first punic war

(264-241 BC) The first punic war is documented by Polybius. 1st Punic War shifted Rome from being an Italian power, to being an overseas power that acquires and maintain powers. It was fought between Carthage and Rome who were the great powers of the Mediterranean. Carthage and Rome were actually friends and had treaties with each other since with Rome being the lesser consenting power and Carthage being the established one. So why did Rome and Carthage go to war suddenly? An argument from 1979 suggests that Romans are pathologically aggressive which can be seen in the way that in order to go war, the citizen body had to vote yes to it, and they nearly always did because they saw the material benefit (land, loot). Another suggestion is that Roman was not the only pathologically aggressive society and perhaps in general the ancient mediterranean was an anarchic place that required a successful society to be like this. Another (perhaps the best) explanation is that CONTESTED PERIPHERY between Carthage and Rome over who owned the waters of Sicily. So basically , the Mamertines had control of Messina, but then Syracuse takes control of it. The Oscans ask Rome and Carthage for assistance. Carthage sends some troops to occupy Messina. The Oscans also offer unconditional surrender to Rome to further reaffirm their safety. Some consuls want to occupy Messina for the riches and to make sure Carthage does not get any stronger. After much debate, the Assembly votes to send Roman army to Sicily, which angers the Carthaginians who were occupying it. The first year of fighting ended with Syracuse surrendering to Rome after they besieged Agrigentum in 262 BC despite Syracuse being aided by a Carthaginian relief force. Syracuse promised to pay money to provide for grain. Romans decided to send 2 armies to attack Carthaginians now Carthaginians send huge army not just as an ally to Syracuse, but as a deadly force to fight for the island Rome was no naval power but did have large fleet of triremes. So early fleet is equipped w/ Corvus-as Romans get close to ship, they grapple it w/ hooks, slide down the corvus and try to capture ship (transfer infantry skills to waters) Roman fleet led by Gaius Duilius has first victory in Mylae in 260 BC thanks to Corvus despite Carthage being stronger military power. Ecnomus 256 BC: another naval victory The Battle of Bagradas River 255: ended in a Roman loss because they showed up with one consular army while the Carthaginians had hired many mercenaries and elephants. By this time they were also having financial problems and were basically just trying to hold the line at Agrigentum. Rome got its grain from Syracuse while Carthage had to worry about supply lines from Africa Battle of Drepana 249: Romans rebuild fleet and try to cute Carthage's supply lines but they lose horribly and stop making fleets for 6 years after this loss. Hamilcar Barca launches series of raids in Italy and tries to divide it up which inspires Romans to try building a fleet again (which is funded by wealthy citizens) Battle of the Aegates Islands 241: The Battle of Aegates took place in the first Punic War off the western coast of Sicily. Carthaginian navy led by Hamilcar Barcavs Roman navy ended with a decisive Roman victory that ended the 1st Punic War. The Romans had been blockading the Carthaginian supply lines but they took a year to respond. The Romans emptied their (patrician funded) ships of their masts and took only the bare necessities so they were much more mobile than the Carthaginians weighed down by food and supplies and men. The Carthaginians lost most of their fleet and could not afford to rebuild so they signed treaty of Lutatius to end war. Carthage cedes western part of Sicily to Rome Mercenaries cannot be paid so they rebel and Carthage puts them down HORRIBLY 238 BC: Rome has also gotten Sardinia and Corsica from Carthage 237 BC: Barca gets control of large enemy and crosses over to Spain w/ his son, Hannibal. Spain was in the middle of social, political, and economic transformation, so they wanted to get in on that.Hamilcar assassinated and replaced by Hasdrubal, his son in Law They get Carthage more control in Spain because they have resources (manpower through conscription, silver supplies) Hold children hostage Hannibal eventually rises up at 20 yrs old Meanwhile: Rome has engaged in Gallic Wars to conquer Po Valley (most fertile lands) Gaius Flaminius: tribune of plebs suggests that Romans should have opportunity to get this fertile land in the Po Valley Battle of Telamon: 225 BC Via Flaminia: 221 Placentia/ Cremona: 218

Augustus

(27 BC- AD 14 emp)Caesar's adopted heir Octavian, later known as Augustus, rose to sole power after defeating his opponents in the civil war. Octavian set about solidifying his power and the era of the Roman Empire began. A triumvirate takes place: Mark Antony, Octavian, son of Lepidus They avenge Caesar's death Mark Antony gets run out with Cleopatra Octavian is left and turns Rome republic into empire under the new name Augustus Leader of every province that has a legion Unlike Julius Caesar, Augustus is not very strong in military, not a military genius...yet he is the most important reformer of the military and is the one who controls everything He wins because he is good at getting loyal subordinate followers Octavian is good at ruling things w/o offending anyone so powerful roman senators don't feel threatened by him Imperium:the right to command roman soldiers (beat them, decapitate them, etc) imperator: commander w/ imperium Augustus is only one w/ imperium...after winning the civil war, Augustus starts going by imperator Social problems in Italy caused by social growth w/o economic growth...further complicated by political problems Not enough land to give to all the soldier veterans So Octavian settles them in colonies abroad This makes Rome have set up soldiers everywhere Professionalizes Army by creating legal requirements If there is a conscription, you must serve 16 years (gets lengthened to 20) He creates a retirement fund from a fisc for the soldiers who fulfill requirement (1200 sisterces) , which creates incentive to join the army The fisc is really underfunded to begin w/ So only the people who fulfill the 16 year requirement get the money... He forbids soldiers to marry Under roman republic, men marry late (late 30's), but you can be married and still serve BUT IN THE REPUBLIC : you must divorce your wife if you have one and want to join Destroy links back to Italy and keeps them from putting down roots (no rush to go home, no other loyalties) An idea that women make men soft and that sex is bad for men?? Roman men continue to marry and have family but nothing is official The career hierarchy of centurions is formalized The levy is no longer main way to get troops Centurions seems to be specifically appointed by Caesar's time Centurions seen as professionals who expect to move up Epigraphic habit: new inscriptions in the Roman Empire to commemorate things People most likely to put up inscriptions when they experienced a status dissonance in their life former slave who became rich) Soldiers Get paid twice what a common soldier makes Low level centurions get paid 13x more lowest soldier, and highest centurion can gets 60x more, a retired centurion can get enough separation money to be an equestrian (administrative class below the senatorial class) More money to be made as you work your way up the centurions ladder=professional Remember: many people cheat, only get jobs because of connections E.g Pliny the Elder hooks his buddy up Augustus has 28 legions but they are only ½ of the whole Roman army By end of empire, most legionnaires born abroad Start hiring non Romans for auxillaries , recruit native contogents to fight alongside legions They are organized into cohorts (500 men) Auxiliary cavalry organized into wings These auxiliaries commanded by local chiefs and fought w/ local tactics Really begin to resemble roman army in leadership, weapons, fighting style, speaking latin Ruled by roman prefects Why join the auxiliaries? Because it's the fastest path to citizenship into Roman Empire Upon discharge, given citizenship to themselves and family The cavalry is paid much more than the cavalry in legions Roman units Century: 80 soldiers, centurion Maniple: two centuries, obsolescent Cohort: 480 soldiers (6 centuries) Legion: 10 cohorts infantry, 125 cavalry c. 5400 men Leadership Primus Pilus Centurion: senior centurion in legion Six military tribunes: 5 equestrian,1 senatorial Legatus Augusti propraetore: legionary commander (usually praetorian rank) Legatus Augusti Propraetore: provincial governor/army commander : consular rank Praetorian Guard Emperors feel need to have some forces in Italy to show their power (remember the army is mostly abroad now) Augustus wants a 9000 men guard (9 cohorts, then goes to 10) Main organized substantial military force in Italy Augustus organized urban military: a police force Also a fleet at Mycena to deal with piracy (coast guard) No honor in this, boring Bireme style ships designed for moving and intercept pirates, escort supply convoys Ran by marines Riverine fleets are used for all the rivers (do patrols to protect frontiers) New type of armor Lorica segmentata The one used in the movies Flexible, light, good shoulder protection Would only work with professional army (complex hard to put together, must be maintained, high maintenance, required discipline) Coolus/ Imperial Gallic Helmet evolved from montefartino Has extended neck guard and Increased emphasis on siege warfare can be seen in the way that new armor protects the back a lot Gladius evolved into Mainz (shorter and stubbier) and pompeii (also shorter and most common) Close order tactics maintained Face masks Many portray amazons? Not likely worn in battle, probs during parade Catapult technology Advanves Field pieces that can be taken in field operations Large stone throwers for sieges So basically Augustus made quite a few really important reforms, but also stuff changed on its own. What did Augy do? Well he raised soldier's pay, made it illegal for them to be married, moved soldiers abroad, all of which helped make the Roman Army more professional ya know? Lets see, there was also more complicated armor, more use of siege tactics, a new helmet, shorter stubbier swords...ahhhh think that's it.

Battle of Strasbourg

(AKA Battle of Argentoratum) 357 AD, Western Roman army under Julian vs. the Alamanni (a Germanic confederation), Roman victory, the Alamanni were pushed out of Gaul (east of Rhine) The battle was the climax of Julian's campaigns in 355-57 to evict barbarian marauders from Gaul and to restore the Roman defensive line of fortifications along the Rhine, which had been largely destroyed during the Roman civil war of 350-53. In the years following his victory at Strasbourg, Julian was able to repair and garrison the Rhine forts and impose tributary status on the Germanic tribes beyond the border. By far the most detailed and reliable source for the battle, and Julian's Gallic campaign (355-60) generally, is the Res Gestae (Histories) of Ammianus Marcellinus, a contemporary historian.

Name major battles of second punic war

-218 BC Battle of Trebia Hannibal leads ambush Sends out skirmishers to start, positions fighters near river, has Mago take position near some bushes (hidden)-The Romans cross the river and lose formation, then Hannibal's force jumps on the Romans (½ of Roman army killed) 1st Carthaginian victory Scipio brothers leaves to Spain and holds the line there (see that as Carthaginian base of power) Hannibal moves to Etruria Gaius Flaminius made to deal w/ this -Battle of Lake Trasimene 217 Flaminius wiped out-as legions move across lake, Hannibal's forces jump them and they sustain heavy losses (MEANWHILE MILITARY EMERGENCY IN ROME AND HANNIBAL PEELING OFF ALLIES) -Battle of Cannae 216: the consul's large army engage Hannibal. Two roman consuls' HUGE army vs Hannibal's Gauls Stupid problem: two consuls means no one is in charge, so they take turns alternating every day Hannibal's plan: Iberians and Celts spread out in broad shallow crescent so that when Romans hit, they will breath through-Hannibal has two pincers waiting...Romans will become discombobulated and lose maniple formation..the pincers will envelop them and then cavalry will finish them off Goes as planned for Hannibal Enormous massacre of Romans soldiers..20,000 escape...rest dead or captured The Consuls: Paullus killed and Vero survives, rides back to Rome...they thank him for not despairing the republic Elites close ranks and continue to fight (they cannot imagine a life w/o war every year) The Romans who survive are sent to Sicily and they won't be discharged until war is over Romans then recruit slaves (most are really against arming slaves man)-the Velones Only arm those who "volunteer"-will not be freed until they win enough victories Recruit older men and young men (15yrs) too =increase legions 212 have two legions MEANWHILE DEFECTIONS Syracuse reCaptured 212 BC Capua Besieged and recaptured 211 BC Hannibal marches on Rome to distract Romans and auctions land in city itself though he's not there to be threatening but it doesn't work, he can't stay in Rome long (just a feint) Romans take Capua anyway Tarentum recaptured 209 BC IT ALL COMES DOWN TO SPAIN Meanwhile: Campaigns of Scipio brothers: hold the line and go on offensive Try and divide forces but this fails and brothers are killed...new commanders elected by the soldiers Publius Cornelius Scipio chosen to go to Spain w/Imperium PCS learns New Carthage's (the capital) geography...there is a shallow lagoon that gets even shallower when wind blows The plan: send troops as a feint and then have other troops to cross this lagoon to attack. They capture New Hostage and take hostages back from Iberia! Scipio insures captives are treated graciously (calculated) to lay diplomatic groundwork for Iberians switching sides from Carthage Battle of Baecula 208 BC PCS v Hasdrubal PCS sends light troops in aggressive attack of main carthaginian attack to draw out more and more Carthaginians from their safe hill spot PCS sends out pincers from the sides and captures the camp...but Hasdrubal's troops get away Battle of Metaurus River 207 BC Hasdrubal leaves Romans in Spain to join Hannibal(who had lost core forces of Iberians and no longer has access to Gauls, now reliant on Italians) The brothers joining could be disastrous so Romans arrange to secretly withdraw a legion + allied wing led by one consul to meet Hasdrubal Hasdrubal loses heavily and is killed Last chance to jumpstart Hannibal's defenses and leaves him stuck in Italy w/no good moves Battle of Illipa 206 PCS's tactical masterpiece A new Hasdrubal is in Spain for Carthage PCS Has 25,000 soldiers he feels are ineffective-he puts these at the center to stand there and fix Hasdrubal's best troops (leaves the best at the side) Hasdrubal has his best troops in center which is custom Romans engage in double flank attack and Romans crash into both of Hasdrubal's forces Last carthaginian army in Spain destroyed PCS DECIDES HE WANTS TO INVADE AFRICA Many are opposed to this but he has many supporters so they makeA compromise: PCS is given a province in Sicily and given the choice to invade Africa from there He supplements old soldiers and brings in volunteers from Italy NUMIDIAN DRAMA Ok so basically, Hasdrubal Gisgo wants some logistics help so he turns to The up and coming Numidians for help. The King Syphax (who can barely hold on to his power and his looking to reaffirm it) allies with Carthage/ Hasdrubal and agree to help eachother. Gisgo marries Syphax's daughter. Meanwhile, there's this young adventurer, Massinissa that also wants to rule. PCS arrives and sees he doesn't have enough men to fight Syphax's and Gisgo's men s he allies w/ Massinissa who reinforces him. Polybius says PCS did a reconnaissance mission, spies on enemy camp, sees it's not very secure and does a night time incendiary assault and devastated the armies Carthage is good at bouncing back though, so they raise a new army using Celt Iberian mercenaries. Battle of Zama 202 BC Leads to peace treaty: Hannibal agrees to finally draw out his troops from Italy and they must pay enmity. Hannibal's army back in Africa...BUT THEY CHANGE THEIR MIND AND START THE WAR AGAIN. After Great Plains: Syphax has been captured and the daughter wife is captured, Massinissa then marries Hasdrubal's imprisoned daughter (she poisons herself so that there won't be an alliance). PCS needs Massinissa's men so he looks for him. Hannibal meanwhile gathers Carthaginian citizens and elephants. 8 mo till fight actually starts. The Numidians join Hannibal because they see their hold on the land is shaky Massinissa finally joins PCS again. Hannibal has a trap in mind. Hannibal's Trap: has elephants in front, has forces in 3 lines as well with veterans in the last line somewhat held back-save the best for last and extends this line. PCS sees this and uses his flanks to extend his line too and face off the trap=>Hannibal's rear attacked and 20,000 killed + 20,000 captured War only ends bc Hannibal decides it must end, even though many officials feel they must fight on Carthage surrenders but with conditions: agree to pay higher enmity, give up elephants, but keep holdings in Libya and their state.

maniple

120 men (2 centuries)

Third Macedonian War

171-168 Philip V allowed to resume some land in Thessaly again, he has used the mines again, and brings in settlers and raises up Agriculture. In 179 BC King Philip V of Macedon died and was succeeded by his ambitious son Perseus. His son Perseus, helps focuses military on areas up North which Romans don't care about. He brings Macedon up again and also raises up anti Roman feelings. This prosperity unnerves the Romans so they declare war on Perseus. Perseus agrees and the first years go bad for Romans. Lucius Aemilius Paullus holds his troops back (is trying to play it smart) Battle of Pydna 168 BC Escaped horse from Roman side runs over to Macedonian side and the Macedonians start skirmishing, so Paullus commits to a fight but Romans do bad at first. Legion v Phalanx! How this usually goes and how it GOES: the phalanx rolls over the legion at first, but then the phalanx gets broken up, and the romans take advantage of these breaks-20,000 Macedonians killed, another 20,000 captured. Perseus flees and Romans decided to end the monarchy in Macedonia, which is split up into regions because it looks like Greece will never chill out while Macedonia is around. Each region was subservient to Rome. Roman prestige and authority in Greece was greatly increased as a result.

Egadi Islands

241 BC The Battle of Aegates took place in the first Punic War off the western coast of Sicily. Carthaginian navy led by Hamilcar Barcavs Roman navy ended with a decisive Roman victory that ended the 1st Punic War. The Romans had been blockading the Carthaginian supply lines but they took a year to respond. The Romans emptied their (patrician funded) ships of their masts and took only the bare necessities so they were much more mobile than the Carthaginians weighed down by food and supplies and men. The Carthaginians lost most of their fleet and could not afford to rebuild so they signed treaty of Lutatius to end war. Carthage cedes western part of Sicily to Rome

The Third Samnite War

298-290. Starts with Rome allying with the Lucanians despite them being Samnite enemies. Samnites reused to evacuate Lucania so war began. People finally see Rome is getting scary, gallics + samnites + etruscans unite to try and defeat Rome Battle of Sentinum 295 BC decisive battle Romans defeat coalition army In 291, a Roman consul defeated the Samnites at Aquilonia and established the colony of Venusia. The Samnites made peace again. This war secured Rome's leadership in Italy.

The 2nd Samnite War

326-304 BC. Rome continued to expand. They annexed Hernici 306 BC. In 303 BC the Sabine town of Trefula Suffrenas (Ciciliano) and the Volscian town of Arpinium (Arpino) in southern Latium were given citizenship without the right to vote (civitas sine suffragio). The annexation of Trebula Suffenas provided a degree of control over the Sabines who lived close to Rome. With the annexation of Arpinium and of the most of the land of Frusino and the founding of the colony at Sora the Romans consolidated control over southern Latium and the Volsci. Control over the stretch of the Apennine Mountains next to Latium was consolidated with the annexation of the Hernici, the destruction of the towns of the Aequi, the founding of two colonies in their territory (Alba Fucens and Caseoli) and the creation of the Aniensis Roman tribe on land taken from the Aequi. Control over Campania was consolidated with the renewal of friendship with Naples, with the destruction of the Ausoni, and the creation of the Teretina Roman tribe on land which had been annexed by from the Aurunci in 314 BC.[84] Most importantly, the alliances with the Marsi, Maruccini, Paelingni, Frentani (in 304 BC), and Vestini (in 302 BC), who lived to the north and north-east of Samnium, not only gave Rome control over this substantial area around Samnium, but it also strengthened its military position. The alliances were military and the allies supplied soldiers who supported the Roman legions at their own expense, thus increasing the pool of military manpower available to Rome. In exchange the allies shared the spoils of war (which could be considerable) and were protected by Rome.

The Samnite Wars

343-290 The Samnites were a tribal confederation that joined together for defense. Overall this was was important because as Rome really rose to power over the course of these 3 wars. As communities were defeated, they were annexed into Rome, and the people were made citizens. Thus expanding the Roman citizen body, population size, and the army. Rome also got this new habit of allying with less powerful communities that were under attack and desperate, and them annexing them.

The 1st Samnite War

343-341 BC The Sidicini tribe was attacked by the Samnites, so they requested help from the Campanians. But the Campanians also lost to the Samnites so the Campanians requested Rome to aid them. Rome at first refused because of a treaty they had with the Samnites, but then the Campanians surrendered themselves and their land Capua to Rome. Rome sent an envoy to request the Samnites to not attack what was now Roman land, but they refused. So Rome declared war. Note that Capua/Campanian land was a great new addition to Rome. Ended with peace with Samnites.

Battle of Adrianople

378, Eastern Roman army under Valens vs. Goths (and Alans), major Roman defeat, Valens killed along w/ most of his army, part of Gothic War (376-82), afterward Goths remained an unassimilated entity within Roman territory Refugee crisis: goth groups ask to cross Danew, when they do they are treated horribly, the Goths unsurprisingly rebel The emperor does not want to request help, so he confronts goths force with his own army, this fails Notice the goths don't exactly win-they get put into reservation type things but rebel and start migrating around Rome which no one tries to stop 410: Goths sack rome, but they're still hungry and looking for food They settle in Aquatania Divided empire struggles to deal with this threat

cohort

480 men (3 maniples)

Commentarii

A NEW SOURCE: Caesar writes extended comentarii (one gallic and civil wars) to use as political tool to raise his stature and show what he has done A primary source (commander himself) Great prose Documents Roman army Notice: he is trying to make himself look good (he is a successful roman commander but we should be careful) is Julius Caesar's firsthand account of the Gallic Wars, written as a third-person narrative. In it Caesar describes the battles and intrigues that took place in the nine years he spent fighting the Germanic peoples and Celtic peoples in Gaul that opposed Roman conquest. The victories in Gaul won by Caesar had increased the alarm and hostility of his enemies at Rome, and his aristocratic enemies, the boni, were spreading rumors about his intentions once he returned from Gaul. The boni intended to prosecute Caesar for abuse of his authority upon his return, when he would lay down his imperium. Such prosecution would not only see Caesar stripped of his wealth and citizenship, but also negate all of the laws he enacted during his term as Consul and his dispositions as pro-consul of Gaul. To defend himself against these threats, Caesar knew he needed the support of the plebeians, particularly the Tribunes of the Plebs, on whom he chiefly relied for help in carrying out his agenda. The Commentaries were an effort by Caesar to directly communicate with the plebeians - thereby circumventing the usual channels of communication that passed through the Senate - to propagandize his activities as efforts to increase the glory and influence of Rome. By winning the support of the people, Caesar sought to make himself unassailable from the boni.[3] The work is a paradigm of proper reporting and stylistic clarity.[4]

Cataphract

A fully armored pikeman mounted on an armored horse; used by the Parthians to great advantage against the Romans in the Battle of Carrhae (53 BC); role of cataphracts in the Roman army grew especially from the 2nd c. AD onward

Hadrian's Wall

A long wall in northern Britannia, begun AD 122 in the reign of Hadrian, included small fortifications at intervals of 1 mi. Apart, turrets every ⅓ mi., larger forts every 5 mi. Hadrian's Wall, continuous Roman defensive barrier that guarded the northwestern frontier of the province of Britain from barbarian invaders. Upon Hadrian's death, his successor Antoninus Pius (138-161) decided to extend the Roman dominion northward by building a new wall in Scotland. The resulting Antonine Wall stretched for 37 miles (59 km) along the narrow isthmus between the estuaries of the Rivers Forth and Clyde. Within two decades, however, the Antonine Wall was abandoned in favour of Hadrian's Wall, which continued in use nearly until the end of Roman rule in Britain (410). Most constant threat: tribal people leaving along North frontier. Poorly organized societies, based on tribal groupings, are fierce warrior societies, like to raid and take advantage of wealth they find. Constant low level threat. Germanic people became atomized threat. Hadrian then built the wall to declare Rome's intent to stay and to defend frontier. If you want to cross, you must go through a gate, there's watchtowers. Walls purpose was to control movement across the frontier and to counter low-intensity threats.

What does Rome suffer from after heavy losses in second punic war?

After the Battle of Cannae, Rome has lots of defections: Italian Roman allies that ditch Rome because they think Rome is going to lose now -Capua: a citizen community who want to be their own power in Italy -Samnites and Lucanians -Syracuse: after being long time ally -Tarentum: has had hegemonic pretensions also want to be own power -Macedonia: negotiates w/ Hannibal a treaty for Rome to not be destroyed but w/ reduced power (lose Southern Italian allies, militarily modest)

Goths

An East Germanic people; two branches (Visigoths in west and Ostrogoths in east); Visigoths under Alaric I sacked Rome in 410; Visigothic Kingdom came to possess Aquitania and most of Iberia; the Goths were originally pagan but began to convert to Arian Christianity as a result of the 4th-century missionary Ulfilas The Goths were a Germanic tribe who are frequently referenced for their part in the fall of the Roman Empire. The next few decades were marked by a number of Gothic victories over the Romans such as at the Battle of Abritus in 251 CE, where the Romans were completely defeated by the Goth king Cniva (c.250-c.270 CE) and the emperor Decius and his son both killed in battle. The first Gothic invasion of Rome took place in 238 CE when they attacked the city of Histia. Rome, at this time, was going through a period known as The Crisis of the Third Century (235-284 CE). The next few decades were marked by a number of Gothic victories over the Romans such as at the Battle of Abritus in 251 CE, where the Romans were completely defeated by the Goth king Cniva (c.250-c.270 CE) and the emperor Decius and his son both killed in battle. The Goths also raided the coastal regions and, with a newly-formed navy, practiced piracy. They maintained their control over the region until their defeat by the emperor Aurelian (270-275 CE) in 270 CE; an engagement in which the Goth king Cannabaudes (who was probably the same man as Cniva) was killed along with 5,000 of his men and the Goths were driven into Dacia. The Goths fought alongside the Romans in the Roman-Persian Wars and were involved in the Battle of Misiche in 244 CE. Prior to the invasion of 238 CE, the Goths had lived along the Roman borders as neither friends nor enemies to Rome. After 244 CE there were Goths who lived as Romans, and many who served in the military, and there were those who continued to live where they used to and maintained their Gothic culture.

Roman Grand Strategy

Associated with a controversial thesis advanced in Luttwak's Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire (1976) arguing that Rome shifted from a strategy of forward defense (preventing threats from crossing Roman frontier) during the Principate to one of defense-in-depth (neutralizing threats after they cross the frontier) in the late empire He did so by outlining what he perceived to be the patterns of continuity and change in the strategic policies of the Roman Empire from Augustus to Diocletian. He concluded that the ancient Romans had an instinctive grasp of strategic logic embedded in their culture, which allowed not only continuity across changing regimes, but also for strategic evolution in response to a changing security environment. "For the Romans, as for ourselves, the two essential requirements of an evolving civilization were a sound material base and adequate security. For the Romans, as for ourselves, the elusive goal of strategic statecraft was to provide security without prejudicing the vitality of its economy base and without compromising the stability of an evolving political order." But how can they do all of this? "Roman security was not derived from tactical superiority on the battlefield, from superior generalship, or from a more advanced weapons technology. The superiority of the Empire was of an altogether more subtle order: it derived from the whole complex of ideas and traditions that informed the organization of Roman military force and harnessed the armed power of the empire to political purposes. The firm subordination of tactical priorities, martial ideas, and warlike instincts to political goals was the essential condition of the strategic success of the empire." Rome worked mostly on intimidation and politics. ideally to the point where sufficient security or even an effective domination could be achieved without any use of force at all. Above all, the Romans clearly realized that the dominant dimension of power was not physical but psychological -- the product of others' perceptions of Roman strength, rather than the use of this strength. The Roman siege of Masada, an otherwise unimportant place, was a calculated act of psychological warfare that revealed the exceedingly subtle workings of a long range security policy based on deterrence. The Romans did not bypass the fortress and starve out the Jews using a small blockading force, a course which would have attracted little attention. The full-scale siege operation was not cheap in terms of time or treasure, to be sure. But by engaging in a three-year operation to reduce the fortress by great works of engineering, the Romans must have made a great impression on those who might otherwise been tempted to contemplate revolt. Luttwak identified three distinct systems of imperial security that integrated diplomacy, military forces, road networks, and fortifications, which were intended to serve a single objective. hegemonic expansion for the first system; territorial security for the second, and finally, in diminished circumstances, sheer survival for the imperial power itself. The system of what might be called the Republican Empire, or Julio-Claudian, derived its security along the frontier from client states and mobile armies. Around its core areas the empire was hegemonic in nature, with client states autonomously responsible for implementing the Roman desiderata and providing for the territorial security of the core areas out of their own resources. Client states great and small were thus kept in subjection by their own perceptions of Roman power. Under this system, the Roman Army that the clients perceived as an undivided force of overwhelming strength was actually distributed in a vast circle around Rome. But these troops were still concentrated in multi-legion armies and were not committed to territorial defense, so they were inherently mobile and freely re-deployable. The Antoine system, in use in one form or another from the Flavian era after A.D. 69 to the political crisis of the mid-3rd century, reflected the territorialization of the empire and the reorientation of its priorities. Defense was now based on "scientific" frontiers and preclusive (perimeter) defense. Armed forces were now everywhere deployed to secure the tranquility and therefore the prosperity of border lands, and a fortiori, of the interior. The military strength of the empire and its effective power were rigidly proportional, since strength was now largely used directly, not as a tool of political suasion. Clients remained, but they were much less useful than in the past: the task of maintaining territorial security was effectively shifted from weak clients to widely distributed frontier forces, while strong clients could no longer be tolerated, since their strength might now dangerously exceed that of the adjacent imperial forces, which were often stretched thin, at least on paper. A real growing prosperity and a voluntary Romanization largely overcame the last vestiges of nativist disaffection and created a strong base of support for the unitary regime. The residual offensive capability was primarily useful as a diplomatic instrument; its latent threat served to keep the neighbors of the empire divided, if not necessarily obedient. Nevertheless, the cultural and economic influence of Rome on the lives of all the neighbors of the Empire itself created a cultural and political bias for common action against it. Opposed by the relentless force of cultural transformation, Roman diplomacy became less effective in keeping the enemies of the empire divided; and the system of perimeter defense, keyed to low-intensity threats, could not adequately contend with their unity. The third system arose in response to the intractable combination of diplomacy and military problems whose consequences became manifest in the great crisis of the third century. The Romans devised an elastic defense, in which ad hoc field armies fought against barbarian coalitions deep within imperial territory; and later, under Diocletian, a shallow and structured defense in depth. These new defensive variants were not thought to be desirable. When local threats were defeated or suppressed, every attempt was made to return to the system of preclusive security. the new system provided no short-term disposable surplus of military power either for offensive use or for diplomatic coercion, deterrent or compellent. The difference was that the this system no longer had a surge capability either, since the enemies of the empire were no longer kept on the defense by forward defensive tactics; instead, they were only contained. The diplomatic relationships with external powers now reflected the local balance of forces, which did not always favor the empire on every sector of the perimeter. Rome was no longer the empire it was.

Battle of Magnesia

Battle of Magnesia 190 BC Antiochus gets back to Aetolia and he gets his recruits up-raises 72,000 but they're from all over the place (different tactical styles) Face off w/ Lucius Scipio Antiochus hesitant to fight Antiochus tries to use chariots which is stupid, it falls back and sends horses in panic, so Romans use cavalry to wipe them out and roll up along the line Antiochus must pay a huge enmity and restrictions placed on navy

Servian Walls

Built after the Gauls moved into the Po Valley and sacked Rome in 390 (Battle of Alia buy Gauls of Brennus). The Celts did not leave until Rome paid a fine. Afterwards, they build the Servian Wall, named after Servius Tullius. Stone comes from Veii in the North (which was captured after in 396 after 10 year long siege and then given to Plebs. Capture of Veii brings military pay to Rome, so more can leave farm and serve in military). Is believed to have had 16 main gates. Repelled Hannibal in Second Punic Wars. Maintained by end of republic to end of empire. When German tribes made further incursions along the Roman frontier in the 3rd century AD, Emperor Aurelian had the larger Aurelian Walls built to protect Rome.

Julian the Apostate

Emperor, r. 361-363, last pagan emperor (though raised Christian) and the only one after Constantine, last emperor from Constantinian Dynasty, d. 363 on a failed expedition against Sassanians, he was also a philosopher and a writer (one of the few emperors to leave behind writings of his own along with Marcus Aurelius) The invasion of Persian territory was always a lure in antiquity and one to which Julian was not immune. Motivated by a desire for military glory and a decision to reassert Rome's preeminence in the East, he assembled, despite counsels of prudence from Rome and the Levant, the largest Roman army (65,000 strong and backed by a river fleet) ever to head a campaign against Persia. The Persians, aided by the desert, famine, treachery, and the incompetence of the Romans, once again proved themselves superior. During a disastrous retreat from the walls of Ctesiphon, below modern Baghdad, Julian was wounded by a spear thrown "no one knew whence," which pierced his liver. He died the next night at age 31, having been emperor for 20 months. Julian's religious policy had no lasting effect. It had shown that paganism, as a religion, was doomed. It is perhaps sad, in retrospect, that the odium of proving it should rest on Julian, who with a little less venom and more tact might have been remembered for his many virtues rather than for his two fatal blunders. WIKI Most notable was his crushing victory over the Alamanni at the Battle of Argentoratum (Strasbourg) in 357, leading his 13,000 men against a Germanic army three times larger. In 360, Julian was proclaimed Augustus by his soldiers at Lutetia (Paris), sparking a civil war with Constantius. However, Constantius died before the two could face each other in battle, and named Julian as his successor. In 363, Julian embarked on an ambitious campaign against the Sassanid Empire. The campaign was initially successful, securing a victory outside Ctesiphon,[3] but later the Persians flooded the area behind him and Julian took a risky decision to withdraw up the valley of the Tigris River, and eventually during a skirmish Julian was mortally wounded, leaving his army trapped in Persian territory. Following his death, the Roman forces were obliged to cede territory in order to escape, including the fortress city of Nisibis.[4] Julian was a man of unusually complex character: he was "the military commander, the theosophist, the social reformer, and the man of letters".[5] He was the last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire, and he believed that it was necessary to restore the Empire's ancient Roman values and traditions in order to save it from dissolution.[6] He purged the top-heavy state bureaucracy, and attempted to revive traditional Roman religious practices at the expense of Christianity. Julian also forbade the Christians from teaching classical texts and learning.[7] His rejection of the Christianity imposed on him in his youth, and his promotion of Neoplatonic Hellenism in its place caused him to be remembered as Julian the Apostate by the church.[8]

Limitanei

Frontier forces in the late Roman imperial army, lower status than other Roman forces, unlike other Roman soldiers they did not travel far from their garrisons; cavalry forces were more likely to belong to limitanei than comitatenses. Soldiers on the riverbank from the Rhine and Danube.

What are some of Hannibal's weaknesses?

Hannibal had suffered heavy losses at Cannae too..his logistics are bad (no supply infrastructure until Italian defections join him)..and he's not good at siege warfare (Rome has amazing walls)...some argue hannibal would never have been able to take Rome anyway

What clever technique does Hannibal use to get allies?

Hannibal is trying to peel off Italian allies Is awful to roman captives, but is great to other allies

Battle of Cynoscephalae

Happened during second Macedonian war 197: an encounter battle, both sides trying to find each other (hilly and misty) took place in Thessaly Philip phalanx marches along a ridge and he forms up and attacks-charge is successful, romans on the left driven back Flaminus then tries to use his right side to assault which goes well! 20 maniples led down the ridge who then assault Philip's rear-5,000 killed 5,000 captured A truce is achieved, Philip must surrender most of his ships and can only keep army of 5000 (probably to keep Northern barbarians out of Greece)

Battle of Pydna

Happened in the3rd Macedonian War Battle of Pydna 168 BC Escaped horse from Roman side runs over to Macedonian side and the Macedonians start skirmishing, so Paullus commits to a fight but Romans do bad at first Legion v Phalanx! How this usually goes and how it GOES: the phalanx rolls over the legion at first, but then the phalanx gets broken up, and the romans take advantage of these breaks-20,000 Macedonians killed, another 20,000 captured Perseus flees and Romans decided to end the monarchy in Macedonia, which is split up into regions

legion

Largest unit (4200-5200 men) 300 cavalry 3 cohorts led by Primus pilus

Ammianus Marcellinus

Last major classical historian (besides the Byzantine historian Procopius), wrote a Latin history called Res Gestae whose surviving sections cover the period of 353-78; a pagan who tolerated Christians but also an admirer of Julian.

How does Hamilcar Barcas disrupt the Roman plan?

Leaves brothers in Spain and goes into Po River Valley to position his army and to recruit the war like people there who hate Rome. The consuls leave their place, ditch their plan, and go to Po Valley to encounter Hannibal. Hannibal lost ½ of his army along the way crossing the alps (freeze to death) but is able to recruit all these Celts

Marcus Aurelius

Marcus Aurelius was Roman emperor from 161 to 180, ruling jointly with his adoptive brother, Lucius Verus, until Verus' death in 169, and jointly with his son, Commodus, from 177 till Aurelius' own death. He was the last of the so-called Five Good Emperors. He was a practitioner of Stoicism, and his untitled writing, commonly known as Meditations, is a significant source of the modern understanding of ancient Stoic philosophy. It is considered by many commentators to be one of the greatest works of philosophy. During his reign, the Roman Empire defeated a revitalized Parthian Empire in the East: Aurelius' general Avidius Cassius sacked the capital Ctesiphon in 164. In central Europe, Aurelius fought the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Sarmatians with success during the Marcomannic Wars, although the threat of the Germanic peoples began to represent a troubling reality for the Empire. A revolt in the East led by Avidius Cassius failed to gain momentum and was suppressed immediately. Persecution of Christians increased during his reign. His death in 180 is considered the end of the Pax Romana[11] and the increasing instability in the west that followed has traditionally been seen as the beginning of the eventual fall of the Western Roman Empire. THE MARCOMANNIC WARS The Marcomannic Wars (Latin: bellum Germanicum et Sarmaticum, "German and Sarmatian War")[2][3] were a series of wars lasting over a dozen years from about 166 until 180 AD. These wars pitted the Roman Empire against, principally, the Germanic Marcomanni and Quadi and the Sarmatian Iazyges; there were related conflicts with several other barbarian peoples along both sides of the whole length of the Roman Empire's northeastern European border, the river Danube. The struggle against the Germans and Sarmatians occupied the major part of the reign of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, and it was during his campaigns against them that he started writing his philosophical work Meditations Marcus Aurelius brings back the "Antoine Plague" to Rome with his returning troops after they have success in war against Parthia. Meanwhile, The Great Migrations began as the Goths began moving south-east from their ancestral lands at the mouth of River Vistula (see Wielbark culture), putting pressure on the Germanic tribes from the north and east. As a result, Germanic tribes and other nomadic peoples launched raids south and west across Rome's northern border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube. The wars had exposed the weakness of Rome's northern frontier, and henceforth, half of the Roman legions (16 out of 33) would be stationed along the Danube and the Rhine. For this reason, Marcus Aurelius decided not to bring more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there. The Germanic tribes were temporarily checked, but the Marcomannic Wars were only the prelude of the invasions that would eventually disassemble and end the Western Roman Empire in the 4th and 5th centuries. So basically, this dude dealt with one of the last threats that would lead to end of Rome. Oh and more than anything, he was a philosopher king

auxiliaries

Non-citizen members of Roman army during the Principate; mostly peregrini (residents in empire); because the legions were limited to citizens auxiliaries tended to take part in specialized roles; auxiliaries could earn citizenship in exchange for military service

Parthians

Persianized and Hellenized empire based in Iran, 247 BC-224 AD The Roman-Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between states of the Greco-Roman world and two successive Iranian empires: the Parthian and the Sasanian. Battles between the Parthian Empire and the Roman Republic began in 54 BC; wars began under the late Republic, and continued through the Roman and Sasanian Persian empires. Several vassal kingdoms in the form of buffer states as well as several allied nomadic nations also played a role. The wars were ended by the Arab Muslim Conquests, which led to the Fall of the Sasanian Empire and huge territorial losses for the Byzantine Eastern Roman Empire, shortly after the end of the last war between them. Lasting over 680 years, the Roman-Persian Wars, if taken together, form the longest conflict in human history.[citation needed] Despite this, the frontier remained largely stable. A game of tug of war ensued: towns, fortifications, and provinces were continually sacked, captured, destroyed, and traded. Neither side had the logistical strength or manpower to maintain such lengthy campaigns far from their borders, and thus neither could advance too far without risking stretching its frontiers too thin. Both sides did make conquests beyond the border, but in time the balance was almost always restored. The line of stalemate shifted in the 2nd century AD: it had run along the northern Euphrates; the new line ran east, or later northeast, across Mesopotamia to the northern Tigris. There were several substantial shifts further north, in Armenia and the Caucasus. Although initially different in military tactics, the armies of both sides gradually adopted from each other and by the second half of the 6th century they were similar and evenly matched.[1] The expense of resources during the Roman-Persian Wars ultimately proved catastrophic for both empires. The prolonged and escalating warfare of the 6th and 7th centuries left them exhausted and vulnerable in the face of the sudden emergence and expansion of the Caliphate, whose forces invaded both empires only a few years after the end of the last Roman-Persian war. Benefiting from their weakened condition, the Arab Muslim armies swiftly conquered the entire Sasanian Empire, and deprived the Eastern Roman Empire of its territories in the Levant, the Caucasus, Egypt, and the rest of North Africa. Over the following centuries, more of the Eastern Roman Empire came under Muslim rule. SO BASICALLY THESE DUDES WERE DEFEATED BY MARCUS AURELIUS AT ONE POINT BUT THEY ALWAYS GAVE ROME TROUBLE The Romans and Parthians came into contact through their respective conquests of parts of the Seleucid Empire. During the 3rd century BC, the Parthians migrated from the Central Asian steppe into northern Iran. Although subdued for a time by the Seleucids, in the 2nd century BC they broke away, and established an independent state that steadily expanded at the expense of their former rulers, and through the course of the 3rd and early 1st century BC, they had conquered Persia, Mesopotamia, and Armenia.[3][4][5] Ruled by the Arsacid dynasty, the Parthians fended off several Seleucid attempts to regain their lost territories, and established several eponymous branches in the Caucasus, namely the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia, the Arsacid dynasty of Iberia, and the Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania. Meanwhile, the Romans expelled the Seleucids from their territories in Anatolia in the early 2nd century BC, after defeating Antiochus III the Great at Thermopylae and Magnesia. Finally, in 64 BC Pompey conquered the remaining Seleucid territories in Syria, extinguishing their state and advancing the Roman eastern frontier to the Euphrates, where it met the territory of the Parthians. Septimius Severus Successful military commanders gain the loyalty of their soldiers and then peel them off from the frontier and attack each other SS is most successful Spends his last reign campaigning against the Parthians Does not fare well after his death Dies in campaign against Parthians Weak figures

Pyrrhus

Pyrrhus was a Greek general and statesman of the Hellenistic period. He was king of the Greek tribe of Molossians and later he became king of Epirus. He was one of the strongest opponents of early Rome. Some of his battles, though successful, caused him heavy losses, from which the term Pyrrhic victory was coined. He is the subject of one of Plutarch's Parallel Lives. Cause of the Pyrrhic Wa- basically Rome set up garrisons in the Tarentine Gulf, which made the Greek city of Tarentum really nervous, so they attacked Romans in Thurii. The Romans were going to go after them now, so Thurii sought Pyrrhus as an ally/leader against the Romans. He agreed (hoping to get some control of Italy) and allied with Ptolemy Ceraunus, King of Macedon and his most powerful neighbor, and arrived in Italy in 280 BCE. He defeated the Romans in the Battle of Heraclea in 280 BC in the Roman province of Lucania. Pyrrhus invaded Apulia (279 BC) in the Battle of Asculum, where Pyrrhus won a costly victory and while his able force was ultimately defeated, they managed to almost break the back of Pyrrhus' Epirot army, which guaranteed the security of the city itself. term Pyrrhic victory originates from this. He later helped Sicily deal with driving out the Carthaginians, but he ultimately became disliked. These measures culminated in him proclaiming a military dictatorship of Sicily and installing military garrisons in Sicilian cities. Sicilian opinion became inflamed against him and he left, losing all the gains he made in Italy. Pyrrhus went to war yet again. Attacking King Antigonus II Gonatas, he won the Macedonian throne. Pyrrhus and his campaign in Italy was effectively the only chance for Greece to check the advance of Rome towards domination of the Mediterranean world.

Battle of Sentinum

Refer to "Third Samnite War" 295 BC. a decisive battle during the third Samnite war where Romans defeat coalition army of gallics + samnites + etruscans. According to Livy the Romans lost 8,700 men and their enemy 20,000. Rome's victory broke up the coalition it had defeated. The Etruscans, Umbrians and Senone Gauls pulled out of the war. The Samnites, besides losing their allies, suffered heavy casualties. The Romans went on to win other battles. In the final stage of the war, which ended five years later, the Romans devastated Samnium and the Samnites capitulated. Rome gained control over much of central Italy and part of southern Italy. So this costed the Samnites the war, and allowed Rome to set itself up for control over Italy.

Comitatenses

Roman imperial field units; in practice many of these units were tied to a geographical area which they were reluctant to leave; the limitanei/comitatenses division began under Diocletian or Constantine

Siege of Jerusalem (70 AD)

Roman-Jewish Wars: name of several military engagements between the Roman Republic (later: Empire) and various groups of Jews. The Siege of Jerusalem in the year 70 CE was the decisive event of the First Jewish-Roman War. The Roman army, led by the future Emperor Titus, with Tiberius Julius Alexander as his second-in-command, besieged and conquered the city of Jerusalem, which had been controlled by Judean rebel factions since 66 CE, following the Jerusalem riots of 66, when the Judean Free Government was formed in Jerusalem. The siege ended on August 30, 70 CE[3] with the burning and destruction of its Second Temple, and the Romans entered and sacked the Lower City. The destruction of both the first and second temples is still mourned annually as the Jewish fast The fall of Jerusalem was a pivotal moment in the first Jewish-Roman war. It resulted in the destruction of the ancient temple of Solomon and much of the surrounding city by a fire started by the Roman army under the command of the future emperor Titus. The Jewish-Roman war of 66 to 73 CE was the first of three rebellions by Jews against Roman rule in Judaea and is referred to as "The Great Revolt." The revolt started in 66 CE, following religious tensions between Greeks and Jews, but soon involved protests against taxation and attacks on Roman citizens. Shocked by the defeat of a legion under the command of Gallus, Emperor Nero sent military commander Vespasian, with a force of 60,000, to ensure that order was restored. Despite victories elsewhere, Jerusalem proved difficult to take. Vespasian's son, Titus, On 14 April 70, during Passover, surrounded the city with a wall and a trench, and anyone caught trying to escape was crucified. Titus then put pressure on the food and water supply by allowing pilgrims to enter the city in order to celebrate Passover but not letting them out. After a number of failed attempts to attack the city, the Romans set about the destruction of Jerusalem's formidable defenses with a battering ram. Having breached these defenses, the Romans fought their way from street to street. Many Zealots sought sanctuary in the ancient temple of Solomon and in the fortress of Antonia. The Romans finally overwhelmed the fortress, and the ancient temple was destroyed by fire in the ensuing battle

What did Romans do at the the time if military emergency during 2nd Punic War?

Romans appoint dictators for time of military emergency. Dictator, Fabius Maximus, gets Imperium Power (concentrating power in one man for 6 mo appointment). Fabius does not commit to decisive battle, just follows Hannibal. Fabian strategy is successful for a while, but Romans hate this (they want aggression) New dictator elected because they hate Fabius that much New consuls elected-both get 4 legions (more than usual), to go destroy Hannibal

Sassanians

Sassanian Dynasty: a new threat from Persia Newer, more aggressive, have something to prove Launch aggressive operations against the eastern front Lance is primary offensive weapon Persian Empire from 224-651, frequently at war with Rome and later Byzantium The Sasanian Empire was the last period of the Persian Empire (Iran) before the rise of Islam, named after the House of Sasan who ruled from 224 to 651 AD. The Sasanian Empire, which succeeded the Parthian Empire, was recognised as one of the leading world powers alongside its neighbouring arch-rival the Roman-Byzantine Empire, for a period of more than 400 years. BASICALLY THESE DUDES WERE ANOTHER THREAT TO THE COLLAPSING Roman Empire The Byzantine-Sassanid wars, also known as the Irano-Byzantine wars[2] refers to a series of conflicts between the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire and the Sassanian Empire. A continuation of the Roman-Persian Wars, the conflict involved several smaller campaigns and peace treaties lasting for years at a time.

Social War

Social war: 91-88 BC The Social War was a war waged between the Roman Republic and several of the other cities in Italy, which prior to the war had been Roman allies for centuries. The war was begun by the Picentes because the Romans did not want to afford them Roman citizenship, thus leaving the Italian groups with fewer rights. The war resulted in a Roman victory and genocide against the Samnites. However, Rome gave most other cities the right to citizenship to avoid another war. So sever since Samnites Wars, Rome pretty much has control over all the Italian states though they are technically all independent. These cities were theoretically independent, but in practice Rome had the right to demand from them tribute money and a certain number of soldiers: by the 2nd century BC the Italian allies contributed between one half and two-thirds of the soldiers in Roman armies. Rome also had virtual control over the allies' foreign policy, including their interaction with one another. Most were content with this client state role. The Romans' policy of land distribution had led to great inequality of land-ownership and wealth.[2] This led to the "Italic people declining little by little into pauperism and paucity of numbers without any hope of remedy." This brusque dismissal of the granting of rights that the Italians considered to be long overdue greatly angered them, and communities throughout Italy attempted to declare independence from Rome in response, sparking a war. The Social War began in 91 BC when the Italian allies revolted. The Latins as a whole remained largely loyal to Rome, with the one exception of Venusia. The rebellious allies planned not only formal separation from Rome but also the creation of their own independent confederation, called Italia. To pay for the troops, they created their own coinage that was used as propaganda against Rome. The Italian soldiers were battle-hardened, most of them having served in the Roman armies. The 12 allies of Italia were originally able to field 120,000 men. The Italians divided this force according to their positions within Italy. The Roman strategy focused on surviving the first onslaught, while simultaneously trying to entice other Italian clients to remain loyal or refrain from defection, and then meet the threat of the revolt with troops raised from provinces as well as from client kingdoms. One of the two separate theatres of war was assigned to each of the consuls of 90 BC. In the north, the consul Publius Rutilius Lupus was advised by Gaius Marius and Pompeius Strabo; in the south the consul Lucius Julius Caesar had Lucius Cornelius Sulla and Titus Didius. Events in 90 BC: Roman consul Strabo successfully besieged Asculum Rutilius was defeated and killed in Tolenus Valley Quintus Servilius Caepio was defeated and killed by Poppaedius Marius was able to recover from these losses and was left in sole command Besieged Aesernia — a key fortress which covered the communication between the north and south areas — forced it to surrender Papius Mutilus burst into southern Campania and won over many towns and held them until defeated by Caesar Other Italian commanders led successful raids into Apulia and Lucania Despite these severe losses, the Romans managed to stave off total defeat and hang on. In 89 BC, both consuls went to the northern front whilst Sulla took sole command of the southern front. Events in 89 BC: Lucius Porcius Cato (one of the two consuls) defeated and killed. Strabo (other consul) left in sole command - in a decisive engagement, he defeated Italian army of 60,000 men, after which success, he forced Asculum to surrender Sulla moved to the offensive — he defeated a Samnite army, at Nola, and besieged the town of Pompeii Recovered some of the major cities in Campania By 88 BC, the war was largely over except for the Samnites, the old rivals of Rome, who still held out. It is likely that the war would have continued a lot longer had Rome not made concessions to their allies. L. Julius Caesar sponsored the Lex Julia during his consulship which he carried before his office ended. The law offered full citizenship to all Latin and Italian communities who had not revolted.

Constantine the Great

Sole emperor 324-337, son of a tetrarch, fought civil wars against Maxentius and Licinius, first Christian emperor (famous conversion story associated with Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312), Edict of Milan in 313 granted tolerance to Christians, he established the city of Constantinople Tetrarchy: Remember there are now 4 emperors, and there is a pecking order The emperor's are chosen not by blood but generalship skills This breaks down because they are having children Constantine (in Britain) is claimed as an Augustus by his own troops Remember if there is a civil war and your army wins, HUGE BENEFITS The Tetrarchy breaks down into complex civil wars... Constantine wins! Battle of 312/ Battle of the Milvian Bridge: Constantine claims he has had DIVINE VISIONS and that this helps him and his troops win a messy battle Help of christian god?? Christianity is officially sanctioned at this point in Europe Constantine rules for quite a long time and wants to reorder Roman empire, he solidifies many military reforms and wants to unit Rome again. As emperor, Constantine enacted administrative, financial, social, and military reforms to strengthen the empire. He restructured the government, separating civil and military authorities. To combat inflation he introduced the solidus, a new gold coin that became the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years. The Roman army was reorganized to consist of mobile field units and garrison soldiers capable of countering internal threats and barbarian invasions. Constantine pursued successful campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers—the Franks, the Alamanni, the Goths, and the Sarmatians—even resettling territories abandoned by his predecessors during the Crisis of the Third Century. He built a new imperial residence at Byzantium and renamed the city Constantinople after himself (the laudatory epithet of "New Rome" came later, and was never an official title). It became the capital of the Empire for more than a thousand years. His more immediate political legacy was that he replaced Diocletian's tetrarchy with the principle of dynastic succession by leaving the empire to his sons After his dynasty collapses with Julian. CIVIL WARS So this dude came out successful after fighting civil wars between the other tetrarchy members. He won against Maxentius in the Battle of Milivina Bridge. the Senate decreed him "title of the first name", which meant his name would be listed first in all official documents,[183] and acclaimed him as "the greatest Augustus"In the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In 313, he met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance by the marriage of Licinius and Constantine's half-sister Constantia. During this meeting, the emperors agreed on the so-called Edict of Milan,[195] officially granting full tolerance to Christianity and all religions in the Empire.[196] The document had special benefits for Christians, legalizing their religion and granting them restoration for all property seized during Diocletian's persecution. Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximinus, gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman Empire. Relations between the two remaining emperors deteriorated, as Constantine suffered an assassination attempt at the hands of a character that Licinius wanted elevated to the rank of Caesar;[198] Licinius, for his part, had Constantine's statues in Emona destroyed.[199] In either 314 or 316 AD, the two Augusti fought against one another at the Battle of Cibalae, with Constantine being victorious. They clashed again at the Battle of Mardia in 317, and agreed to a settlement in which Constantine's sons Crispus and Constantine II, and Licinius' son Licinianus were made caesars.[200] After this arrangement, Constantine ruled the dioceses of Pannonia and Macedonia and took residence at Sirmium, whence he could wage war on the Goths and Sarmatians in 322, and on the Goths in 323. In the year 320, Licinius allegedly reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan in 313 and began to oppress Christians anew. This dubious arrangement eventually became a challenge to Constantine in the West, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. Licinius, aided by Goth mercenaries, represented the past and the ancient pagan faiths. Constantine and his Franks marched under the standard of the labarum, and both sides saw the battle in religious terms. Constantine won the Battle of Adrianople, the Battle of the Hellespont, the Battle of Chrysopolis on 18 September 324. Thus Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire

Scipio Africanus (PCS)

THIS DUDE PLAYED MAJOR PART IN SECOND PUNIC WAR So during the second punic war, Rome started off doing pretty bad. They lose the Battle of Cannae and it ends up in all sorts of defections, which they have to recapture. The Scipio brothers(PCS's father and uncle) in 211 BC try and hold the line in Spain against Hasdrubal but they die after their offensive plan to divide their armies fails, so PCS is elected to replace them and he turns out to be a military genius. He studies the geography in Spain and manages to capture New Carthage with the plan being to send troops as a feint and then have other troops to cross this lagoon (that is shallow when the wind blows) to attack. They capture New Carthage and take hostages back from Iberia! Scipio insures captives are treated graciously (calculated) to lay diplomatic groundwork for Iberians switching sides from Carthage. His first set piece battle was Battle of Baecula 208 BC when he took on Hasdrubal. PCS sends light troops in aggressive attack of main carthaginian attack to draw out more and more Carthaginians from their safe hill spot. PCS sends out pincers from the sides and captures the camp meaning a Roman victory...but Hasdrubal's troops get away and they march to Italy. Scipio achieves his masterpiece at Battle of Illipa in 206. A new Hasdrubal is in Spain for Carthage. PCS Has 25,000 soldiers he feels are ineffective so he puts these at the center to stand there and fix Hasdrubal's best troops while leaving the best at the sides. Hasdrubal has his best troops in center which is custom. Romans engage in double flank attack and Romans crash into both of Hasdrubal's forces , destroying the last carthaginian army in Spain destroyed Scipio wants to go to Africa and is voted no by the consuls but they make a compromise with him and give him a province in Sicily and is given the choice to invade Africa from there. He supplements old soldiers and brings in volunteers from Italy. Meanwhile, Scipio tries to secure Numidia because they supplied both mercenaries and allied forces of Carthage. Two up and coming kings, Masinissa and Syphax ally with Rome, but then Syphax join with Hasdrubal Gisgo. PCS arrives and sees he doesn't have enough men to fight Syphax's and Gisgo's men so he joins with Masinissa. PCS did a reconnaissance mission, spies on enemy camp, sees it's not very secure and does a night time incendiary assault and devastated the armies, putting Syphax out of the war, and ensuring Masinissa as king of the Numidians. The Numidians were on the Roman's side. This results in a peace treaty, and with Hannibal's army being called back to Africa, but they change their mind and war begins again. The Battle of Zama in 202 BC begins. Hannibal gathers Carthaginian citizens and mercenaries and elephants. The Numidians join Hannibal because they see their hold on the land is shaky and Masinissa finally joins PCS again. Hannibal had a plan. Hannibal's Trap: has elephants in front, has forces in 3 lines as well with veterans in the last line somewhat held back-save the best for last and extends this line. PCS sees this and uses his flanks to extend his line too and face off the trap=>Hannibal's rear attacked and 20,000 killed + 20,000 captured. But this decisive Battle of Zama did not end the war. War only ends bc Hannibal decides it must end, even though many officials feel they must fight on. Carthage surrenders but with modest conditions: agree to pay higher enmity, give up elephants, but keep holdings in Libya and their state.

Battle of Cannae

The Battle of Cannae happened during the second punic war in 216. Remember, Fabius Maximus had been booted and replaced by some consuls who were given more legions than usual to deal with Hannibal. The consul's large army engage Hannibal at Battle of Cannae Two roman consuls' HUGE army vs Hannibal's Gauls Stupid problem: two consuls means no one is in charge, so they take turns alternating every day. Meanwhile, Hannibal has a brilliant plan. Hannibal's plan: Iberians and Celts spread out in broad shallow crescent so that when Romans hit, they will breath through-Hannibal has two pincers waiting...Romans will become discombobulated and lose maniple formation..the pincers will envelop them and then cavalry will finish them off This all goes as planned for Hannibal There is an enormous massacre of Romans soldiers..20,000 escape...rest dead or captured The Consuls: Paullus killed and Vero survives, rides back to Rome...they thank him for not despairing the republic Elites close ranks and continue to fight (they cannot imagine a life w/o war every year) The Romans who survive are sent to Sicily and they won't be discharged until war is over The Roman army being essentially destroyed forces them to recruit slaves (most are really against arming slaves man)-the Velones Only arm those who "volunteer"-will not be freed until they win enough victories. Recruit older men and young men (15yrs) too =increase legions Following the defeat, Capua and several other Italian city-states defected from the Roman Republic to Carthage.

Franks

The Franks were a confederation of Germanic tribes that was originally composed of a mix of groups settled between the Rhine and the Weser Rivers. Group of Germanic peoples near Rhine and in Gaul; some of them had long history of alliance with Rome; united in late 5th century by Merovingian King Clovis I, who also converted them to Roman Catholicism. Frank, member of a Germanic-speaking people who invaded the western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Dominating present-day northern France, Belgium, and western Germany, the Franks established the most powerful Christian kingdom of early medieval western Europe. The name France (Francia) is derived from their name. The Franks appear in Latin sources for the first time in 257 CE, mentioned among the enemies of Rome in northern Gaul. They were a threat not only by land but also on the sea . Under the rule of Emperor Maximianus, the Romans signed a treaty with the Franks in 287 CE; as part of the agreement, several Franks became enlisted in the Roman army. The presence of Franks under Roman service increased until eventually, during the 4th century CE, the Franks were the largest non-Roman contingent of the Roman western fighting force. In 451 CE, Attila the Hun invaded Gaul, and the Franks joined the Romans and the Visigoths to resist the invasion. Attila's conquest was halted in June 451 CE at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, in present-day France, and he retreated from Gaul. The Franks continued to provide military support to Rome to fight against imperial enemies, including the Visigoths in 463 CE and the Saxons at Angiers in 469 CE. From the 5th century CE onwards, as Roman power declined in northern Gaul, the Franks expanded into Belgium and northern France.

Appian Way

The road is named after Appius Claudius Caecus, the Roman censor who began and completed the first section as a military road to the south in 312 during the Samnite Wars. was one of the earliest and strategically most important Roman roads of the ancient republic. It connected Rome to Brindisi, in southeast Italy and was used to transport troops and military supplies. Romans became good at building roads from Rome to where they needed to distribute power. As the main highway to the seaports of southeastern Italy, and thus to Greece and the eastern Mediterranean, the Appian Way was so important that during the empire it was administered by a curator of praetorian rank.The road's foundation was of heavy stone blocks cemented together with lime mortar; over these were laid polygonal blocks of lava that were smoothly fitted together.

Second Punic War

This almost ends Rome and ends Carthage The Gallic War is waging. Gaius Flaminius: tribune of plebs suggests that Romans should have opportunity to get this fertile land in the Po Valley 226-treaty signed that limits Carthage to not going beyond North of Ebro River To prevent Carthaginian attack while dealing w/ Celts (start stationing legions in Sicily for first time) Saguntum was one of increasingly sophisticated Iberian towns in Spain-was a friend/ally of Roman people. Hannibal commences siege operations of this town. Although this is in the Carthage boundaries, Rome is mad and sends two consuls ...declares war on Carthage. The Romans have a plan: Publius Cornelius Scipio in 218 takes army to Spain and will deprive it of its resources while Sempronius Gracchus will invade africa.

Trajan

Trajan was Roman emperor from 98 to 117 AD. Officially declared by the Senate optimus princeps ("the best ruler"). Known as a benevolent ruler, his reign was noted for public projects which benefitted the populace such as improving the dilapidated road system, constructing aqueducts, building public baths and extending the port of Ostia. Trajan was also a highly successful general and won three major conflicts against the Dacians and in the East, resulting in the Roman Empire reaching its greatest size up to that date. had been made praetor (85 CE) and later a consul (91 CE) by Domitian. Following Domitian's assassination in 96 CE, the new emperor Nerva appointed the highly respected Trajan as governor of Upper Germany After safely escaping the Praetorian Guard mutiny, the ailing Roman Emperor Nerva began to question his own mortality and realized the urgency to name a successor. Without any children of his own, he recognized his only option was to adopt. The choice was not a difficult one. He named Marcus Ulpius Traianus - better known as Trajan - the recently named governor of Upper Germany as his "son." On January 28, 91 CE Nerva died a natural death and Trajan was quickly named emperor of the Roman Empire by the Senate, the second of those who would become known as the Five Good Emperors. While historians have identified him as a thoughtful emperor, Trajan's real passion was war (and he was very good at it). During his 19 year reign, he was involved in three major wars - the first two with the Dacians and the last on the eastern frontier. In 101 CE Trajan left Rome to battle the Dacians, quickly defeating them at Tapae. After another failed attack, they immediately sued for peace. This time, however, Decebalus was forced to cede considerable territory north of the Danube but the Dacian king had never been one to respect a peace agreement. In 105 CE Trajan returned to the north to fight the pesky Dacians once again. Unfortunately for Decebalus, many of his allies deserted him as Trajan and his Roman army approached. After the king's defeat, the Romans continued on to the Dacian capital of Sarmizegethusa where their entire treasury was seized and sent back to Rome. The kingdom of Dacia was absorbed into the Empire; however, to prevent any further disruptions, Dacia was emptied of over half a million people, and replaced by Roman colonists, making it the "Land of the Romans" or modern-day Romania. in 114 CE war came to the eastern frontier. In response Trajan would leave Rome for the last time, never to return. The war began when the Partians placed one of their own on the throne of Armenia, a Roman buffer state. This "upset the delicate balance of power" on the eastern frontier. Trajan intervened, and Armenia was made a province of Rome. The army continued on eastward and annexed Mesopotamia, including the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon. Under Trajan, the Roman Empire now stretched further than it ever had - from Scotland to the Caspian Sea. His operations were a success, however, after he had created new provinces - Armenia, Mesopotamia and Assyria - and believed he had been victorious, several Messianic revolts broke out simultaneously, which required heavy Roman involvement. he died on August 9, 117 CE. His body was returned to Rome where it was cremated and buried in an urn at the base of the great Trajan's Column. Trajan's memory remained in Rome for generations to follow, primarily due to two gifts he gave the city - the Forum of Trajan and Trajan's Column. IT SHOULD BE NOTED THAT THIS DUDE FOUGHT THESE WARS IN DACIA MOSTLY TO PROVE HIMSELF

Aurelian Wall

Walls surrounding Rome built in 270s during reign of Aurelian and Probus, superseded Servian Walls and enclosed a much larger area

Polybius

a Greek historian of the Hellenistic period noted for his work The Histories, which covered the period of 264-146 BC in detail. The work describes the rise of the Roman Republic to the status of dominance in the ancient Mediterranean world and includes his eyewitness account of the Sack of Carthage in 146 BC. Polybius' Histories cover the period from 264 BC to 146 BC. Its main focus is the period from 220 BC to 167 BC, describing Rome's efforts in subduing its arch-enemy, Carthage, and thereby becoming the dominant Mediterranean force. Books I through V of The Histories are the introduction for the years during his lifetime, describing the politics in leading Mediterranean states, including ancient Greece and Egypt, and culminating in their ultimate συμπλοκή or interconnectedness. In Book VI, Polybius describes the political, military, and moral institutions that allowed the Romans to succeed. He describes the First and Second Punic Wars. Polybius concludes the Romans are the pre-eminent power because they have customs and institutions which promote a deep desire for noble acts, a love of virtue, piety towards parents and elders, and a fear of the gods (deisidaimonia). He also chronicled the conflicts between Hannibal and Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus such as the Battle of Ticinus, the Battle of the Trebia, the Siege of Saguntum, the Battle of Lilybaeum, and the Battle of Rhone Crossing. In Book XII, Polybius discusses the worth of Timaeus' account of the same period of history. He asserts Timaeus' point of view is inaccurate, invalid, and biased in favor of Rome. Therefore, Polybius's Histories is also useful in analyzing the different Hellenistic versions of history and of use as a credible illustration of actual events during the Hellenistic period. [edit] In the seventh volume of his Histories, Polybius defines the historian's job as the analysis of documentation, the review of relevant geographical information, and political experience. Polybius held that historians should only chronicle events whose participants the historian was able to interview, and was among the first to champion the notion of factual integrity in historical writing. In Polybius' time, the profession of a historian required political experience (which aided in differentiating between fact and fiction) and familiarity with the geography surrounding one's subject matter to supply an accurate version of events. Polybius himself exemplified these principles as he was well travelled and possessed political and military experience. He did not neglect written sources that proved essential material for his histories of the period from 264 BC to 220 BC. When addressing events after 220 BC, he examined the writings of Greek and Roman historians to acquire credible sources of information, but rarely did he name those sources.

Gaius Marius

a Roman general and statesman. He held the office of consul an unprecedented seven times during his career. He was also noted for his important reforms of Roman armies, authorizing recruitment of landless citizens, eliminating the manipular military formations, and reorganizing the structure of the legions into separate cohorts. Marius defeated the invading Germanic tribes (the Teutones, Ambrones, and the Cimbri), for which he was called "the third founder of Rome."[1] His life and career were significant in Rome's transformation from Republic to Empire. The Marian Reforms: the traditional view-the significance of these things are pretty exaggerated Recruitment of proletarii Remember: only people who met the property criteria could serve cause they could afford to equip themselves. To be considered a soldier in the service of the republic, an individual was required to provide his own arms and uniform for combat. Marius relaxed the recruitment policies by removing the necessity to own land, and allowed all Roman citizens entry, regardless of social class. This also 'Romanized' the population in newly subjugated provinces, thus reducing unrest and lowering the chance of revolt against the Roman Republic. He only hired proletariat once though during the Jugurthine War...claiming that a man w/nothing to lose would be loyal The Jugurthines do some Fabian tactics and refuse to fight...Marius runs for consul so he can do something about this and he WINS the consulship...instead of bringing the usual 5000 men supplementum, he allows the proletarii to volunteer bc inscription is usually a pain, and rome has endured some catastrophes in Numidia so people are desperate in a crisis (this would lead to fierce devotion to war generals that leads to civil war LOL) Marius only beats Jugurtha by treachery-he hears that Jugurtha will meet w/another king, so Marius pays off the king to betray Jugurtha and hand him over to Marius Marius' mules: his soldiers must carry their own stuff, wastes no space w/ mules, must not waste time on luxury People exaggerate how much this mattered Marius did NOT create a professional army, this is still a citizen army Eagle standards Pliny the Elder tells us that Gaius Marius assigns the eagle to the roman legions(there are other animal totems to carry around to0, the wolf, the boar, the minotaur) These standards were important before Marius too..! Doesn't seem like a big tactical change Modifications to the pilum: the least important lol Will more easily break off in shields because it has one wooden rivet (this might not have been that great, and most recovered pila don't have this) Scholars have really built up this idea that Marius changed the roman army to a professional one Cohorts: Cohortal Legion c. 50 BC Marions v Sulla: 88-81 BC A bellicose Eastern monarch named Mithridates sparked a major conflict with Rome. Marius wished to lead the war against the king. Despite his desires, in 88 BC, the command was awarded to his former deputy, Sulla. Marius wants to fight Mithridates Marius Gets a tribune of the plebs and proposed that he recall Sulla's army to serve under him. Sulla is offended and chases Marius out then goes go take on Mithridates in Athens (easy victory).After Sulla initially departed to prepare for the campaign, Marius successfully utilized a purely legal maneuver to have the command transferred to him. But Sulla didn't intend to obey the people's will. The Mithridatic War promised to bring fame, power, and riches to the Roman who defeated the pugnacious king. As a result, Sulla treacherously marched his troops on Rome as an invading enemy army to protect his command. Once he had assumed mastery over Rome, he exiled Marius and sentenced him to death in absentia. Once Sullas comes back, he wipes out the Marion dynasty (killed a lot of people) He'd publish names of people he was after, and then they became free game. So basically Because of a petty dispute with his erstwhile subordinate, Roman legions marched on their homeland as conquering armies for the first time in history, which threw the Republic into chaos. Once Marius returned to power, the man who once safeguarded the Republic evolved into a bloodthirsty tyrant. This unfortunately ensured that his reputation would forever be tainted. After Sulla departed for the East, Marius took advantage of a violent dispute that erupted between the consuls of 87 BC. Marius joined with one of the consuls, Cinna, and the two marched legions on Rome to institute their own version of order and illegally settle their personal vendettas. After they gained control of the city, Marius ordered those who had allowed his exile and aided Sulla to be rounded up, and most of them were then summarily executed without trials or charges. No less than seven unsanctioned deaths were attributed to Marius, which, in part, ruined his once respectable reputation. Despite this short-lived reign of terror, Marius was elected to the consulship of 86 BC, giving him his prophesized 7th consulship, which was more than any previous Roman had obtained. However, not long after his inauguration, Marius died, allegedly of pleurisy.

Julius Caesar

a Roman politician and military general who played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire. He is also known as a notable author of Latin prose. Caesar runs for consul in 60s, has little military experience, probably because he is a Marion and is trying to avoid the Marion v Sulla civil war that happened in the 80's First military experience is in Spain, where he bashed around some tribes, but wants a big chance Caesar has no military experience on Pompey or diplomatic experience on Crassus but he still wants a command to establish a military reputation and a chance at consulship Pompey, Crassus, and Caesear make a deal->Pompey gets his soldier's lands, Crassus gets the revisions, and Caesar gets a command Caesar wanted Eluria to campaign against the Thracians which he gets after a leader there just dies (he gets Gaul too) Helvetti randomly decide to migrate->causes other groups to migrate They need to cross Roman province (Caesar says no) so they take another route but they say no too...so Helvetti ask Caesar for help and he helps them Caesar sends an army and the helvetti cross A NEW SOURCE: Caesar writes extended comentarii to use as political tool to raise his stature and show what he has done A primary source (commander himself) Great prose Documents Roman army Notice: he is trying to make himself look good (he is a successful roman commander but we should be careful) Ariovistus( a friend and ally of Rome) has been coming down from Rhine and terrorizing Gaul->he turns and tries to take on Rome (Caesar defeats him) Caesar goes to Belgae...he wants to conquer Gaul for conquest sake...eventually makes it to Atlantic coast These are the Gallic Wars^ Gallic groups tend to think Caesar will help them w/ momentary problems and asks for help...but then he doesn't leave (demands grain, a winter camp to set soldiers in, hostages) Caesar must break up troops to maintain command over what he is conquering Experiences revolts->Gauls assail Roman camps a lot Manages to conquer Gaul by keeping Gauls disunited Gauls think they can unite-> Gallic Revolt made of all the tribes that want to unify against Caesar Caesar caught off guard but manages to pin up their leader Caesar begins using siege operations now (his troops are good at digging) and surround Elesia with a circuit of walls This destroys revolt Things have broken down between Pompey, Crassus, Caesar Crassus feels he want a war with the Parthians to get some glory Parthians are good horse archers..they let Crassus get way into their land...then they shoot up Crassus' army...Crassus totally gets killed and thats that Pompey has no tie to Caesar soon and gets to be pulled into anti Caesarian movements The 50's: the consuls are very against Caesar and Pompey gets involved Pompey gets command of every legion that isn't Caesar's Pharsalus 48 BC: Caesar fights Pompey and wins in a major set battle in Greece-> Pompey flees to egypt and is killed by ptolemaic power Caesar returns to Rome and is assassinated WHAT WIKI HAS TO SAY In 60 BC, Caesar, Crassus and Pompey formed a political alliance that dominated Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to amass power as Populares were opposed by the Optimates within the Roman Senate, among them Cato the Younger with the frequent support of Cicero. Caesar rose to become one of the most powerful politicians in the Roman Republic through a number of his accomplishments, notably his victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BC. During this time, Caesar became the first Roman general to cross both the Channel and the Rhine, when he built a bridge across the Rhine and crossed the Channel to invade Britain. Caesar's wars extended Rome's territory to the English Channel and the Rhine. These achievements granted him unmatched military power and threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, who had realigned himself with the Senate after the death of Crassus in 53 BC. Caesar's elaborate siege-works at the Battle of Alesia finally forced the Gaul's surrender.[63] Despite scattered outbreaks of warfare the following year,[64] Gaul was effectively conqueredWith the Gallic Wars concluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. Leaving his command in Gaul meant losing his immunity from being charged as a criminal for waging unsanctioned wars. As a result, Caesar found himself with no other options but to cross the Rubicon with the 13th Legion, leaving his province and illegally entering Roman Italy under arms.[3] Civil war resulted, and Caesar's victory in the war put him in an unrivalled position of power and influence. After assuming control of government, Caesar began a programme of social and governmental reforms, including the creation of the Julian calendar. He gave citizenship to many residents of far regions of the Roman Empire. He initiated land reform and support for veterans. He centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed "dictator in perpetuity", giving him additional authority. Caesar then became involved with an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaoh and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, Cleopatra. Perhaps as a result of the pharaoh's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra. He withstood the Siege of Alexandria and later he defeated the pharaoh's forces at the Battle of the Nile in 47 BC and installed Cleopatra as ruler. Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated their victory with a triumphal procession on the Nile in the spring of 47 BC. The royal barge was accompanied by 400 additional ships, and Caesar was introduced to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharaohs.[ His populist and authoritarian reforms angered the elites, who began to conspire against him. On the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC Caesar was assassinated by a group of rebellious senators led by Gaius Cassius Longinus, Marcus Junius Brutus and Decimus Junius Brutus.[4][5] A new series of civil wars broke out and the constitutional government of the Republic was never fully restored. Caesar's adopted heir Octavian, later known as Augustus, rose to sole power after defeating his opponents in the civil war. Octavian set about solidifying his power and the era of the Roman Empire began. Much of Caesar's life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns and from other contemporary sources, mainly the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings of Sallust. The later biographies of Caesar by Suetonius and Plutarch are also major sources. Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history.

pilum

a celtic javelin When you throw it, it is gone...Carry two spears...but then none lol had an iron shank that attached to wooden part The weapon had a hard pyramidal tip but the shank was made of softer iron. This softness would cause the shank to bend after impact, thus rendering the weapon useless to the enemy who might throw it back (it could also get stuck in shield which would render it useless) pyramidal tip still made it difficult to pull out and was a good armor piercer Tactics emphasize SWORDS as primary weapon unlike Greeks Standard tactics called for Roman soldiers to throw one of them (both if time permitted) at the enemy, just before charging to engage with the gladius; however, Alexander Zhmodikov has argued that the Roman infantry could use pila at any stage in the fighting.

centurion

a centurion led a century(100-several hundred men) and was elected by the troops. Based on battle prowess, bravery, skill, held in high esteem, paid well. their age usually matched the age of those in their century. They wore their sword on the left hand side and carried to a Vitus to discipline soldiers. Centurions had to be literate (to be able to read written orders), have connections (letters of recommendation), be at least 30 years of age, and have already served a few years in the military. 1 legion could contain many 60 centuries. Roman centurions represented the bridge between enlisted troops and commissioned officers, in much the same way as warrant officers do in the modern U.S. military.

Aemilius Paullus

a two-time consul of the Roman Republic and a noted general who conquered Macedon, putting an end to the Antigonid dynasty in the Third Macedonian War. he won the battle of pydna Led in the Third Macedonian War 171-168 Philip V allowed to resume some land in Thessaly again, he has used the mines again, and brings in settlers and raises up Agriculture His son Perseus, helps him focus military on areas up North which Romans don't care about This prosperity unnerves the Romans so they declare war on Perseus Perseus agrees and the first years go bad for Romans Lucius Aemilius Paullus holds his troops back (is trying to play it smart) Battle of Pydna 168 BC Escaped horse from Roman side runs over to Macedonian side and the Macedonians start skirmishing, so Paullus commits to a fight but Romans do bad at first Legion v Phalanx! How this usually goes and how it GOES: the phalanx rolls over the legion at first, but then the phalanx gets broken up, and the romans take advantage of these breaks-20,000 Macedonians killed, another 20,000 captured Perseus flees and Romans decided to end the monarchy in Macedonia, which is split up into regions

scutum

an oval shield w/one hand grip, based on celtic design, doesn't attach to elbow, easier to use and better for missiles defense, bigger, good for more fluid and flexible fighting Good for holding up and holding out Fayum Scutum: found in egypt, might not be Roman at all, but lets us see how shield was made Made of 3 layers of birch plywood (over 20 lbs) CHEAPER than aspis, so more men in army can afford a shield

mail armor

chain mail or Celtic mail made from bronze or iron alloy. was worn with belt to help distribute weight. this was dominant in Europe for LONG TIME AFTER THIS. Expensive, probs for aristos, only 1st class required to wear chain mail. Displaces cuirass

Battle of Zama

decided by cavalry. Key battle during second punic war. After drama with Masinissa and Syphax ended, this leads to peace treaty: Hannibal agrees to finally draw out his troops from Italy and they must pay enmity. Hannibal's army back in Africa...BUT THEY CHANGE THEIR MIND AND START THE WAR AGAIN TO FIGHT BATTLE OF ZAMA. After Great Plains: Syphax has been captured and the daughter wife is captured, Massinissa then marries Hasdrubal's imprisoned daughter (she poisons herself so that there won't be an alliance) PCS needs Massinissa's men-he starts marching around Numidia to draw him out Hannibal v PCS Hannibal uses Carthaginian citizens and mercenaries and elephants PCS meanwhile is looking for Massinissa 8 mo till fight actually starts The Numidians join Hannibal because they see their hold on the land is shaky Massinissa finally joins PCS again Hannibal and PCS actually talk before the battle and set up a Parley to try and negotiate(which fails): Hannibal sets up camp and Scipio sets up camp near water source Scipio's problem: has never faced elephants-his solution: vary the array of maniples, sets them up in columns which will act as elephant pathways (sounds brilliant, but actually elephants just freak out and take off to side, so it wasn't necessary) Hannibal's Trap: has elephants in front, has forces in 3 lines as well with veterans in the last line somewhat held back-save the best for last and extends this line PCS sees this and uses his flanks to extend his line too and face off the trap=>Hannibal's rear attacked and 20,000 killed + 20,000 captured But this decisive Battle of Zama did not end the war War only ends bc Hannibal decides it must end, even though many officials feel they must fight on Carthage surrenders but with conditions: agree to pay higher enmity, give up elephants, but keep holdings in Libya and their state

proletarii

lowest economic status in Rome, poor landless freemen who were left workless because slaves took their jobs. Left to fend selves from plebeians and patricians. For citizens with property valued 11,000 asses or less, which was below the lowest census for military service, their children—proles )—were listed instead of their property; hence, the name proletarius, "the one who produces offspring". The only contribution of a proletarius to the Roman society was seen in his ability to raise children, the future Roman citizens who can colonize new territories conquered by the Roman Republic and later by the Roman Empire. The citizens who had no property of significance were called capite censi because they were "persons registered not as to their property...but simply as to their existence as living individuals, primarily as heads (caput) of a family." denied voting rights because lacked min property requirement and at bottom of Comitia Centuriata. After 2nd Punic Wars, the Roman body able to serve severely dwindled, so the Marian Reforms by Gaius Marius made them the new backbone.

gladius hispaniensis

most effective of swords early on. was made from iron. Spanish sword was first used by tribes in the Iberian peninsula and, following the Punic Wars, became the standard sword of Roman legionaries who saw the advantages the short blade had in small spaces. Short and double edge blade with pointy tip made it good for cutting and thrusting in confined space. Used them in the conquest of Gaul. It seems that from the 3rd century CE the longer sword became more common.

Pompey the Great

one of the great statesmen and generals of the late Roman Republic, a triumvir (61-54 BCE) who was an associate and later an opponent of Julius Caesar During the Marion v Sulla times, Pompey meanwhile, is a brutal general, with an army loyal to him-> Pompey decides to help out Sulla, joining Sulla as an independent ally in the campaign to recover Rome and Italy from the Marians. On Sulla's orders the Senate gave Pompey the job of recovering Sicily and Africa from the Marians—a task he completed in two lightning campaigns (82-81). Pompey ruthlessly executed Marian leaders who had surrendered to him. From Africa Pompey demanded that a triumph be given him in Rome; he refused to disband his army and appeared at the gates of Rome, obliging Sulla to yield to his demand. After Sulla's abdication, Pompey supported the renegade Sullan Marcus Lepidus for the consulship of 78. Once in office Lepidus attempted revolution, and Pompey promptly joined the forces of law and order against him. The rising crushed, however, Pompey refused to disband his army, which he used to bring pressure on the Senate to send him with proconsular power to join Metellus Pius in Spain against the Marian leader Sertorius. The reconquest of Spain taxed Pompey's military skill and strained his own and the state's resources to the utmost. In the end it was he, not Metellus, who imposed on Spain a settlement reflecting and promoting his own political aims. His policy was one of reconciliation and rehabilitation. His personal authority and patronage now covered Spain, southern Gaul, and northern Italy. Unlike Metellus, Pompey took his army back to Italy with him, ostensibly to assist in putting down a slave revolt led by Spartacus but in reality to secure a triumph and election to the consulship for 70. The nobles whom Sulla had restored to power had proved to be more corrupt and incompetent than ever. Pompey promised reforms at home and abroad. A bargain was struck with his rival Marcus Licinius Crassus (who had actually defeated Spartacus), the two were jointly elected consuls, and Pompey was given another triumph. During their joint consulate, they substantially repealed Sulla's political reforms by restoring the powers of the tribunes and stripping senators of their monopoly as jurors on standing courts. Although the nobles were to continue to dominate the consular elections in most years, the real sources of power henceforth lay outside of Italy. Extraordinary commands would have to be created if Rome was to recover control of the sea from pirates. It was Pompey who benefited most from the restoration of tribunician initiative. After his consulship, he waited in Rome while rival nobles undermined the position of Lucius Licinius Lucullus, who was campaigning against Mithradates in Anatolia, and made halfhearted attempts to deal with the pirates. Finally, in 67, the tribune Aulus Gabinius forced a bill through the popular assembly empowering Pompey to settle the pirate problem. Pompey was still in the East, resettling pirates as peaceful farmers, when in Rome another tribune, Gaius Manilius, carried through, against weakened opposition, a bill appointing Pompey to the command against Mithradates, with full powers to make war and peace and to organize the whole Roman East (66). Pompey displaced Lucullus and lost no time defeating Mithradates in Asia Minor. After the death of Mithradates in 63, Pompey was free to plan the consolidation of the eastern provinces and frontier kingdoms. For 6,000 talents he set up King Tigranes in Armenia as a friend and ally of Rome—and as his own protégé. Pompey rejected the Parthian king's request to recognize the Euphrates as the limit of Roman control and extended the Roman chain of protectorates to include Colchis, on the Black Sea, and the states south of the Caucasus. In Anatolia, he created the new provinces of Bithynia-Pontus and Cilicia. He annexed Syria and left Judaea as a dependent, diminished temple state. The organization of the East remains Pompey's greatest achievement. His sound appreciation of the geographical and political factors involved enabled him to impose an overall settlement that was to form the basis of the defensive frontier system and was to last, with few important changes, for more than 500 years. Pompey's power and prestige were at their height in December 62, when he landed at Brundisium (Brindisi) and dismissed the army. His third triumph (61) trumpeted the grandeur of his achievement. The following decade was the period of his ascendancy in Italy, an ascendancy that was to be eroded through Caesar's growing military power and gradual capture of Pompey's worldwide clientelae, from the power base Caesar, in turn, created in northern Italy and Gaul. Pompey's inveterate enemies in Rome were the Optimates, the inner ring of nobles, not Crassus or Caesar, who had merely tried to steal the limelight in Pompey's absence and to maneuver into a better position for bargaining with their former political ally. The nobles meanwhile had gradually reasserted their dominance in Rome and hampered attempts to alleviate the condition of Italy and the Roman populace. Once back in Italy, Pompey avoided siding with popular elements against the Optimates. He was no revolutionary. He wanted all classes to recognize him as first citizen, available for further large-scale services to the state. He had divorced his third wife, Mucia, allegedly for adultery with Caesar, and now proposed to ally himself by marriage to the party of the young senatorial leader Marcus Porcius Cato the Younger. But the nobles were closing their ranks against him, and his offer was rebuffed. Lucullus and others were determined to prevent the en bloc ratification of Pompey's eastern settlement and to reject his demand for land for his veterans. Help came only when Caesar returned from his governorship in Spain. Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar formed the unofficial and at first secret "First Triumvirate." (This was not a legal position, and the term, although convenient, is modern.) It was to become more than a mere election compact. It would strain all the resources of the triumvirs to wrest one consulship from the Optimates; their continued solidarity was essential if they were to secure what Caesar gained for them in 59. Caesar, for his part, wanted a long-term command. Pompey, who now married Caesar's daughter, Julia, saw Caesar as his necessary instrument. Caesar, once consul, immediately forced through a land bill and, shortly after, another appropriating public lands in Campania. Once he had secured a five-year command in Illyria and Gaul he could be relied on to take off a large proportion of Pompey's discharged troops and give them further opportunities for profitable employment. Pompey solved the problem of Rome's grain supply with his usual efficiency, but the nobles kept up their opposition. The year 56 was a critical one for the triumvirs. The nobles concocted religious impediments to prevent the dispatch of Pompey on a military mission to Egypt, while Publius Clodius contrived to persuade Pompey that Crassus had designs on his life. An attempt was made to suspend Caesar's law for the distribution of Campanian land. Alarmed at Pompey's suspicions and truculence, Crassus set off to meet Caesar at Ravenna, and Caesar in turn came to the limit of his province at Luca to meet Pompey. The Luca conference (56) prepared the ground for the next phase of cooperation: Pompey and Crassus were to secure election to the consulship for 55, for they too wanted five-year commands in the provinces, while Caesar's command was to be renewed for another five years. The three secured their ends by violence and corruption after a prolonged struggle. Early in 55 Pompey and Crassus were at last elected consuls, with most of the lesser magistracies going to their supporters. Caesar obtained the extension of his command, while Pompey and Crassus received commands in Spain and Syria, respectively. Pompey could stay on in Italy and govern his provinces by deputies. But their cooperation was coming to an end. The death of Julia (54) destroyed the strongest bond between Pompey and Caesar, and Crassus suffered disastrous defeat and death in Mesopotamia. The compact existed no longer, but Pompey as yet showed no inclination to break with Caesar. Civil War Meanwhile, from outside the walls of Rome, Pompey watched the anarchy in the city becoming daily more intolerable. He was prepared to wait without committing himself until the Optimates found an alliance with him unavoidable. He refused further offers from Caesar of a marriage alliance. There was talk in Rome as early as 54 of a dictatorship for Pompey. Street violence made it impossible to hold the elections. In January 52 Clodius was killed by armed followers of Titus Annius Milo, whose candidacy for the consulship was being bitterly opposed by both Pompey and Clodius. Now both factions exploded into even greater violence. The senate house was burned down by the mob. With no senior magistrates in office, the Senate had to call on Pompey to restore order. It was the hour he had waited for. He speedily summoned troops from Italy. The nobles would not have him as dictator; they thought it safer to appoint him sole consul. Pompey's legislation of 52 reveals his genuine interest in reform and the duplicity of his conduct toward Caesar. He reformed procedure in the courts and produced a panel of respectable jurors. A severe law against bribery at elections was made retrospective to 70 and, for all Pompey's protests, was rightly taken by Caesar's friends as aimed at him. Another useful law enforced a five-year interval between tenure of magistracies in Rome and assumption of provincial commands. But this law and another, which prohibited candidature in absence, effectively destroyed the ground of Caesar's expectation that he should become designated consul, and so safe from prosecution, before he had to disband his army in Gaul. Several attempts were made in the years 51-50 to recall Caesar before the expiration of his second term in Gaul. They were frustrated by the assertiveness of Caesar's faction and agents in Rome. Pompey, for all his growing fear and suspicion of Caesar's ambitions, did not come out openly against Caesar until late in 51, when he suddenly made clear his intentions. He declared that he would not consider the suggestion that Caesar should become designated consul while still in command of his army. His proposals for a compromise date for Caesar's recall were unacceptable to Caesar, whose sole resource now was to use the wealth he had accumulated in Gaul to buy men who could obstruct his enemies in the Senate. When war came, the Senate was evenly divided between Caesar and Pompey. The consulars were solidly for Pompey, although they saw him simply as the lesser evil. Late in 50 the consul Gaius Marcellus, failing to induce the Senate to declare Caesar a public enemy, visited Pompey with the consuls designate and placed a sword in his hands. Pompey accepted their invitation to raise an army and defend the state. Caesar continued to offer compromise solutions while preparing to strike. On January 7, 49, the Senate finally decreed a state of war. Four days later Caesar crossed the Rubicon. Pompey's strategic plan was to abandon Rome and Italy to Caesar and rely on his command of the sea and the resources of the East to starve out the Caesarians in Italy, but he did not have the disciplined loyalty and full cooperation of his Optimate allies, and Caesar's swift advance southward only just failed to prevent his withdrawal from Italy. Across the Adriatic at Dyrrhachium (now Durrës, Albania) the wisdom of Pompey's strategy became clear. Caesar, after a hazardous crossing in pursuit, found himself cut off from his base in Italy by sea and facing superior land forces. Pompey, however, eventually had to abandon his naval blockade of the rest of Caesar's forces in Brundisium and failed to prevent their crossing to join Caesar. Caesar's army was repulsed in an assault on Pompey's camp at Dyrrhachium and, failing a quick decision in the West, Caesar was obliged to move eastward into Thessaly. Pompey followed and joined forces with the Senate's army there under Scipio, rendering Caesar's position untenable. At this juncture, Pompey, under pressure from his Optimate allies, decided for battle, a sensible enough decision if his opponent had not been a commander of genius. Pompey suffered a disastrous defeat on the plain of Pharsalus (48). He fled from his camp as the enemy stormed it and made his way to the coast. His supporters were to rally and involve Caesar in strenuous fighting in Africa, Spain, and the East for three more years, but Pompey did not live to play a part in this struggle. Hurried on by Caesar's rapid pursuit, he lost contact with his own fleet. He moved on southward to Cilicia, Cyprus, and Egypt. He decided to land at Pelusium and seek the assistance of Ptolemy, his former client. The king marched down to the coast, ostensibly to welcome him, but he and his counsellors had chosen not to risk offending the victorious Caesar. Pompey's small squadron lay offshore while Pompey, bidding farewell to his wife, Cornelia, complied with an insidious invitation to enter, with several companions, a small boat sent to bring him to land. As he prepared to step ashore, he was treacherously struck down and killed (September 28, 48 BCE). Legacy Pompey's name cast a lasting shadow. His end inspired some of Lucan's finest verses. In the empire he acquired official respectability, and the greatness of his achievement was fully appreciated by the great writers. But there are few clearheaded or unbiased accounts of Pompey by his own contemporaries. Caesar would have his readers believe that he wrote of Pompey more in sorrow than in anger; his propaganda was discreet and subtly damaging to his rival's reputation. Cicero's veering, day-to-day judgments of Pompey reveal his inability to see clearly through the distorting medium of his own vanity. The inflated eulogies of Pompey in Cicero's speeches are punctured by his persistent sniping at him in his letters. Yet he looked up to him for leadership and, in the moment of decision, joined him. But Pompey was neither a revolutionary nor a reactionary, willing to wreck the fabric of the commonwealth for the advantage of self or class. He expected a voluntary acceptance of his primacy but was to discover that the methods he had used to get his commands had permanently alienated the dominant nobility. So year after year he had to play a passive role, covertly intriguing or waiting for successive occasions to arise that would force them to accept his leadership. Some thought his waiting game duplicity, others sheer political incompetence. He was an ineffective politician, not from incapacity for intrigue or ruthless action but from lack of candour and consistency in speech and action. As a military leader, Pompey fell short of real greatness, lacking Caesar's genius, his dynamism and panache, and his geniality in personal relationships. He was circumspect and thorough—the perfect administrator. His vision of empire was no narrower than Caesar's. Like many a more recent imperialist, he was satisfied with the ideal of efficient and clean-handed administration and justice, and many of his contemporaries believed that he went far to achieve that aim in his own practice. Pompey, the wealthiest man of his age, invested his millions prudently; his landed estates were distributed throughout Italy in manageable units. For all the extravagance of his triumphal shows and the inexcusable heartlessness of the contests in slaughter with which he entertained the populace, he was a plain-living man, friend and admirer of the Stoic Panaetius. His third wife, Mucia, bore him two sons, Gnaeus and Sextus, and a daughter, Pompeia, before he divorced her for infidelity (62). Julia was the wife he loved most dearly. Cornelia outlived him and mourned his death.

Corvus

the Corvus is a naval boarding device that Romans would use to slide down from their own boats onto Carthaginian boats and try to take them over during the first Punic War. Romans were not a naval power at this time, so the Corvus allowed them to take their infantry skills to the sea and stand a chance against the navally skilled Carthaginians. Allowed them to win Mylae and Ecnomus battles. Likely not useful in rough seas (could damage both boats). Might have upset boat stability and was abandoned after Econmus (Romans became more experienced and became less reliant on it).

assidui

were the citizens who were liable to military service in the main line of battle, that is, for much of the history of the Roman republic, as legionaries. The adsidui were the members of the first five census classes, which were, according to the Roman historian Livy, created under the reign of Servius Tullius, the sixth legendary king of ancient Rome. Under Tullius' original organisation, the first class was made of the richest, and thus best-equipped citizens, with helmet, shield, greaves, cuirass, spear and sword. As one went down through the classes and the corresponding levels of wealth, equipment went lighter and lighter. Unlike the proletarii,n these guys could be in the legions. The census levels were gradually lowered.