Andean History Midterm

Peru-Bolivia Confederation

1836-1839, made sense because they had commercial relations, similar cultures, etc, torn apart by regional forces (capital in Cusco alienated creoles on the coast, Chile invaded b/c they wanted coast). Significance: another failed attempt at pan-Americanism

Pro-Indigena Association

1908-1917, founded by mixed-race man, wanted reform on coercive labor, more education for indigenous, legislation on indigenous rights (less organizing indigenous labor). Significance: big early group demonstrating indigenism

Central Committee Pro-Indigenous Rights Tawantinsuyu

1920-1927 (when it gets too radical), created under the Leguia government via national indigenous conference, more reciprocal pact with indigenous, reform on land issues, anti forced labor on road building projects. Significance: more involved with organizing indigenous laid groundwork for later pro-indigenous groups

Taqui Onqoy

Andean spiritual leaders that would travel to ayllus and convulse to rid themselves of internal demon of Christianity; require rejecting everything Spanish because the Huacas are mad and will start taking revenge. Significance: resistance to Spanish in Andean terms, fairly popular in the right regions

Canaris

Ethnic group that had sided with Huascar and been defeated, sided with Spanish against Inka. Significance: fought with Spanish

Creole Nationalism

Creoles led independence movements, very aware of other world events, had a lot to gain from being in control of the economy. Significance: explains motivations for independence movements

Imperial Pact

Creoles would be protected by the Spanish army, Spain would get certain things in return. Significance: rebellions cause creoles to question it, see Spanish as sometimes causing instability through their reforms, creates awareness that creoles and Spanish have different interests

Forms of Resistance

Deceiving the census about the population and resources in a community, fleeing the community. Significance: represent the desperate nature of Indian communties

Sources of tension within the Inkan Empire

Distortion of kuraka, repression of recalcitrant tribes, military conscription, cult of mummy, rivalries for Sapa Inka, aqllas (virgin girls of Inka). Significance: created tension that the Spanish exploited during conquest

Conopas and Huacas

Huacas= gods of the mountains, rivers, etc that existed across Andean practice; Conopas= figurine representation of gods. Significance: practices that were difficult for the Spanish to eliminate becuase they were very ingrained, private, small

Forced sale of goods (reparto de mercancias)

colonists could force Indians to buy their surplus goods of any kind to gain wealth, worsened corruption especially with kurakas and corregidors involved. Significance: form of exploitation, creates tension in original community relationships

Tribute

Indians had to pay (in specie, food, textile, labor) in return for Spanish civilizing services. Significance: form of exploitation, divided population, brought Indians into market

Discourses on the "Indian Problem"

Indians= politically disenfranchised by property and literacy requirements and poll tax, state wanted Indians to participate in economy rather than subsistence to make them more civilized, seen as isolated and lazy, elites used environmental determinism/scientific racism to justify actions. Significance: demonstrates the struggle around how to include Indian in liberal state

Huascar

Inka leader leading up to Spanish arrival, based in Cusco, defeated by Atahualpa. Significance: the battle with Atahualpa resulted in the killing of most of Huascar's army, tensions left Empire weaker upon arrival of Spanish

Tupac Katari

Julian Apasa, created rebellion in sympathy of the others, carries on rebellion past 1781. Significance: carried on the rebellion, Creoles very distrustful after these years

Reciprocity

Mutual obligation governing exchange and labor (ayni & minka). Significance: key to Andean societies, mutual survival

Origins of Tawantinsuyu

Mythic: 4 brothers emerged from Lake Titicaca region, Manco Capac with sister Mama Oqllu tricks brother and founds Cuscu; Secular: Manco Capac defeats Chincha at Cusco. Significance: Beginning of Inka Empire but also stories are invoked even today

Francisco Pizzaro

conqueror of Peru, knew of past conquests, took four expeditions, given governorship of Peru + right to establish encomiendas. Significance: key conqueror, set up structures that would define colonial society

Hyana Capac

Last Sapa Inka, consolidates empire and extends into Ecuador and Columbia, establishes 2nd capital in Cusco. Significance: Last Inka

Juan Santos Atahualpa

Led an uprising, kept stronghold in jungle that couldn't be defeated for years, messianic movement- invoked histories, will bring about utopian Inka rule and kick out Spanish. Significance: key early uprising, 1700s

lo Andino

Material Basis: native camelids, potatoes, guinea pigs. llama meat, maize, quinoa, coca, cotton, chili pepper, poncho, panpipe; Cultural Basis: vertical ecology, ayllu, reciprocity, duality, pantheism/animism, gender complementarity, textiles/weaving, cyclical time. Significance: what defines the Andes

New Laws, 1542

comes with new governor sent by crown (worried about population decline under current structure), say less money could be extracted and encomiendas turn back over to crown at the death of the owner. Significance: express crown's worry about sustainability of profit in Andes and the efficiency of leadership

Cuzco

capital of Inkan empire, destroyed through conquest- many of the riches were brought to Cajamarca for Spanish demands in return for Atahualpa. Significance: cite of Inka strength, destroyed

"The Requirement"

Spanish priest reads this to the people when Spanish conquer Cajamarca, sets out guidelines: if you accept Christianity peacefully, we will be peaceful. Significance: not communicated to way that people will understand, Spanish use it to justify violence against people who disobey

Caudillism

caudillos= men who had fought in the wars and then gained land, had access to arms; created patron-client power dynamics. Significance: created corrupt governing system with elites on top

Manco Inka

chosen by Spanish to replace Atahualpa as the new Inka, watches Spanish ransack city, ultimately rises up against Spanish, killed by Spanish. Significance: demonstrates Spanish strategy of trying to convince people to follow them by using traditional leadership systems

Tupac Amaru II

aka Jose Gabriel Condorcanqui Noguera, mestizo kuraka, traveled to Lima to petition the gov't b/c he wanted his Inkan nobility to be recognized, turned down, leads trial that kills correidor, radicalized, creates multiethnic army, starts taking over haciendas--> alienating creoles and mestizos, defeats Spanish forces, lays siege to Cusco, messianic/ utopian overtones, eventually defeated by Spanish. Significance: big resistance movement, example of radicalization of leaders, created a lot of fear when the beat Spanish army

Cusco School of Artists

artists incorporating Andean cultural aspects into more traditional biblical scenes. Significance: taking European practices and adapting them to Andean culture, form of resistance.

Falipe Guaman Pomma de Ayala

author of First New Chronicle of Good Government, 1613; tribesman who learned Spanish, critiques how Spanish don't live up to Christian values, never openly reject colonialism. Significance: key work by native

Pantheism & Animism

belief in many gods, that the world has spiritual energy. Significance: key to Andean society, created strong relationship with Earth, was specifically targeted during colonization.

Road Conscription

big government projects that led them to use coercive labor, instated by Leguia. Significance: retention of colonial structures, indigenous encouraged to organize around this

M Gonzalez Prada

big thinker in Peru, criticized the elite for Peru's loss to Chile b/c they have never created a nation- they have too many factions and put down the indigenous, believed indigenous needed to emancipate themselves, education helpful. Significance: beginnings of political and cultural indigenism

Garci Laso de la Vega

born in Peru but left, wrote Royal Commentaries of Inca 1609, wants to provide alternative work that dispells notions of violent Inkan people, represents them as Christian (values), some critique of colonialism/violence. Significance: created key work with alternative perspective

Gran Columbia

country of Columbia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama, created by Bolivar as he liberated them, pan-americanism, ultimately fell apart because no motivation to create nationalism. Significance: reflected Bolivar's worry about Spanish reinvasion and need to come together

Jose de San Martin

creole from Argentina, led liberation movements in Argentine and Chile, helped with Peru. Significance: creole, had very specific ideas about gov't that were later used

Simon Bolivar

creole from Venezuela, led independence armies in Northern South America, helped in Peru, believed in pan-americanism as a way to respond to Spanish reinvasion. Significance: creole, had ideas about governing

Paradox of Western Modernity

creoles stuck between their universal ideas and liberalism and keeping social hierarchies. Significance: conflict of interests for creoles, liberal ideas implemented later

Huancane Uprising

culmination of series of indigenous peasant revolts over land being taken, lead by mestizo Col. Bustamante, wanted rural schools, hygiene, morality, changed laws in region. Significance: still resistance after independence, presence of pro-indigenous mestizos.

Transculturation

cultural adaptation (Andeans taking advantage of Spanish judicial systems, bringing quipus). Significance: allowed Andeans to use traditional methods within colonial structures as resistance

Manay

cultural compromise or synthesis, common tool used by Andeans to incorporate belief systems. Significance: had been the historical way to integrate different belief systems but wasn't tolerated by Spanish

Vertical Ecology

dispersed settlement pattern designed to achieve simultaneous access to subsistence resources located in disparate ecozones (based on kin). Significance: what allowed Andean peoples to survive, defining feature of pre-colonial Andean life

Wankas

ethnic group that had been defeated by Inka and treated poorly, sided with Spanish. Significance: fought with Spanish

Guano

first major revenue for Peruvian state, allowed state to take away tribute. Significance: allowed state to incorporate Indians into liberal state

Mita

forced labor that began under Inka, under Spanish: work at mines or sweatshops, no reciprocity or consideration of self-sufficiency, required work for 1 year. Significance: form of exploitation, represents ways Spanish took Inkan structures and made them worse

pongo/pongueaje

forced labor, sometimes based on indebtedness, originally used at the level of the municipality (reciprocity) but then became national. Significance: way of exploiting indigenous

Enganche

form of conscripted labor that begins with loan--> debt, used for plantations along coast, similar to slavery. Significance: continued exploitation of Indians in independent countries

National Union 1891

founded by Gonzalez Prada

Adolf Vienrich

from Tarma, mayor at one point, supporter of craftsmen/artisans, wanted no one to have control of indigenous labor, advocated for Inka culture, believe socialism was natural for indigenous, working during high tensions b/t state and municipalities. Significance: advocate for indigenous in many regards, didn't get to see political manifestations of indigenism.

"Long live the King, death to the bad Government"

from Tupac Amaru's rebellion. Significance: didn't want not alienate criolles, way to criticize governing Spaniards without undermining crown

Cultural Syncretism

fusion of different cultural elements and/or subscription to two cultures simultaneously. Significance: how Andeans dealt with Spanish culture, allowed Andeans to critique Spanish culture because they knew it, form of resistance

Law of Municipalities 1873

gave municipalities lots of power. Significance: gave them control over Indian labor (mostly for infrastructure), elites want to keep this

Diego de Amargo

general, part of Pizzaro's army but left on the coast when Pizzaro conquered Inkas at Cajamarca, missed out on all the spoils, goes to conquer Chile but rebuffed by Mapuche. Significance: displays tension within Spanish, importance of riches

Encomienda

grants of land and LABOR that a conquistador could use for himself, also responsible for civilizing the Indians in Christian ways, must pay royal fifth to crown. Significance: first structure to colonial society, Indians seen as useful via labor

Society of Jesus, 1569

group called in to help with the conversion process. Significance: trouble with converstions

Neo-Inka State

group still following the Inka at Vilcabamba, goal = overthrow Spanish, engage in hit and run tactics that cause instability, finally suppressed by Toledo. Significance: long resistance to Spanish rule, continue to use Inka model, represented key way to destabilize state

Post-Colonial Predicament in the Andes

how can elite minority maintain power over non-creole majority? Significance: solved through systems like authoritarianism and tributary pact

citizens, semaneros

indigenous not considered citizens (in Peru) but referred to as semaneros (workers). Significance: indigenous had economic citizenship but nothing else

Miscengenation

intermarriage of races, race mixture creating new categories. Significance: made categories of race more complicated, harder to use race to structure society, more fluidity

Campaigns to Extripate Idolatry

jesuits would go to communities that reverted to Andean ways and would torture leaders in order to get them to confess where idols, who else was involved, where ancestors were, etc; items were burned; truthfulness=?. Significance: shows Spanish dedication to conversion at certain points

Atahualpa

leader of Inkan army, in the north with the best troops at the time of conquest, defeated Huascar and killed many of his troops and clan; confident in his victory at the arrival of Spanish; ultimately executed by Spanish. Significance: used as tool by Spanish, over-confident after win

Tupac Amaru I

leader of the resistance out of Vilcabamba, killed by Spanish in 1572. Significance: leader, invoked much later in nostalgia and resistance against Spanish

Liberalism v Tributary Pact

liberalism= individual rights, private property and wealth, competition, capitalist economy; tributary pact: indigenous would still pay tribute because the gov't needed the money, Indians would have collective communities, communal property, traditional ways. Significance: Indigenous were allowed to keep their ways despite liberal ideas because gov't needed money

Ayllu

localized descent group or kin-based community. Significance: basic social unit of the Andes

Vilcabamba

location of neo-Inkan state, hard to conquer. Significance: place of resistance to Spanish for many years

Civilista Party

mostly liberal, coastal oligarchy (landed elite, liberal professionals, merchants), financial interests key, promotes: hispanisization, railroad, state-run schools, used enganche. Significance: one manifestation of liberal ideas in a government that continued poor treatment of indigenous

Gender Complementarity

no sexual division of labor, jobs often interchangeable, women held some political power pre-conquest. Significance: key to Andean society, changes a lot during colonization

Inkan Mode of Conquest

numerical superiority, depots spread throughout empire (tambos), imperial messenger (chasqui) system. Significance: Inka could mobilize people fast, allowed them to conquer vast territory, fairly confident upon the arrival of Spanish

Indigenismo

pan-Latin American movement, 1st wave: mestizos and whites recognizing culture/humanity in indigenous peoples (Inka appreciation), 2nd wave: political organization/movement of mostly non-indigenous. Significance: way non-indigenous especially those with more power negotiate with race/superiroity

Bolivar & Authoritarian Republicanism

president for life, vp= hereditary, legislators have property and income requirements, indirect elections, separation of power. Significance: designed to keep power in elite hands, one way of dealing with paradox

Ethnogenesis

process by which new ethnic identities are formed as new communities are formed (mostly by people who fled their ayllus to avoid mita/tax). Significance: demonstrated adaptive abilities of Andeans to rework culture, cultural self-determination

Literacy Requirement 1896

reduced electorate significantly. Significance: cut out most indigneous

Reduccion

region, forced resettlement of 1.5 million Indians. Significance: makes governing easier, ignored Indians connection to land, vertical ecology

Producers' Ideology

states that the person producing value should be able to keep the vast majority of the wealth from that product. Significance: challenged the elite power structure because there were gaining significant wealth from indigenous labor

Corregimiento

system that replaces the encomienda, has corregidors in charge of local population. Significance: was suppose to fix the problems of encomienda system but corregidors were easily bribed, undermining system

Duality

tendency to perceive or structure personal and cultural relationships in dualistic terms. Significance:

Cyclical time

time is not linear but rather occurs in cycles, current world is produced from past and influenced by future. Significance: key to Andean thought

Indian Equality 1878

under Civilista gov't pushing through liberalization agenda, gave everyone equal protection under law, took away tribute, municipality lost control over labor. Significance: implementation of original liberal ideals

Toledan Reforms

under Viceroy Toledo, reducciones, mita labor for mines. Significance: key to making colony more profitable and stable

Tomas Katari

went to Buenos Aires, rebuffed, radicalized, went back and set up local gov't with him in charge, anti-colonial, makes it a race war, very bloody, brothers carried on the rebellion when he was killed. Significance: another key rebellion, example of radicalization

indio/indigena

words used to describe indigenous after semanero, connotation= lazy, ignorant. Significance: development of discourse around indigenous, negative connotations