AnP Exam 1

Which glands produce fat-soluble hormones

1. Adrenal Gland: Produces corticosteroids such as cortisol and aldosterone (fat-soluble). 2. Gonads: Produce sex hormones such as estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone

List the hormones involved in the "fight-or-flight" response

1. Adrenaline (Epinephrine) - This hormone increases heart rate, blood pressure, and energy supply. It prepares the body for quick action. 2. Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine) - This hormone complements adrenaline by also increasing heart rate and blood pressure. It helps to redirect blood flow to essential muscles. 3. Cortisol - Known as the stress hormone, cortisol increases glucose in the bloodstream and enhances the brain's use of glucose. It also suppresses non-essential functions to manage acute stress.

What hormones are responsible for the homeostasis of sodium?

1. Aldosterone 2. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) or Vasopressin 3. Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) 4. Angiotensin II

List the hormones used for the homeostasis of Calcium

1. Calcitonin 2. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) 3. Calcitriol

What diseases are associated with glucocorticoids

1. Cushing's Syndrome 2. Addison's Disease = Adrenal Insufficiency

What happens with too much cortisol? (which is a glucocorticoid)

1. Depress cartilage and bone formation 2. Inhibit inflammation by -Stabilizing lysosomal membranes -Preventing vasodilatation 3. Depress immune system 4. Promote changes in -Cardiovascular system -Nervous system -Gastrointestinal system

What diseases are associated with insulin

1. Diabetes Mellitus (type 1, type 2, and gestational) 2. Hypoglycemia

Know the hormones that are gonadotropins

1. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): In females, it stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles. In males, it stimulates spermatogenesis. 2. Luteinizing Hormone (LH): In females, it triggers ovulation and stimulates the production of estrogen and progesterone. In males, it stimulates the production of testosterone.

What are the 6 hormones of the anterior pituitary?

1. Growth hormone (GH) 2. Prolactin (PRL) 3. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) 4. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) 5. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) 6. Luteinizing hormone (LH)

What diseases are associated with the thyroid hormone?

1. Hyperthyroidism 2. Hypothyroidism

List the hormones used for the homeostasis of Glucose

1. Insulin - Produced by the beta cells of the pancreas, it lowers blood glucose levels by promoting the uptake of glucose into cells and stimulating glycogen synthesis in the liver. 2. Glucagon - Produced by the alpha cells of the pancreas, it raises blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogen breakdown in the liver and glucose release into the bloodstream. 3. Epinephrine (Adrenaline) - Produced by the adrenal medulla, it increases blood glucose levels by promoting glycogen breakdown and inhibiting insulin secretion. 4. Cortisol - Produced by the adrenal cortex, it increases blood glucose levels by promoting gluconeogenesis (the production of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources) and reducing glucose uptake in tissues. 5. Growth Hormone - Produced by the anterior pituitary gland, it increases blood glucose levels by reducing glucose uptake by muscles and adipose tissue and stimulating gluconeogenesis. 6. Thyroid Hormones (T3 and T4) - Produced by the thyroid gland, they enhance glucose metabolism by increasing the basal metabolic rate.

What does insulin do?

1. Lowers blood sugar levels -Attaches to receptor on plasma membrane to change the permeability of the plasma membrane to glucose and allow glucose to enter 2. Catalyzes the oxidation of glucose for ATP production -Glucose → energy (ATP) + water + CO2 3. Inhibits the effects of glucagon -Conversion of glycogen to glucose -Conversion of amino acids to glucose -Conversion of fats to glucose 4. Converts excess glucose to -glycogen in liver -fat (especially in adipose tissue)

What are the corticosteroid hormones of the adrenal cortex and list the layer they are in

1. Mineralocorticoids (Zona glomerulosa (primarily) of adrenal cortex) like aldosterone 2. Glucocorticoids (Source: Zona fasciculata (primarily) of adrenal cortex) like cortisol, cortisone and corticosterone 3. Gonadocorticoids (Source: Zona reticularis (primarily) of adrenal cortex like Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)

Name the endocrine organs that have 2 distinct parts, one of which is primarily of neural orgin.

1. Pituitary Gland: --Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis) - Glandular part that produces hormones like growth hormone, prolactin, and ACTH. --Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis) - Neural part that stores and releases hormones like oxytocin and vasopressin, which are produced by the hypothalamus. 2. Adrenal Gland: -Adrenal Cortex - The outer glandular part that produces steroid hormones such as cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens. -Adrenal Medulla - The inner neural part that produces catecholamines like adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine).

Which hormones from the pituitary gland are nontropic? For each example give the source, target, function

1. Prolactin (PRL) - Lactogenic hormone -Source: Prolactin cells -Target: Female breast and testes (with no known function in the testes) -Function: Stimulates milk production 2. Growth Hormone (GH) = Somatotropin -Source: Somatotropic cells -Targets and functions: 1. Liver (F: production of insulin like growth factors) 2. Bones at the epiphyseal plate (F: long bone growth) 3. Skeletal muscle (F. Increased skeletal muscle mass) 4. Body cells (F. affects/regulates metabolism, stimulates most body cells to increase in size and divide, influences the final body size) Roles: stimulates general body growth and regulates metabolism

Which hormones from the pituitary gland are tropic?

1. Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH) = Thyrotropin 2. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) = Corticotropin 3. Gonadotropins: Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH), Luteinizing Hormone (LH) 4. Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

Functions of glucocorticoids (list them, will explain in depth later)

1. stress relief 2. extra energy 3. Promote gluconeogenesis & hyperglycemia 4. Mobilize fatty acids from fats for energy metabolism 5. Antiinflammatory

What are the layers of the adrenal cortex

1. zona glomerulosa (superficial) 2. zona fasciculata 3. zona reticularis (deep)

Hypothyroidism

A disorder caused by a thyroid gland that is slower and less productive than normal. The thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormone, leading to a slowed metabolism. Symptoms can include fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, and depression.

Positive feedback (SG says com/con)

A response is generated that is in the same direction as the original stimulus Tends to produce unstable conditions

Negative feedback (SG says com/con)

A response is generated that is opposite that of the original stimulus Feedback inhibition=negative feedback. A "turn off" factor for endocrine gland activity Necessary for homeostasis

Define Goiter

A very enlarged thyroid gland is called a goiter Goiters can occur in 1. Hypothyroidism 2. Hyperthyroidism 3. Euthyroidism [with normal thyroid levels] The normal thyroid gland can not be detected on palpation An enlarged thyroid gland can sometimes be felt in the neck when the person swallows

Differentiate autocrine, paracrine, endocrine

AUTOcrine: They affect themselves PARAcrine: They affect cells nearby ENDOcrine: They affect cells at a distance

List those glands that produced fat-soluble hormones

Adrenal Glands: Hormones: Cortisol, Aldosterone, Androgens Gonads: 1. Ovaries: -Hormones: Estrogen (Estradiol), Progesterone 2. Testes: -Hormone: Testosterone 3. Placenta (during pregnancy): Hormones: Estrogen, Progesterone

Addison's disease

Adrenal Insufficiency

What is the source, target, and function of the Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)?

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) = Corticotropin Source: Corticotrope cells of anterior pituitary gland Target: Adrenal Cortex Function: Stimulate production of corticosteroid hormones 1. Glucocorticoids 2. Mineralocorticoids 3. Gonadocorticoids

What are prohormones

Also in the anterior pituitary Non-active precursor molecules from which active molecules are derived

Define Master gland

Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis) = "The Master Endocrine Gland" Types of products produced: 1. Tropic Hormone 2. Nontropic Hormones 3. Prohormones

What secretion method involves a portion of the secreting cell's body being lost during secretion?

Apocrine secretion

Compare and contrast tropic and non-tropic hormones

Both are products produced in the anterior pituitary

Insulin targets all cells of the body except

Brain Liver Kidney

Define 3rd messenger

Calcium (Ca++)

Define Hormone

Chemical messengers transported by blood* Definition: chemical substances, secreted by cells into the extracellular fluid, transported by the blood, in order to, regulate the metabolic function(s) of other cells in the body

Diabetes mellitus 1 A. Risk Factors B. Treatment of choice C. Signs and symptoms D. Etiology E. Names

DECREASED INSULIN PRODUCTION (insulin dependent) A. Risk Factors -none? B. Treatment -Insulin therapy (injections or an insulin pump). C. Signs/symptoms -Increased thirst (polydipsia). -Frequent urination (polyuria). -High blood sugar (Hyperglycemia) -Weight loss -More sugar in urine than normal (Glycosuria) -Extreme hunger. -Muscle weakness. -Fatigue -Body produces too many ketones, which causes the blood to become acidic (ketoacidosis). D. Etiology -Destruction or malfunction of the beta cells. autoimmune; viral E. Names -Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) -Juvenile-onset diabetes mellitus (JODM)

Gestational diabetes

Develops during pregnancy, typically in the second or third trimester. It is associated with insulin resistance due to hormonal changes during pregnancy. Management focuses on lifestyle modifications, blood glucose monitoring, and sometimes insulin or oral medications to ensure healthy blood sugar levels. It usually resolves after childbirth but increases the risk of developing type 2 diabetes later in life.

When are glucocorticoids at their highest/lowest, what are they stimulated by, what do they inhibit?

Dinural variation -Peaks in the morning after rising -Lowest levels about the time we go to sleep -Stimulated by ACTH = Corticotropin -Inhibits CRH & Corticotropin

Diabetes terminology

Disease(s) characterized by excessive urination (polyuria) -Implies a kidney problem

Describe endocrine glands

Ductless glands, release secretions called hormones directly into the bloodstream, which in turn influence the welfare of the entire body.

Hyperthyroidism

Excessive activity of the thyroid gland leading to an accelerated metabolism. Symptoms can include rapid heartbeat, weight loss, sweating, and nervousness.

List the types of glands in the body

Exocrine and endocrine

Describe exocrine glands

Exocrine glands secretes its products through ducts onto body (membrane) surfaces (including body cavities)

Steroids are typically...

Fat soluble Fat-soluble steroids can get inside the cells

Lipid derived molecules

Fatty acids (Eicosanoids) cholesterol (steroids)

Define 1st messenger and give example

First messenger: Hormone (extracellular) Example: Hormones like insulin and adrenaline (epinephrine) are examples of 1st messengers. They are the signaling molecules that bind to receptors on the surface of target cells to initiate a response.

Combination of Endocrine with other functions

Gonads-Ovaries and Testes Placenta

Hyperthyroidism is also known as

Graves disease

What secretion method involves the entire cell disintegrating to secrete its substances?

Holocrine secretion

Define nontropic hormones

Hormones with nonendocrine target cells

Diabetes mellitus 2 A. Risk Factors B. Treatment of choice C. Signs and symptoms D. Etiology E. Names

INCREASED INSULIN BLOOD LEVELS, DECREASED SENSITIVITY OF CELL RECEPTORS TO INSULIN A. Risk Factors -Obesity (single most important risk factor) B. Treatment of choice -Diet (watch calories) -Exercise -Drugs C. Signs and symptoms -Diabetic Neuropathic Ulceration (slow healing sores or frequent infections) -Increased thirst (polydipsia) -Frequent urination (polyuria) -Increased hunger -Fatigue D. Etiology -Genetic (Inherited) E. Names -Adult Onset (Gradual Onset) (AODM) -Non-insulin-dependent (NIDDM)

Cushing's syndrome definiton and symptoms

Increased cortisol secretion from adrenal cortex Can occur due to long-term administration of steroid drugs used to treat other diseases -Round, "moon-shaped" face with acne -Large head and trunk (truncal obesity) with "pencil-thin" arms and legs -Glucose intolerance (may lead to diabetes mellitus) -Muscle weakness -Stretch marks on skin -"Buffalo"-hump on upper back -Peptic ulcer -Emotional changes -Hypertension -Increased susceptibility to infection

Define 2nd messenger and give example

Intracellular Used by (amino-acid based) peptide & protein hormones Provides a method of activating intracellular chemical pathways Since water-soluble peptides & proteins cannot pass through lipid cell wall Examples: Cyclic AMP Cyclic GMP PIP2 = Diacylglycerol + IP3 (inositol triphosphate) → release of Ca++ (third messengers)

Why is the "master gland" called the "master gland"?

It produces hormones that regulate the functions of other endocrine glands throughout the body.

Describe the differences between the chemicals that are the product of endocrine glands and those chemicals secreted by non-endocrine glands

Key Differences: --Secretion Route: Endocrine - bloodstream; Non-endocrine - ducts/local. --Action Range: Hormones - systemic; Non-endocrine - local. --Effect Type: Hormones - long-term; Non-endocrine - immediate/local. Endocrine Gland Products Hormones -Function: Regulate metabolism, growth, reproduction, and homeostasis. -Secretion: Directly into the bloodstream. -Transport: Through bloodstream to target organs. -Examples: Insulin, Thyroxine, Estrogen. Non-Endocrine Gland Products Enzymes: -Function: Catalyze biochemical reactions. -Secretion: Into ducts or target areas. -Transport: Act locally. -Examples: Amylase, Lipase. Mucus and Other Secretions: -Function: Protection, lubrication, trapping particles. -Secretion: Onto surfaces or into ducts. -Transport: Act locally. -Examples: Mucus, Sebum. Neurotransmitters: -Function: Transmit nerve signals. -Secretion: Into synaptic clefts. -Transport: Act locally across synapses. -Examples: Acetylcholine, Dopamine.

What are the differences between the kinds of diabetes? (Type 1, type 2, gestational) Be able to com/con.

Key Differences: Cause: Type 1 is autoimmune, Type 2 is due to insulin resistance and beta cell dysfunction, and gestational is due to pregnancy-related hormonal changes. Onset: Type 1 is usually early in life, Type 2 is typically later but can occur at any age, gestational occurs during pregnancy. Insulin Dependence: Type 1 always requires insulin, Type 2 may require insulin later, gestational may require insulin temporarily. Management: Type 1 requires insulin, Type 2 can often be managed with lifestyle and oral medications initially, gestational focuses on diet and exercise, sometimes insulin.

What are eicosanoids?

Leukotrienes: Mediate inflammation & some allergic reactions Prostaglandins: Made from arachidonic acid

Identify those hormones derived from cholesterol

Lipid Derivatives -Steroids (cholesterol derivatives) 1. Aldosterone 2. Cortisol 3. Estrogen 4. Progesterone 5. Testosterone 6. Calcitriol

What secretion method involves cells secreting substances by exocytosis?

Merocrine secretion

Exocrine secretion methods

Merocrine, apocrine, holocrine glands

What type of gland secretes a viscous, carbohydrate-rich product?

Mucous gland

For each of the hormones discussed, give the A. Origin or tissue of origin B. Target organ or tissue C. Role of the hormone

Next slides

Combination Endocrine/Exocrine

Pancreas

Glucagon A. Origin or tissue of origin B. Target organ or tissue C. Role of the hormone

Pancreas (alpha cells) Target: Liver Role: Raises blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogen breakdown and glucose release

Insulin A. Origin or tissue of origin B. Target organ or tissue C. Role of the hormone

Pancreas (beta cells) Target: Liver, muscle, adipose tissue Role: Lowers blood glucose levels by promoting glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis

Define Hypophysis

Pituitary Gland = Hypophysis. (means "outgrowth")

Pituitary prohormone derivatives

Pituitary Prohormone: (POMC) Pro-opiomelanocortin Derivatives: 1. Hormones -Melanocyte-stimulating Hormone (MSH) -Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) = Corticotropin 2. Natural opiates -Enkephalin -Beta-endorphin 3. Peptides of unclear roles -Beta-lipotropin

What type of gland secretes an oily lipid product?

Sebaceous gland

What type of gland secretes a watery, often protein-rich product?

Serous gland

List the types of glucocorticoids and where they are located

Source: Zona fasciculata (primarily) of adrenal cortex Types 1. Cortisol = hydrocortisone (mainly) 2. Cortisone 3. Corticosterone

What is the difference between a steroidal and non-steroidal hormone

Steroidal hormones are lipid-soluble and act via intracellular receptors. Derived from cholesterol. Non-steroidal hormones are water-soluble and act via cell surface receptors and secondary messenger systems. Typically amino acid-based, including peptides, proteins, and glycoproteins.

What are examples of glands that secrete sweat, oil, and tears?

Sweat, sebaceous, and lacrimal glands

Exocrine gland examples

Sweat, sebaceous, lacrimal, digestive

Identify and label the major endocrine organs

Thymus Pineal Gland Placenta Heart Gastrointestinal Tract Kidney Skin Adipose tissue Skeleton Organs containing islands of endocrine tissue in walls

Thyroxine (T4) A. Origin or tissue of origin B. Target organ or tissue C. Role of the hormone

Thyroid gland Target: Most body cells Role: Regulates metabolism, growth, and development

Triiodothyronine (T3) A. Origin or tissue of origin B. Target organ or tissue C. Role of the hormone

Thyroid gland Target: Most body cells Role: Regulates metabolism, growth, and development

What is the source, target, and function of the thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)?

Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH) = Thyrotropin Source: Thyrotrope cells of pituitary gland Target: Thyroid gland Function: Stimulate production of thyroid hormones T3 & T4

Define Tropic hormone

Tropic Hormones = Tropins Regulate the function of other endocrine glands. They stimulate other endocrine glands to release their hormones!!!

What is the difference between the way water-soluble and fat-solube hormones send messages?

Water-Soluble Hormones: Bind to cell surface receptors, use secondary message system to relay the message inside the cell. Fat-Soluble Hormones: Pass through cell membranes, bind to intracellular receptors, uses Direct Gene Activation 1. Steroids: Target receptors in Cytoplasm Nucleus 2. Thyroxine (thyroid hormones): Target receptors in Mitochondria (to increase ATP production) and Nucleus

Glucocorticoids A. Origin or tissue of origin B. Target organ or tissue C. Role of the hormone

Zona fasciculata (primarily) of adrenal cortex Target: Body cells Functions: 1. Stress relief: To take over the role of adrenaline (epinephrine) from the sympathetic nervous system when the emergency (stress) on the body becomes prolonged. After fright, fight, or flight is over 2. Extra energy To provide an extra source of energy for the new (extra) needs of the body 3. Promote gluconeogenesis & hyperglycemia -Gluconeogenesis = the formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate molecules (fats & proteins) 4. Mobilize fatty acids from fats for energy metabolism

Signaling in endocrine glands

autocrine, paracrine, endocrine

Neuroendocrine

combination of nervous/endocrine function Hypothalamus

Acromegaly

due to ↑ growth hormone (GH) after the closure of the epiphyseal plates in adults

Giantism

due to ↑ growth hormone (GH) prior to the closure of the epiphyseal plates in children

Pituitary dwarfism

due to ↓ GH in childhood

What diseases/abnormalities are associated with growth hormone?

gigantism; pituitary dwarfism; acromegaly

What is the master of the master gland?

hypothalamus

Hypoglycemia

low blood sugar

Types of secretory products

mucous, serous, sebaceous

What are the glands (be able to identify and label)

pineal Hypothalamus Pituitary Gland Thyroid Parathyroid Adrenal Pancreas Gonads Other endocrine organs Apocrine Holocrine Merocrine Sweat, Sebacious, Lacrimal, Digestive

Pure Endocrine glands

pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal

List the hormones included in the term Gonadotropin (also say where located)

produced by the anterior pituitary gland: 1. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) - This hormone is involved in the development of ovarian follicles in females and the production of sperm in males. 2. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) - This hormone triggers ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum in females and stimulates testosterone production in males.

List the hormones included in the term Thyroid hormone (also say where located)

produced by the thyroid gland: 1. Thyroxine (T4) - This is the primary hormone produced by the thyroid gland. It contains four iodine atoms. 2. Triiodothyronine (T3) - This hormone is more potent than T4 and contains three iodine atoms. T4 is often converted to T3 in the body's tissues.

What does Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) do

stimulates release of FSH and LH

Amino acid derivatives are typically... (give example)

water soluable Proteins and peptides. Water-soluble amino-acid derivatives are limited to the surface receptors