ANT 320 Midterm Study Guide Ultimate

Geronimo

(1829-1909) a prominent leader of the Apache, known for his skill in combat and raiding

Mesa Verde

(600 AD-1300 AD) located in Southwest Colorado, part of Ancestral Puebloan society. More than 4,000 known archeological sites found today

Pine Ridge Standoff

(Wounded Knee Incident) approximately 200 Oglala Lakota and followers of the American Indian Movement seized and occupied the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. The protest followed the failure of an effort of the Oglala Sioux Civil Rights Organization (OSCRO) to impeach tribal president Richard Wilson, whom they accused of corruption and abuse of opponents. Additionally, protesters attacked the United States government's failure to fulfill treaties with Indian people and demanded the reopening of treaty negotiations.

Jamestown

(founded May 14, 1607) first permanent English settlement; period of peace due to marriage between John Rolfe and Pocahontas

The elect ("saints")

(from Calvinism) Few souls that God had saved at random before Creation; Calvin stated that all must behave as one of the Saints.

John Dewey

(see earlier chapters) A reformer who believed that war offered great possibilities

Huron

(wyandot people) Iroquoian-speaking North American Indians who lived along the St. Lawrence River when contacted by French explorer Jacques Cartier in 1534

NAGPRA 1990

- Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act - addressed rights of Native Americans and Native Hawaiians to cultural items, including human remains, funerary objects, sacred objects, protection of burial sites, and objects of cultural patrimony

Indigenous vs. European borders

- No such thing as "the" or "a" Native American history/culture--there are hundreds of cultures, not a singular thing - There is more than one possible history

Indian Removal Act 1830

- a law passed by Congress on May 28, 1830 during the presidency of Andrew Jackson - to negotiate with Indian tribes in the Southern US for their removal to federal territory west of the Mississippi River in exchange for their homelands - removal of 5 specific tribes - creation of the reservation system

stereotypes

- a widely held, fixed oversimplified idea or depiction of a particular type of person or thing - the ideas and ways of thinking characteristics of an individual or group (usually tied to what is considered "norma/abnormal, good/bad", etc.)

methods of language revitalization

- areas of focus: adults, children, families - covert: linking linguistic revitalization to cultural revitalization movement, connective language activism to access to other social justice efforts (access to medical care & education, treatment with judicial systems, etc.), making language and speaking socially valued - language learning techniques/activities: 2nd language learning (classroom, textbook, multiple students to one teacher), media (creation of products, software devices, apps, etc. to teach language), immersion (target language is language of instruction and interaction at home and/or school), target activities (language learning centers around specific activities-- sports, arts, etc.)

Social movements -- areas of focus

- cultural maintenance/revitalization - legal and jurisdictional rights - human rights and social issues - broad cultural awareness and recognition

causes of endangerment

- factors leading to language loss: death of speakers, social, cultural, economic - overt: boarding schools, "civilizing" programs - covert: english/spanish/ other languages as medium for education/employment, prestige, language of modernity

three sisters

- farming technique - planting process of growing beans, corn, and squash together - strategy found throughout the Americas (specifically Eastern) - crops planted together allowed for smaller room to grow crops, supports and protects each other, and produces nutrients into the soil that the other crop takes - squash provides ground cover from corn, corn provides structure for bean to grow

Zheng He

-Chinese Muslim admiral who during the Ming dynasty -he distributed gifts and then the other countries would give them tribute while traveling

Islamic Art

-Geometric Shapes -Arabesque -Calligraphy

Explain West African beliefs about religion.

-One Supreme Creator, lesser deities associated with natural forces -Deities could intervene in human affairs, and so were elaborately honored -Ancestors believed to mediate between the Creator and the Living -Funeral rites necessary for the deceased to enter spiritual world. -More ancient ancestors were more powerful and thus more devoutly worshipped -Gods spoke by possessing religious figures (priests)

Hindu Art

-Rich Color -Religious Themed -no people portrayed

Why were the Islams so religiously tolerant towards the 'people of the book'?

-because they were all people of the book -they thought that maybe if they were nice to the people in the other religion, then they would convert.

How did Akbar encourage cultural blending?

-he was religiously tolerant and forced no conversion -took away the jizya

WHy did the Ottomans want Constantinople?

-infidels to the religion -trading -taxing

What happened under Suleyman's rule?

-it was considered a golden age -peace within the border -pop. growth -wealth -patrons of the arts.

The middle Passage

-it was the water route that the slaves were put on -they would get sick, they were very close together, and they would get beaten and whipped -20% of them died from beating or suicide.

How did Islam come to India?

-muslim merchants -muslim nomadic turks coming

"Mughal" Art

-portrayed people -rich color -mini sized

Christopher Columbus

-spanish explorer -tried to find asia but went to the caribien -portugal was mad because they didnt get a chance to try and conquer asia

Indian Arts and Crafts Act 1990

-states it is illegal to offer or display for sell, or sell any art or craft product in a manner that falsely suggest it is Indian produced, an indian product, or the product of a particular indian, indian tribe, or indian arts and crafts organization, resident within the US - Indian is defined as a member of any federally or state recognized indian tribe, or an individual certified as an indian artisan by an indian tribe

1643 Virginia tithing law (lecture): What did it do? Who it targeted? How it distinguished between English and Africans or "negroes"?

...

1705 Virginia Slave and Indenture law XX (re: marriage): What it prohibited? Applied to?

...

Deputy husband: Definition? Region we associate this role with? European group?

...

Economy of Chesapeake in 1600s? Main source of labor there?

...

Lusitania

A British ship. Shot and sunk by German torpedoes in 1915 and contributed to American entry into WWI 1,198 people died; 128 were American.

Explain the Pueblo Revolt (when it happened, who led it, how many indians were involved, and what happened?)

1680, Pope, 17,000, and indians burned and desicrated churches by smearing them with manure. Indians tortured and executed priests.

Pueblo Revolt (Knaut): Year? Region? Participants? Forms of communication? Goals? Targets?

1680. Santa Fe. Taos, Picuris, and Tewa Indians. Smoke Signals, Knotted Rope, messengers on foot. To remove Encomienda. 380 Spanish, 21 Franciscans.

The spanish didn't return to New Mexico until

1690's.

Reconquista: Year? Region? How interethnic relations changed after?

1692. New Mexico. Spanish settled for accommodation with Pueblo Indians rather than total domination.

Tea Act

1773, Act of Parliament that permitted the East India Company to sell through agents in America w/o paying the duty customarily collected in Britain, thus reducing the retail price.

Whiskey Rebellion

1794, threat of attack by natives, international intrigue, and domestic unrest (mainly farmers); Washington sent 13,000 troops to occupy west Pennsylvania when in fact there were no riots there.

Andrew Johnson

17th president of the United States, he saw to the beginning of post-war reconstruction and was highly unsuccessful

Sitting Bull

holy man; led resistance against US policy; killed by Indian agency police during arrest; fear he would join the Ghost Dance Movement because he allowed for their dancing on his reservation

Describe Aztec Empire. (Population, Type of Government, leader, capital city, relationship with surrounding people groups)

20 Million people (not all Aztecs), Empire, top-down rule, Montezuma, Tenochtitlan, Dominated surrounding groups

By 1680, there were how many Spanish and how many pueblos in new mexico?

2000 spanish and 30,000 pueblos

USS Maine (ACR-1)

A US Navy ship destroyed ( due to a coal bunker fire) before the Spanish-American war near Cuba killing 266 soldiers. It was still a major spark in starting the war even though the Spanish (or anyone) were not the aggressors.

Schenck vs. United States*

A USSC case where it was ruled that if one violates the Sedition Act, they are subject to penalty, regardless of the 1st Amendment Rights.

Abrams vs. United States*

A USSC case where it was ruled that if violates the Espionage Act, they are subject to penalty, regardless of the 1st Amendment Rights.

Tecumseh

A Shawnee warrior who sided with the British to rebel against the Americans, ultimately died in the Battle of the Thames

Eugen V. Debs

A Socialist Leader who founded the Socialist Party of America, and ran (unsuccessfully) in the Election of 1912.

Sputnik

A Soviet satellite launched in 1957 into outer space. Created American fears due to possible space missiles, and formally commenced the Space Race.

Debs vs. United States*

A USSC case where it was ruled that if violates the Espionage and Sedition Acts, they are subject to penalty, regardless of the 1st Amendment Rights.

Bernard Baruch

A Wall Street speculator who led the WIB

Battle of Antietam

A battle with ~24,000 casualties, it allowed Lincoln to issue the Emancipation Proclamation; USA victory

American Union

A group which formed around the time of the Women's Peace Parade, it worked and lobbied against militarism

Headright System

A land policy created in Virginia and Maryland designed to encourage settlement by providing 50 acres of land to anyone who settled in the colony

Pendleton Civil Service Act

A law of 1883 that reformed the spoils system by prohibiting government workers from making political contributions and creating the Civil Service Commission to oversee their appointment on the basis of merit rather than politics

Frances E. Willard

A lead figure of the woman's rights movement, the leader of the Knights of Labor, and the Farmer's Alliance

Anti-Imperialism League

A league formed by Bostonians in Faneuil Hall opposing the Imperial process, and either deeming native people "unfit to be Americans" or saying imperialism was immoral. Many prominent celebrities were members.

"Starving Time"

A long winter in 1610 resulted in the population decreasing from 400 to 65

free silver

A major political issue during the late 19th century, this was a movement in support of the unlimited coinage of silver by the U.S. government to inflate the money supply. Opponents insisted on strict adherence to the more conservative gold stanard. The issue came to a head in the election of 1896 when Populists and Democrats united behind William Jennings Bryan who proclaimed to all opponents,"You shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold!" Although this issue helped Bryan garner over 6 million votes, he lost the election to William McKinley.

Populist Movement

A major third party of the 1890s that formed on the basis of the Southern Farmer's Alliance and other reform organizations

Great Uprising

A massive strike where strikers were armed against the railway system, very socialistic in nature

Agrarian Society

A society dependent on agriculture, first put into use by Thomas Jefferson. Set the ground for the Southern States to depend on agriculture which would eventually contribute to the Civil War.

Anthony and Mary Johnson: Who? Where? Timing? Significance or what their story reveals?

Anglo Africans that were indentured servants when Anthony bought themselves out of their contracts, Colony of Virginia; Virginia, 1620, Was the first legal slaveholder

American Indian Movement

AIM was initially formed to address American Indian sovereignty, treaty issues, spirituality, and leadership, while simultaneously addressing incidents of police harassment and racism against Native Americans forced to move away from reservations and tribal culture

Don't Talk, Don't Live Carol Snow Moon Bachofner

Abenaki language

13th Amendment

Abolished slavery throughout the United States of America

Legal Tender Act

Act creating a national currency in February 1862

Quartering Acts

Act passed by British Government stating that when asked, colonists had to house soldiers and pay at their own expenses.

Embargo Act

Act passed by Congress in 1807 prohibiting American ships from leaving for any foreign port

Toleration Act

Act passed in 1649 to allow a degree of religious freedom in Maryland

National Bank Act

Act prohibiting state banks from issuing their own notes and forcing them to apply for federal charters

Edmunds Act

Act that banned polygamy and declared it a felony

Food and Drug Act

Act that established the FDA, which tested and approved food and drugs before they went to the market

Adamson Act

Act that established the eight-hour workday

Civil Rights Act of 1866

Act that gave full citizenship to African Americans

Morrill Tariff Act

Act that raised tariffs to more than double their prewar rate

1921 Immigration Act

Act that set a maximum of 357,000 new immigrants each year

Hepburn Act

Act that strengthened the Interstate Commerce Commission by authorizing it to set maximum railroad rates and inspect financial records

US Forest Service Act

Act that worked to protect forests and the environment

National Security League

Active in Banking in Eastern cities; it pushed for a larger military and more training

Townshend Acts

Acts of Parliament passed in 1767, imposing duties on colonial tea, paint, paper, and glass.

Virginia & Kentucky Acts

Acts passed by Virginia and Kentucky legislatures stating that the constitution should only be a "compact ground" for states

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

Adopted by the Confederation Congress on July 13, 1787, this act applied to the territories north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi River. It provided for the governance of the territories and made a provision for the eventual admission of between three and five states from those territories. Since those states would have the same rights as the original 13, the law assured that the United States would not become a colonial power on the North American continent. The states eventually carved from this law were Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin.

Exodusters

African American would-be farmers who left the South, most went to Kansas

Juan de Sepulveda

An opposer of Las Casas, he wrote in his own book discussing the importance of colonization and Indian treatment

Richard Hakluyt

An uncle and nephew, both named Richard Hakluyt, advertised the advantages of American colonization through the 1580's and 1590's. Promised new baronies, fiefdoms, and estates to nobles, exotic produce and a new outlet for English cloth to merchants, potential Protestant converts to clergymen, and bounteous land ripe for the taking to commoners.

Interior/Exterior Landscapes Leslie Marmon Silko

Ancient Pueblo people elaborate burial traditions Sustainable practices of antelope people Pueblo potters "Landscape" is misleading because it assumes the viewer is outside of separate from the territory she observes

Conquest

Andrea Smith

The Case of His Countenance - Reading Andrew Montour James H. Merrell

Andrew Montour

How did the Bloodless Revolution change Dutch culture and gender relations?

Anglicization of Dutch faith and culture. Female gender loses

What was the overall impact of the Spanish invasion on the native islanders?

Annihilation of the natives.

War of 1812

Armed conflict between the USA and British Empire from June 1812 to January 1815 fought largely over British restrictions on American shipping

Long Drives

Around 700-1500 miles, they were when cowboys would take cows on long paths to sell them for $30 apiece

Judiciary Act of 1789

Article Three of the United States Constitution created the Supreme Court and gave Congress the power to establish inferior courts. This landmark statute was adopted on September 24, 1789 in the first session of the First United States Congress. The law established the U.S. federal judiciary: it set the number of Supreme Court justices at six: one Chief Justice and five Associate Justices; it established a circuit court and district court in each judicial district; and it created the office of Attorney General.

Henry Kissinger

As National Security Advisor and later Secretary of State, he was the principal architect of U.S. foreign policy during the administrations of Republican presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. He played a major role in the successful opening of diplomatic relations between China and the United States in 1971 and in the implementation of the policy of coexistence with the Soviet Union known as détente. He won the Nobel Peace Prize for negotiating the Paris Peace Accords, which ended America's involvement in the Vietnam War in 1973.

Besides the encomienda system, what was another important forces for Spanish colonization?

Catholic Church/Catholic Mission System

What kind of missionaries usually led the missions?

Catholic franciscan missionaries. These people were the MOST responsible for the spread of christianity in Spanish borderlands.

Ferdinand and Isabella

Catholic king and queen. Reconquered Moorish Spain, sponsored Columbus' expeditions.

Lord Calvert of Maryland

Cecilius Calvert, Lord Baltimore; he established a colony that was religiously tolerant of all types of Christianity in Maryland

American Medical Association

Certified medical schools, but did nothing to increase flow of new doctors. Did not want government to have power over public health, denounced Eisenhower's policies.

Nickelodeons

Cheap, storefront theaters that hosted various types of movies

Worcester V. Georgia 1832

Cherokee Indians constituted a nation holding distinct sovereign powers within their reservations; served as foundation for sovereignty cases up until the present

Cherokee Nation V. Georgia 1831

Cherokee Nation; "domestic dependent nation;" like a ward to a guardian

What was the final outcome of English indentured servant's Sarah Taylor's case? What happened to her in the end? Larger significance of this case? Region? (see her document)

Chesepeake colonies, discharged Sarah Tayler of her apprentiships Each of the respective commisioners pay Brodnox two hundred & twenty pounds of good casked Tobacco.

Southeast Native social hierarchy

Chief of tribe, hand of the chief, prime counselors, council of elders, chief speaker, council of grandfathers

Franklin Pierce

Chosen as a Democratic candidate from the North who could please the South, he won the election of 1852 and became the 14th president of the United States. His success in securing the Gadsden Purchase was overshadowed by the controversy surrounding the Ostend Manifesto, the Kansas Nebraska Act and "Bleeding Kansas." Passions over slavery had been further inflamed, and the North and South were more irreconcilable than before. He succeeded only in splitting the country further apart.

John Sassamon (Thomas): Who was he? Historical events he contributed to? What became of him?

Christian Indian Advisor to King Phillip, King Phillip's War, he died under a block of ice

What is the significance of the infidels

Christians in the Byzantine empire did not believe in Islam, but the ghazis still tried to raid them and spread their religion.

Mexican War

Claiming that Mexico had "invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil," President Polk stirred Congress into declaring war against Mexico on May 13, 1846. This war marked the pinnacle of U.S. expansionist feeling (Manifest Destiny). On February 2, 1848, representatives from both countries signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. In return for $15 million, Mexico surrendered New Mexico and California—the "Mexican Cession"—to the United States. Would slavery be allowed in this land? The war had tremendously important consequences in the growing sectional controversy and contributed substantially to the coming of the Civil War in 1861.

Edward Bellamy

Clergyman who highlighted discrepancy between Christianity and attitudes of the poor

Levi Strauss

Clothing designer who invented blue jeans, they proved useful and durable to miners

Teddy Roosevelt

Coiner of the term 'muckraker', a man fond of conserving nature and the eventual 26th President

Alien & Sedition Acts

Collective name given to four acts passed by Congress in 1798 that curtailed freedom of speech and the liberty of foreign residents in the United States

Genízaros (Gutierrez): Definition? Indian groups? Region? How their presence shaped colonial social relations?

De-tribalized Indians who were held as captives and used as slaves by the Spanish in New Mexico. Caused distrust -- Navajos, Pawnees, Apaches, Kiowa Apaches, Utes, and Paiutes

Lincoln-Douglas Debates

Debates between the two over slavery and the future of the Union

Battle of New Orleans

Decisive American War of 1812 victory over British hopes of gaining control of the lower Mississippi River Valley

Monroe Doctrine

Declaration by President Monroe in 1823 that the West was closed to colonization and the USA wouldn't interfere in European affairs

WWII Draft

Declaring sovereignty ;Challenging the draft (in vain) Making separate declarations of war against Germany, Italy, and Japan

Horace Mann

Declaring that "In a republic, ignorance is a crime," he set out to reform the system of public education in Massachusetts until it became a model for the rest of the country. The progress he made in remedying the shortcomings of the educational system during his 12 years in office earned him the title of "the father of American public education."

Emancipation Proclamation

Decree announced by President Lincoln in September 1862 and formally issued on January 1st, 1863, freeing slaves in all Confederate States still in rebellion

First Continental Congress

Delegates from twelve colonies attended this meeting in Philadelphia in 1774. The delegates denied Parliament's authority to legislate for the colonies, adopted the Declaration of Rights and Grievances, created a Continental Association to enforce a boycott, and endorsed a call to take up arms.

William Jennings Bryan

Democrat who ran against McKinley twice

William 'Boss' Tweed

Democratic Party leader who stole $10 million from the NYC treasury in bribe, he was viewed as corrupt and was a major political machine

Great Basin

Desert Indians that were mainly gatherers and were influenced by the Great Plains (Southern Paiute, Ute, Shoshone)

Thomas Edison

Despite a limited formal education, he became one of the nation's most prolific pioneers in the development of electronic inventions that have transformed the lives of people all over the world. Even during his lifetime, the character of such inventions as electric light, the phonograph, and motion pictures gave him an almost heroic stature in the common view, and a virtual mythology grew up about the events of his life and career. He organized companies to make and sell his various inventions that were eventually merged into what is now the General Electric Company.

Voting Right Act of 1965

Despite the adoption of the Fifteenth Amendment in 1870, Southern states had used a variety of means to deny African Americans the right to vote. This 1965 law authorized the use of federal voting registrars and prevented states from changing their election laws without clearance from the national government. Furthermore, the act suspended the use of literacy tests in portions of eight states. Within two years, the act helped to raise African-American voter registration rates to 62%.

Democratic-Republicans

Early political party with ideologies including republicanism, Jeffersonian democracy (equal democracy) states' rights, and more.

old world

Europe

Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse

Famous Natives who fought the US Army

Bonanza Farming

Farming to yield many results using machines instead of people

Major Crimes Act

Federal jurisdiction over Indian-Indian "major crimes": "murder, manslaughter, rape, assault with intent to kill, arson, burglary, and larceny." ; broadened federal jurisdiction in Native territory

Muslims (Moors)

Followers of Islam, whose empire spread across Middle East, North Africa, West Africa, and Spain Prolific traders, providing link between Europe and Asia/Africa Motivated European expansionism (Europeans wanted to trade directly with Asia/Africa, Spanish wanted Moorish Spain back)

Great League of Peace

Five Iroquois tribes would meet with each Great Council to decide on behavior and create stability

What happened at the village of Acoma?

Group of Pueblo Indians decided to resist and killed a couple of soldiers. The Spanish, then, basically wiped out the native population in Acoma, killing 800 people. All men who survived over 25 had 1 foot cut off, and others were carried off into slavery.

Slaughterhouse Cases

Group of cases resulting in one sweeping decision by the USSC in 1873 that contradicted the intent of the Fourteenth Amendment by decreeing that most citizenship rights remained under state, not federal, control

New Deal Coalition

Group that included traditional-minded white southern Democrats, big-city political machines, industrial workers of all races, trade unionists, and many Depression-hit farmers

Pre-Columbian Cultures

Groups/societies of people living in the Americas prior to European expansion and influence, these groups were tribes with their own belief systems and societal norms

Treaty of Fort Laramie

Guarantee Lakota black Hills and other land; article 12: No land can be given up without the consensus of 3/4th of the adult male Indians occupying or interested in the same

Depopulation

Half of the inhabitants of central Mexico, all but a few thousand inhabitants of Hispaniola, and large numbers of Incas were killed by contact, Reasons: diseases and brutal treatment of silver-mining slaves

Whiskey Rebellion

Hamilton, unmoved by the plight of the farmers, convinced President George Washington to call up the militia and make a show of force against the farmers. The farmers chose not to fight, but the militia occupied some western Pennsylvania counties for months. This rebellion tested the principles of representative government and the powers of taxation in the new nation.

1937 Recession

Happened after a stock market collapse, and unemployment grew again

John Smith

He believed that "every many may be the master and own of his own labor and land" - the notion of men traveling without a secure job was both romanticized and reprimanded

General Douglas MacArthur

He commanded Allied troops in the Pacific during World War II. He was forced to surrender the Philippines in 1941 and was thereafter obsessed with its recapture, which he accomplished in 1944. He later commanded the American occupation of Japan and United Nations troops in the Korean War.

Why was Suleyman so important?

He conquered Mesopotamia and Baghdad and was a very good conquerer and also very reasonable with his subjects.

What was Mehmed the conquerer remembered

He conquered the Byzantine Empire.

John C. Calhoun

Jackson's first vice president, was not a member of the Kitchen Cabinet

Kitchen Cabinet

Jackson's group of personal friends including Van Buren who advised him

Indian/Native Removal Act

Jackson's measure that allowed the state officials to override federal protection of Natives

Jay's Treaty

John Jay negotiated a treaty with Britain in 1794 in which the British agreed to evacuate posts in the American northwest and settle some maritime disputes. Jay agreed to accept Britain's definition of America's neutral rights. The terms of the treaty provoked a storm of protest, but it was ratified in 1795.

Muckraking

Journalism exposing economic, social, and political evils, so named by Theodore Roosevelt for its "raking the muck" of American Society

Who launched the first attempt at the conquest of New Mexico

Juan de Onate

Midnight Judges

Judges put into power by Adams after his defeat

Juan de Onate

Led a group from Mexico in search of settling - treated the New Mexico Indians violenty and was punished

Food Administration

Led by Herbert Hoover; it controlled food price, making them higher

Lost Generation

Label for American writers, artists, and intellectuals of the postwar era

Sharecropping

Labor system that evolved during and after Reconstruction whereby landowners furnished laborers with a house, farm animals, and tools and advanced credit in exchange

Knights of Labor

Labor union founded in 1869 that included skilled and unskilled workers irrespective of race or gender.

Indentured Servants

Laborers who agreed to work for a contracted period of time, usually seven years, in exchange for passage to America.

Enclosure movement (England)

Landowners began to enclose their estates, throwing peasant farmers off their land and turning them into wage laborers, forming a working class.

Potsdam

Last Allied conference of World War II, held at Potsdam outside Berlin from 11 July to 2 August 1945 between British Prime Minister Churchill (replaced by Attlee during the course of the conference), Joseph Stalin of the USSR and President Truman. The Allies agreed at the conference to the partitioning of Germany between themselves into zones of military occupation. An ultimatum was also sentto Japan demanding unconditional surrender on pain of utter destruction.

Bank Holiday

Lasted for four days in 1933, it was meant to shore up the country's ailing financial system

Morrill Land Grant Act

Law passed by Congress in July 1862 awarding proceeds from the sale of public lands to the states for the establishment of agricultural and mechanical colleges

Homestead Act

Law passed by Congress in May 1862 providing homesteads with 160 acres of free land in exchange for improving the land within five years of the grant

Stamp Act

Law passed by parliament in 1765 to raise revenue in America by requiring taxed, stamped paper for legal documents, publications, and playing cards.

Declaratory Act

Law passed in 1776 to accompany repeal of the Stamp Act that stated that Parliament had the authority to legislate for colonies "in all cases whatsoever"

Kansas-Nebraska Act

Law passed in 1854 creating the Kansas and Nebraska territories but leaving the question of slavery open to residents, thereby repealing the Missouri Compromise

Black Codes

Laws passed by states and municipalities denying many rights of citizenship to free black people before the Civil War

Espionage & Sedition Acts

Laws with vague prohibition against making war effort used to crush dissent and criticism during WWI

George Creel

Leader of Committee of Public Information; a Democrat and friend of Wilson who helped make the objective of the CPI to give news to the people on the war

Oliver H. Kelley

Leader of the Patrons of Husbandry, a band of white Midwest farmers for 'social, intellectual, and moral improvement'; he also founded the Grange Movement

Du Pont Chemical Manufacturers

Leading company that specialized in fabrics, paints, dyes, and celluloid products; it previously manufactured explosives before 1918

Nullification Crisis

Ratification of the U.S. Constitution (1787) left unresolved the issue of whether the federal or state governments were sovereign. This crisis began when President Jackson signed the Tariff Act of 1832. Vice President John C. Calhoun resigned in protest and went to South Carolina, which declared the tariff unconstitutional and therefore null. Congress passed the Force Act, and Jackson threatened to send troops to enforce the tariff. Henry Clay eased the crisis by enacting a compromise that produced a degree of tariff reduction in 1833. Sectional tension, however, remained and would eventually culminate in the Civil War.

Brain Trust

Roosevelt's group of close New Deal advisors

Triangle Trade

Route amongst North America, Europe, and Africa which exchanged slaves

American Holocaust David Stannard

Sand Creek, told through first person accounts

What was the name of the new Spanish colony in northern New Mexico?

Santa Fe Colony

Mourning wars (Rushforth): Kinship dimensions of wars among Indians?

Satisfying justice for a spirit to rest. If a member is killed, a member of the other tribe must die.

European views on Amer-Indians

Saw the Native Americans as being savages and without freedom, believed they dealt with witch craft, main opinions centered around "religion, land use and gender relations"

Teapot Dome Scandal

Scandal involving Interior Secretary Albert Fall, it was when he received hundreds of dollar in payoffs when he leased navy oil reserves

Peggy Eaton Scandal

Scandal with Henry Eaton's wife where she was an alleged bigamist; Jackson defended her

Sumner-Brooks Incident

Scene when Congressman Preston Brooks beat up Senator Charles Sumner on the floor of the Senate; attracted a horrified Northern and pleased Southern audience

Scalawags

Southern whites, mainly small landowning farmers and well-off merchants & planters who supported the southern Republican Party during Reconstruction

3/5 Compromise

Southerners wanted to count slaves as part of their overall population as a way to increase their representation in Congress. Northern delegates opposed to slavery generally wished to count only the free inhabitants of each state. This was the compromise between Southern and Northern states reached during the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 in which a fraction of the population of slaves would be counted for enumeration purposes regarding both the distribution of taxes and the apportionment of the members of the United States House of Representatives.

Ku Klux Klan

Southerners who objected to congressional Reconstruction policies founded several secret terrorist societies; this was the most notorious. It was organized in Tennessee in 1866 and became a vigilante group dedicated to driving blacks out of politics by using intimidation and violence.

For Whom Sovereignty Matters Joanne Barker

Sovereignty

Ghost Dance

Made by Wovoka, it was meant to convey the message of a good afterlife, but was interpreted as a war dance by settlers

Joint-Stock Company

Made of a group of investors who bought the right to establish New World plantations from the king

Native American tribes did not value women

Native American women often wielded considerable power within their tribes

Native Americans were warlike and treacherous

Native Americans fought to defend their lands, sovereignty and way of life from invaders

Native Americans had no civilization until Europeans brought it to them

Native Americans were civilized. Their culture was distinct from those of Europeans

Native Americans were conquered because they were inferior

Native Americans were conquered because of their lack of immunity to European diseases

Cherokee

Native Americans who were settled in the southeastern British America, today they live in North Carolina and Oklahoma

Sitting Bull

Native Chiefton who spurred the battle of Little Big Horn; united Sioux people

"Buffalo Bill" Cody's Wild West Show

Natives frequently fought each other on this show, it played a role in bringing easterners to the west but also formed western stereotypes

trade goods

Natives gave Europeans fur and food in return for weapons and ammunition

Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act

Nixon administration; federal support of self-government; 1971-75; The tribes would have authority for how they administered the funds, which gave them greater control over their welfare; reversed termination policy; relationships with and obligations to Indian tribes.

Why might the chinese consider the Mongols as good rulers?

They used their buerocracy, their tax system, and they were reasonable in the south.

What did the Europeans use slaves for in the Americas?

They used them for farming.

Did the Ottomans contain their nomadic roots in their economy?

They used war and fighting as a way to pick their rulers. Also they were religiously tolerant.

What was the effect of Aurangzebs's policies in India?

They weakened the empire because he was not religiously tolerant and taxed people very highly.

Caminetti Act

Turned mines over to states to regulate

According to Olaudah Equiano, who captured him and his sister in their African homeland and sold them into slavery? (Equiano doc)

Two English Men and a Women

Ghost Dance

founded by Wavoka, a ceremony that reunites the living with spirits of the dead, brings the spirits of the dead to fight on their behalf, makes the white colonists leave, and brings peace, prosperity, and unity to Indian peoples throughout the region

Ming Dynasty

a dynasty that took place after the mongol rule and they got neigboring states to pay them tribute

racism

a form of opression based upon a classification of difference determines by skin color

Trade Goods of Henry Hudson

brass kettles, glass beads, and axes

Richard Henry Pratt

founder and longtime superintendent of the influential Carlisle Indian Industrial School at Carlisle, Pennsylvania. the first man to introduce the term 'racism' to English language in 1902

egalitarian

everyone is treated equally

Vikings

explored new world around 1,000 AD. 12th and 13th century recorded voyages including in New Foundland. Possibly led to first contact between Europeans and Natives

Horses in the plains

faster transportation, efficient to hunt buffalo. Main utility after Cortes introduced them in 1514

walrus and whales

fat/blubber used for light and heat

Ex Parte Crow Dog

federal courts had no jurisdiction to try cases where the offense had already been tried by the tribal council; Crow Dog release; led to the Major Crimes Act in 1885,

Burns Paiute

federally recognized tribe hailing from Paiutes, found in Burns, Oregon

Jamestown

first English colony in 1607, created by Virginia company, disease, starvation, winter, Indian tribes led by Powhatan helped survival

St. Lawrence Iroquoians

first nations people concentrated along St. Lawrence River (1300-1580)

Louis Joliet and Jacques Marquette

first to explore the Mississippi River in 1673

significance of vikings

first to travel to the new world (Newfoundland) around 1000 AD or CE. do not stay long and have no permanent impact on native people

what happens when they return

for a short time, they live in harmony with one another

after the pueblo revolt, the spanish are:

forced to leave the area

Seal hunting (archaic)

hokapik: heavy wooden club with a hammer head and hook on opposite sides

Widowed lands: Definition? Years? Region? Religious interpretation?

New England. 1616-1618. All of the Natives died out in this land due to disease; Puritans believed that this land was of God's favor for them.

Indentured servitude (Horn, Carr & Walsh): Region where this mainly occurred in 1600s (17th century)? Ethnic/racial background of a typical indentured servants?

New England/ English

What larger purpose did the writing of the biography of Blessed Kateri Tekakwitha serve? (Koppedrayer)

New France.

Where was the FIRST center of Spanish colonization in present-day southwestern United States

New Mexico

Night Flying Woman, An Ojibwe Narrative Ignatia Broker

Nibowissegwe (Oona) a great-great-grandmother to many Minnesota Ojibwe, born during a lunar eclipse at a time when white influence in Northern Minnesota was just beginning to manifest

Roger Williams

formed Providence colony, religious freedom in 1636

James Oglethorpe

founded Georgia for poor and debtors, excluded Catholics and Africans

Mexican American War

War fought between Mexico and the US between 1846 & 1848 over control of territory in southwest North America

Pequot War

War where after Natives attacked the settlers for their integration methods, the colonists retaliated by burning an entire village

Total War

War with scorched earth techniques and with the aim of complete destruction

Reclamation Bureau

Was there to provide federal funding for dam and canal projects

Popé (Knaut): Who was he? Ethnic/culture group? Region? Event?

Was whipped by the Spanish. Main leader of the Pueblo Revolt. Tewa religious leader. New Mexico. Pueblo Revolt.

Carlisle Indian Industrial School

founded by Richard Henry Pratt, the flagship Indian boarding school in the United States from 1879 through 1918

John Dewey

Philosopher who criticized the excessively rigid and formal approach to education found in most American schools such as 'The School and Society' and 'Democracy and Education', advocated creative intelligence

President James Madison

Physically frail, he was an unlikely candidate for political greatness. Considered the "Father of the Constitution," he co-authored the Federalist Papers and the Bill of Rights. Appalled by Alexander Hamilton's vision of federal power, he helped found the Democrat-Republican Party to pursue a more limited federal government. After serving as Secretary of State for President Jefferson, he was elected president in 1808. Faced with issues of impressment and neutral rights, he issued a declaration of War against Great Britain in 1812. He retired to his Virginia plantation in 1817.

National Defense Education Act

'58 act that allocated $280 million in grants for state universities to upgrade their science facilities, created $300 million in low-interest loans for college students, and provided fellowship support for graduate students planning to go into college university teaching.

Robert LaFollette

'Fighting Bob', a man who banded many farmers together, he also wanted to reform the workplace

women in Iroquois culture

iroquois was a matrilineally related society; keepers of culture, responsible for defining the political, social, spiritual and economic norms of the tribe. nominated for leadership positions to work under chiefs

Natchez

lived in Southern Mississippi and chased off Hernando de Soto

Navajo

located primarily in Southwest US, second largest recognized tribe by the government

Jesuits

looked to convert Huron people; realized they had to negotiate with Hurons in order to accomodate one another

Bison

main food source for Plains people. Killed by Americans, caused turmoil between Americans and Natives. Buffalo almost extinct by 1880.

Three Sisters

main three harvests: winter squash, maize, climbing beans

Apache

many culturally related tribes located in Southwest US and Northern Mexico

neolocal

married couple lives independently

matrilocal

married couple resides with the mother

ambilocal

married couple resides with the mother or the father

gender

meanings given by societies; masculinity & femininity

Radiocarbon dating

method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by determining amount of CO2

Mississippian Period

midwestern and southeast US, which lasted from 800-1600 AD

American Indian Movement

militant American Indian civil rights organization, founded in Minneapolis, Minn., in 1968 by Dennis Banks, Clyde Bellecourt, Eddie Benton Banai, and George Mitchell. a movement that has transformed policy making into programs and organizations that have served Indian people in many communities. These policies have consistently been made in consultation with spiritual leaders and elders.The success of these efforts is indisputable, but perhaps even greater than the accomplishments is the vision defining what AIM stands for.

Ice free corridor

part of North America with receding ice 16,000 years ago

Code Talkers

people in the 20th century who used obscure languages as a means of secret communication during wartime. approx. 400-500 Native Americans in the United States Marine Corps whose primary job was the transmission of secret tactical messages. Code talkers transmitted these messages over military telephone or radio communications nets using formal or informally developed codes built upon their native languages. Their service improved the speed of encryption of communications at both ends in front line operations during World War II.

culture brokers

people with a foot in two cultural worlds; often the result of marriage

Arctic Infanticide

practice of killing infants among arctic eskimos. females more common than males

Sun Dance

practiced by Great Plains Indians, outlawed by colonists so the dance was done in secret

demographic collapse of the Pueblo

primarily disease but also famine and warfare

Raiding

primarily practiced in Southwest tribes such as Navajo and Apache, native tribes would attack and loot each other's villages, as well as colonial villages

John Ross

principle chief of Cherokee-- against relocation treaty

Ghost Dance Religion

proper practice of the dance would reunite the living with spirits of the dead, bring the spirits of the dead to fight on their behalf, make the white colonists leave, and bring peace, prosperity, and unity to Indian peoples throughout the region.[2]

Maize in Pueblo culture

pueblo people left hunter-gatherer lifestyles for agriculture, focus on maize

significance of raiding to the Spanish and Pueblo

raiding by the Apache intensifies with heavy Spanish tribute demands. This makes the situation worse for the Pueblo, who turn to the Spanish for protection

Onate was (by 1606)

recalled to Mexico

Patrilineal

relationship based on the father or descent through the male line

Seriation

relative dating method in which assemblages or artifacts from numerous sites in the same culture are placed in chronological order

define "gold, glory and god"

religion, spreading religion; status, discovery of new places for your country; wealth, gold

cause of he pueblo revolt

religious oppression and famine

Checkerboarding

resulted from selling of lands; where native land was intermingled with non-native land; broke up traditionally communal native settlements into many individual plots, and allowed non-natives to claim land within those settlements; Dawe's Act

writing

role in communities: - communicating facts - entertainment - turning a character into something more - ceremonial roles - religious reasons - to pass on knowledge

Chunkey Game

rolling stones across ground and try to hit them with spears (circa 600 AD)

False Face Society and Little Water Medicine Society

secret societies of the Iroquois; dramatic wooden masks used for healing rituals. Those healed become members of society

Primary Forest Efficiency

selective strategy involving nuts, berries, and other veggies

Pilgrims

separate from church of England, formed Plymouth colony in Massachusetts, mayflower compact, Wampanoag Indians helped and had Thanksgiving, eventually tensions between them

Northwest coast class system

society ruled by wealth

Atlatl

spear with handle that increases the distance/power of throw. Used by Pleistocene to hunt megafauna

Marine hunting

spears and axes used for hunting fish, mostly spears

stereotype

standardized mental picture of a group of people

Pueblo Revolt in 1680

started in 1680 when Pueblo Indians were unhappy and killed many of the Spanish in New Mexico, Governor Otermin and survivors retreated, took 12 years for Spain to regain control of New Mexico

Bishop Ussher

stated that the world was created on October 23, 4004 BC

Indian Reorganization Act

strengthen tribal self- governance; helped end loss of reservation land

Social Evolution

subdiscipline of evolutionary biology that is concerned with social behavoirs that have fitness consequences for individuals other than the act. Social behavoirs can be categorized according to the fitness consequences they entail for the actor and recipient (mutually beneficial, selfish, altruistic, spiteful)

Native Americans had nothing to contribute to Europeans or growth of America

the contributions of American Indians have changed and enriched the world

demand as tribute and why was it justified?

the demand food as tribute, justifies in that Pueblo were declared subjects of the Spanish monarchy

new spain

the entirety of the Spanish empire in the New World, though it typically meant the land that became mexico

anthropology

the holistic study of all cultures

sedetism occurs

when a culture has fully adopted agriculture and the population has become too large with the ceremonial societies of Pueblo i.e., Kachina

virgin soil epidemics

when a population with no previous exposure to disease encounters it, leading to massive loss of life

what is the significance:

when they arrive 13 years later, the spanish realize they cannot force the pueblo to christianity and for a short time they live in harmony with one another year

what did the Amishinaabeg harvest the most of?

wild rice

Berlin Airlift

"Operation Vittles" was undertaken by the US and British governments to counter the Soviet blockade of Berlin. The operation was both an important incident of the cold war and the most extraordinary peacetime military operation in history. The Soviet Union closed all land and water communication routes from the western zones to Berlin. The western Allies in turn responded by supplying their sectors of Berlin with all necessities by cargo aircraft. More than 277,264 flights were made into Berlin carrying 2,343,315 tons of food and coal. The Soviets ended the blockade on May 12, 1949 and conceded defeat.

Mestizos/Zambos

"Persons of mixed origin" Spanish-Indian, African/ AmerIndian

Northwest Passage

"Sea route directly to the pacific ocean"

Mayflower Compact

"The first written frame of government - written by the Pilgrims it forced the men to agree to obey 'just and equal laws'"

Anasazi

"ancient ones" (200 AD-1300 AD)-- thought to be ancestors of modern Pueblo Indians, inhabited the Four Corners country of southern Utah, southwestern Colorado, northwestern New Mexico, and northern Arizona, leaving a heavy accumulation of house remains and debris

"god, gold, and glory"

"god"-trying to spread christianity "gold"-riches "glory"-claiming land

Indian Arts and Crafts Board

"promote the economic development of American Indians and Alaska Natives through the expansion of the Indian arts and crafts market". 1935 act

Dawes Act of 1887

(General Allotment Act) adopted by Congress in 1887, authorized the President of the United States to survey American Indian tribal land and divide it into allotments for individual Indians

Battle of Little Big Horn

(May 18, 1876, "Custer's Last Stand") 7th Calgary vs. combined native forces. Fought near Little Big Horn River in Montana. Sitting Bull envisioned an ambush on Custer-- it worked and Custer was killed

Pueblo Revolt of 1680

(Popé's Rebellion) an uprising of most of the indigenous Pueblo people against the Spanish colonizers in present day New Mexico. Killed 400 Spanish and drove the remaining 2,000 settlers out of the province

slash & burn

- farming technique - trees cut down and burned on a plot of land - ashes made the land fertile for a few years - the farmers then moved to a new plot, allowing old plots to become fertile again - overtime, farmers cleared large areas of land

role of agriculture in indigenous societies

- farming: led natives to live in villages instead of moving place to place - food supply was dependable - populations grew - people began crafting-- pottery and weaving - developed ways to govern villages and distribute wealth

American Indian Movement (AIM)

- founded in 1968 - multi-tribal organization of action: more radical arm of organizing, taking over things in person, nonviolent protests and armed conflicts

National Congress of American Indians (NCAI)

- founded in Denver in 1948 - provides national leadership on issues facing tribal communities throughout the US - founding in response to termination and assimilation policies that the US forced upon the tribal governments in contradiction of their treaty right and status as sovereigns - tribal governments for the protection of their treaty - since 1944, NCAI has been working to inform public and Congress on the governmental rights of Native Americans and Alaska Natives

Borderlands

- geographical area(s) that is most susceptible to la mezcla (hybridity/mixing) - national/local borders/borderlands

Idle No More

- grassroots social justice movement - founded in 2012 - originated in Canada and spread through US - centered around sovereignty, rights to land, environmental concerns, and ongoing violence against Native people - organized through social media (#idlenomore, symbol: hand in air holding eagle feather) - concerns basically the same as AIM and NCAI except now through social media -multi tribal and multi national organizing

Pre-Columbian trade networks

- historically: hides/furs, beads (including wampum beads and "trade beads") - gaming

language endangerment

- language use and transmission declines, causing the level of linguistic competence that speakers possess of a given language variety is decreased, eventually resulting in no native or fluent speakers of the variety

literacy

- literacy never stands alone...it is always literacy for something...for civic responsibility and the preservation of heritage, for personal growth and self-fulfillment, for social and political change - the meaning of literacy depends upon to social institutions in which is embedded

Cahokia

- located in E Saint Louis on Cahokia Creek - largest prehistoric city north of Mexico - significant archaeological site - @ peak, may have had some 20,000-30,000 inhabitants - land very rich for agriculture/farming - once was the regional center for the Mississippian culture with many satellite communities, villages, and farmstead around it

Vanishing Indian

- myth that is difficult to control because it has so many different manifestations - reason for this is because of the inherent nature of the settler state which is to eliminate natives -introduced by Euro settlers, at the time they wanted to control natives and wanted their land, so they had to make indians disappear by assimilating to Euro culture or die

primitivism

- native americans are stuck in the past - evolutionally/culturally behind everyone

physical distance

- natives are always "over there somewhere" - not really sure where natives are located

background of Native American gaming

- originally part of tribal ceremonies and celebrations - Euro settlers destroy agrarian societies - replaced buffalo - integral part of tribal economies - large scale gaming starts early 1980s - one of few sources of employment and revenues for tribes - indian tribes in Cali and FL operate bingo games

two-spirit

- preferred term used by members of North American natives for the contemporary realization of gender and/or sexual variance - exact definitions of this identity/term vary across tribes, communities, and individuals

American Indian Religious Freedom Act 1978

- protect and preserve the traditional religious rights and cultural practices of American Indians, Eskimos, Aleuts, and Native Hawaiians - including access to sacred sites, freedom to worship through ceremonial and traditional rights, and used possessions of object considered sacred (ex. right to own eagle feathers)

#rocurmocs

- raise awareness and discussion about natives - social media campaign - participation regardless of location - invited all people who are native to wear moccasins out in public on certain day every year - goals: natives still exist, highlight the fact that all moccasins are different from different tribes-- uniqueness within Native American tribes - breaks expectations - community building exercise - increase awareness

Indian Gaming Regulatory Act 1988

- revenues must be used to: fund tribal government operations, provide general welfare for tribe, promote tribal economic development, donate to charitable organizations, help fund operations of local government agencies

anomaly

- something that deviated from what is standard, normal, or expected - ex. Native woman getting hair and nails done in salon

EZLN/Zapatista Liberation Army

- staged rebellion from their base in Chiapas, the southernmost Mexican state, to protest economic policies that they believed would negatively affect Mexico's indigenous population - later developed into a forceful political movement that advocated for Mexico's disenfranchised Indians

technological incompetence

- technology is not going to mesh well with Indians because they live in the past

current realities

- two spirit groups/societies all over North America - predominantly urban spaces that have large native populations - neighborhoods in US that were predominantly native - possible reasons natives may move to cities: jobs, opportunity, education

cultural distance

- we expect native culture to be really different - not able to identify what something is - very different than cultures/languages/music/dance that we are familiar with

Why did Europeans stop using Native Americans as slaves and instead use Africans?

1) The africans were immuned to the sicknesses that were killing off the Native Americans 2) They did not know the land that well so they couldn't escape

Why was the Pueblo Revolt significant? (3)

1. Only successful Indian revolt against European Invaders. 2. Pueblos culture still intact today. 3. Pueblo villagers are still there today.

people in north mexico

10 million in North Mexico

Bering strait hypothesis

12-10k years ago, travel from Siberia across Beringia to Alaska

Zachary Taylor

12th President, a Whig who was a former war hero

when do the spanish return

13 years later

Millard Fillmore

13th President, a weak man who took little action and eventually joined the Know-Nothings

What date is the conquest of Constantinople?

1453

Franklin Pierce

14th American President, also a weak man

What year did the Mughals conquer Delhi?

1526

entrada period

1539-1598, characterized by violence

colonial period of new mexico

1539-1821

Hochelaga

15th century Iroquoian village in Montreal. Cartier arrived October 2, 1535

Irreconciables

16 of Wilson's republican opponents in the senate who refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles; led by H.C. Lodge.

Pequot Massacre (Thomas): Participants? Year? Pequot trade partners? Larger significance?

1637; Puritans led by John Mason, some Narragansett, Mohegans, demonstrated the Puritans intolerance for Indian hostilities

King Philip's War (Thomas): Dates? Region? Participants? Significance? Contributing factors?

1675-1677. New England. King Phillip (Metacomb). Three Indians were brought to court because of John Sassamon dead.

Infedels

An infidel was a person who did not agree with a certain faith or religion

The Long Walk

1864 government forced deportation of the Navajo from their home in Arizona to eastern New Mexico

Tenure of Office Act

1867 act stipulating that any officeholder appointed by the president with the Senate's advice and consent could not be removed until the Senate had approved a successor

Reconstruction Act

1867 act that divided the south into five military districts subject to martial law

Treaty of Fort Laramie

1868, it tried to restore peace to Natives but was broken with the discovery of valuables

Assimilation

1871-1934

Court of Indian Offenses

1883; assimilation era; banned Polygamy ,Sun Dance; Indians hired by the BIA; 10 to 90 days imprisonment and loss of government-provided rations for up to 30 days

Dawes Act

1887; Sale of surplus land; 160-acre tract reservation ; 25 year trust period with U.S. citizenship; lost 2/3rd of his land; divide Indian Land into individual allotments

Sherman Silver Purchase Act

1890 act which directed the Treasury to increase the amount of currency coined from silver mined in the West and also permitted the US government to print paper currency backed by the silver

Right by Discovery

18th century, the US had the right to Indian lands because they were the first to discover them.

Right by Occupation

18th century; the US had occupied and made homes, thus could take Indian land

Indian Child Welfare Act

1978 - is a Federal law that governs jurisdiction over the removal of Native American (Indian) children from their families. Some critics have complained that the existing Indian family exception requires the state court to determine what it means to be an Indian child or an Indian family, by applying tests to determine the "Indian-ness" of the child

Rutherford B. Hayes

19th US president, came after disputed elections

How long did it take Cortez to defeat the Aztech Empire? When did he defeat them?

2 years; 1521

Hopewell

2,200-1,500 years ago, refers to an artifactually-observed culture and way of life that seems to have developed simultaneous across the great Midwest -- from Nebraska to Mississippi, Indiana to Minnesota, and from Virginia to the culture's epicenter in Ohio

Federal Housing Administration

1934, extending government's role in subsidizing the house industry. Insured long-term mortgage loans made by private lenders for home building.

National Congress of American Indians

1944 response to assimilation policies

Relocation and Termination

1950

Black Hills Land Claim

1976 Sioux tribes awarded $17.5 million plus 5% annual interest calculated since 1877 (U.S. taking of Black Hills); Today, Lakota people believe that the Black Hills are sacred and should be returned for that reason.

Adena

2,500-2,000 years ago, an archaeological term used to broadly indicate a pre-contact Native American group that lived in southern Ohio and neighboring regions of West Virginia, Kentucky, and Indiana during the Early Woodland Period.

William Howard Taft

27th President of the United States, Roosevelt's handpicked successor

Woodrow Wilson

28th President of the United States, eventual World War I commander

Overkill theory

33 megafauna driven to extinction around end of Pleistocene epoch. No contact with humans, so no evolutionary defenses. Climate change is another theory

Shell Mound Archaic

4,000-12,000 BC: mixture of cultural debris such as rocks, earth, bone, and artifacts. People lived on or around mounds of shells

Percentage of Africans trafficked to English North America in the 1700s?

4-6% Africans are trafficked to English North America in the 1700s.

Headright System

50 acres of land was given to anyone who paid for a passage

people in the new world

75 million

Eastern Archaic Period

8,000-2,000 BC: warmer climate, last megafauna disappear

By the 1600's, what percent of Native Americans in Spanish America died from epidemic disease?

90%

Maysville Road Veto

A Congressional bill provided for the federal government to buy stock in a private company to fund an extension of the Cumberland and National Roads. The U.S. Congress passed the bill, but Jackson vetoed it, arguing that federal subsidies for internal improvements that were located wholly within a single U.S. state were unconstitutional. Jackson even said that he did not oppose the road, but simply wanted the state to fund it and not the federal government. Following this veto were seven more vetoes of public works projects, including roads and canals. This dealt a blow to the American System of Henry Clay, one of Jackson's many political opponents.

Jose Marti

A Cuban Poet and revolutionary who led nationalists in a revolt against Spain; he was killed in the Battle of Dos Ríos by Spanish troops.

James Buchanan

A Democrat and the 15th American President, a weak man who supported the South

Sussex

A French ship. Shot and sunk by German torpedoes in 1916 and contributed to American entry into WWI. Around 50 people died; this was a major turn for the worse in United States-German Empire relations.

John Peter Zenger

A German American who was jailed for writing anti-government ads.

Brigham Young

A Mormon who helped Utah accede to the Union

Separatists

A Puritan group that was appalled by the corruption of the English church, they went on to move to America

John Winthrop

A Puritan leader, wrote of England and his problems with the inhabitants

Cotton Mather

A Puritan minister who was largely responsible for the Salem Witch Trials

Anne Hutchinson

A Puritan, she held the common belief of predestination, she (An emigrant) held meetings to discuss religion, however she believed that all ministers had poor ways of separating the "saints" from the damned, she was charged with antinomianism and was banished, her beliefs thought caused questioning to strict Puritan belief

William Penn

A Quaker and friend of King Charles II who founded Pennsylvania for Quakers

Abraham Lincoln

A Republican opposed to slavery, future American President

Alfred J. Beveridge

A Republican senator (from Indiana) who knew overproduction was happening; he wanted new markets, new area for capital, and new work

Civil Rights Act

A bill by this name became law in 1866 when Congres overrode a veto by President Johnson. The law protected the rights of newly freed blacks before the passage of the 14th Amendment. Another law by this name was passed in 1875 to prohibit racial discrimination in jury selection and public accomodations, but the Supreme Court in 1883 declared that law unconstitutional.

Panic of 1857

A boom in the American economy ended in this economic recession. Some historians believe the political struggle between 'free soil' and slavery in the territories, beginning with the Supreme Court's ruling in the Dred Scott case, may have helped bring about the Panic. According to this theory, the Court's decision threatened to open up all western territories to slavery, prompting the bonds of east-west running railroads to plummet in value, which in turn helped motivate a run on the major New York banks. And when grain prices fell, demand for railroad services and manufactures fell off. The upper Mississippi Valley was hardest hit, but the Panic did not last long and it hardly affected the South at all.

Farmer's Alliance

A broad mass movement in the rural south and west during the late nineteenth century encompassing several organizations and demanding economic and political reforms

Andrew Carnegie

A captain of industry who wrote 'The Gospel of Wealth'; he was a Scottish immigrant who went from rags to riches

Byzantine Empire

A christian city who were infedels to the islamic religion

Joint Stock Companies

A company with shareholders where each person contributes and everyone receives a share

"City Upon a Hill"

A concept created by the Puritans (Bible Commonwealth) that would influence England and save them from godlessness

Vietnam

A country in Southeast Asia which was the site of multiple wars in the 50s and 60s. Split by the 17th Parallel as North (Communist) and South(Republic).

Cash Crop

A crop (such as tobacco) that would sell for a high price, helping the economy

Roosevelt Corollary

A decree by Roosevelt giving the US the right to intervene in Latin American affairs, especially those found as threats to US security.

Mayflower Compact

A document written in 1620 by the Pilgrims establishing themselves as a "civil body politic" and setting guidelines for self-government.

Al Capone

A famous criminal known for selling alcohol, he demonstrated the gangster style

Chisholm Trail

A famous trail used to drive cattle overland from ranches in Texas to Kansas

National Bank

A financial entity which was to establish financial order, clarity and precedence, credit overseas and locally, and to resolve the issue of counterfeit money.

A.E.F.

A force led by Pershing; led a brief yet powerful campaign helping France against the German Empire

John Smith

A former leader of the Jamestown colony, he used decree by martial law to establish rule and make the colony survive

Goodnight-Loving Trail

A frequently used trail, it was influenced by Cattle barons

John Winthrop

A governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony who instilled Puritan ideals and developed the "City upon a hill" theory

Anasazi

A group of Ancient Pueblo people who settled in the present-day southwest United States; first Americans to build permanent settlements

Iroquois

A group of Native Americans who aided the British against the French

Powhatan Confederacy

A group of Native Americans who worked with the English by teaching them survival skills, one member married an Englishman to establish an alliance

Fourteen Points

A group of ideals proposed by Woodrow Wilson in Paris during the treaty signing. MANY of them were rejected by the British and French, but the League of Nations amongst others was not.

Mass. Bay Co.

A group of merchants who wanted to promote the Puritan cause and trade with the Native Americans

John Brown

A militant abolitionist, he believed that slavery must be overthrown by force. In 1859, he led an unsuccessful raid against the federal arsenal in Harpers Ferry, Virginia, hoping to spark a local slave rebellion. He was captured and put on trial for treason. His dignified bearing during his trial won him much sympathy in the North. He was convicted of treason and then hanged on December 2, 1859.This event, perhaps more than any other single event, polarized the North and South and led directly to the outbreak of the Civil War.

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

A military alliance established by the US with Canada and most of Western Europe. Still around today.

Warsaw Pact

A military alliance established by the USSR with most of Eastern Europe. Dissolved 1991.

New Netherland

A more free and diverse community, there were more rights for slaves, women and religious toleration, the population was also diverse

Great Migration

A movement started by the Mass. Bay Co., 5 ships were sent to Mass. in 1629 and in 1642 there were 21,000 Puritans there, settlers came for religious freedom, economic improvement, etc.

Grange Movement

A national movement for social and educational organization through which farmers attempted to combat the power of the railroads in the late 19th century, one of its parts was the National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry

Harlem Renaissance

A new African American cultural awareness that flourished in literature, art, and music in the 1920's

Women's Peace Parade

A parade of 1,500 women marching opposed to preparedness

Welfare Capitalism

A paternalistic system of labor relations emphasizing management responsibility for employee well-being

William Bradford

A pilgrim leader, he saw the barbaric ways of the colonists but also knew that they had a strong cause to fight for

Bartolome de las Casas

A priest, he denounced Spain for their poor treatment of the Native Americans and wrote an account about their lack of freedom

Nat Love

A prominent African-American cowboy

Samuel Chase

A prominent political leader during the American Revolution, he was the only U.S. Supreme Court justice ever impeached. Despite his record of outstanding accomplishment on the Supreme Court, Congress voted to impeach him in 1804. His support of the Federalist-backed Alien and Sedition Acts and his overly zealous handling of treason and sedition trials involving Jeffersonians caused him to anger the president and his backers in Congress. While spared by only a narrow margin, he was acquitted, with the result that his trial discouraged future attempts to impeach justices for purely political reasons.

Crédit Mobilier Affair

A railroad scandal that did not put Republicans in a monopoly; insiders gave stock to influential members of Congress to avoid investigation into profits they were making

Bacon's Rebellion

A rebellion in Virginia's western frontier against the non-protecting, human-shielding government of the Virginian colonial government, done by young men frustrated by their inability to acquire land

Bartolomé de las Casas

A reformer who accounted much of the atrocities against Natives, he was very peaceful with them

The Philippines

A republic formed by an archipelago near Vietnam. The country was once an American colony and commonwealth acquired in the Spanish-American War from the Spanish Empire.

Virgin Soil Epidemic

A result of the Columbian exchange - when disease attacks a community that has no immunity

Transcendentalism

A romantic philosophical theory claiming that there was an ideal, initiative reality transcending ordinary life

McNary-Haugen Bills

A series of complicated messages designed to prop up and stabilize farm prices

Radical Republicans

A shifting group of Republican congressmen, usually a substantial minority who favored the abolition of slavery from the Civil War's beginning and later advocated harsh treatment of the defeated south

Dred Scott Decision

A slave had brought the lawsuit demanding his freedom based on his residence in a free state and a free territory with his master. In this 1857 decision, the Supreme Court ruled that blacks were not citizens and could not sue in a federal court, and that Congress had no constitutional authority to ban slavery from a territory, that, in effect, the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional. The decision threatened both the central plank of the Republican party platform and the concept of popular sovereignty.

Stono Rebellion

A slave rebellion that was highly successful; 20 slaves met at the Stono River and stole weapons, killed people, and liberated slaves, most were ultimately

Plymouth

A small settlement in Massachusetts made by the Puritans due to a fast approaching winter

Popular Sovereignty

A solution to the slavery crisis suggested by MI senator Lewis Cass by which territorial residence, not Congress, would decide slavery's fate

Sultan

A sultan is a ruler.

Encomienda System

A system that allowed settlers to take over Native American lands as well as use them or slavery - however in the end the Spaniards controlled the natives

Tariff of Abominations

A tariff that protected industry and was used as a way to raise federal revenue

Hydraulic Mining

A technique that used the process of blasting high-pressure water at rock walls, it would flood farm fields

Copperhead

A term Republicans applied to northern war dissenters and those suspected of aiding the Confederate cause during the Civil War

Revolution of 1800

A term used to refer to when Jefferson won the elections of 1800. A revolution it was called; this is because Adams was not re-elected and Jefferson won the overwhelming majority.

Seward's Folly

A term which referred to Alaska upon purchase from the Russian Empire, directed by William Seward

Scientific Management

A theory that stated that it is managers, not workmen, who make decisions

Boomtowns

A town made as a byproduct of people going to an area for mining

Capitalism

A type of economic system where private owners own companies on production and making goods and services. Similar to a republic/democracy.

Yellow Journalism

A type of journalism which is illegitimate in its research and exaggerated in content; somewhat similar to muckraking though muckraking was more truthful.

Great Awakening

A wave of religious revivalism by Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield

Encomienda system

A way for the King of Spain to reward his military officers with tracks of land.

Bill of Rights

A written summary of inalienable rights and liberties

Roger Williams

A young minister, he believed that Massachusetts should pull away from the church of England and that individuals should practice whatever religion they chose, "genuine religious faith is voluntary" - wanted to strengthen religion but disagreed with the religious - political mix

Anthony Johnson

African slave that became free and owned land

Harriet Tubman

African-American abolitionist who worked with the underground railroad

South Carolina Exposition and Protest

After Congress passed a high tariff in 1828, which Southerners designated the Tariff of Abominations, South Carolina responded with this document. It was secretly authored by John C. Calhoun, who was then serving as vice president under Andrew Jackson. In this document, Calhoun laid the groundwork for the doctrine of nullification. Over time, the doctrine of nullification developed into the doctrine of secession, by which the Southern states asserted their right to leave the Union after President Abraham Lincoln's election in 1860, leading to the outbreak of the Civil War.

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

After the Federalist-dominated Congress adopted the Alien and Sedition Acts, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, the leaders of the Democratic-Republican Party, responded by secretly authoring these papers. The resolutions suggested that the United States was a compact, much like that formed under the Articles of Confederation, and that states had the right, even the duty, to stop unconstitutional federal actions. Southerners like John C. Calhoun would later transform this vague doctrine of interposition into the doctrines of nullification and secession.

Hiroshima/Nagasaki

After the Japanese rejected a final surrender ultimatum issued on July 26, 1945, President Harry Truman decided to employ the atomic bomb. These two cities were the ultimate targets. The first atomic bomb, code-named "Little Boy," was dropped on this port city of on August 6. More than 70,000 people were killed instantly, only about a third of whom were military personnel. The United States again demanded surrender, but Japan, dismissing the threat as American propaganda, refused. Three days later, a second atomic bomb, codenamed "Fat Man," was dropped on this city, killing more than 70,000 people. Five days later, on August 14, Japan surrendered unconditionally.

President Jimmy Carter

After the Vietnam War debacle and the Watergate scandal, this candidte promised to return the government to the decency its citizens had every right to expect. In domestic policy however, he failed to improve the poor economy: unemployment, inflation, and the costs of energy continued to increase. The two foreign policy successes of the his administration—the negotiation and ratification by the Senate of a new Panama Canal treaty in 1978 and the Camp David Peace Accords between Egypt and Israel in 1979—were overshadowed by events in Iran where 52 American citizens were seized at the American embassy and held hostage for 444 days. He proved unable to shake his image as a vacillator, unsure of how to cope with domestic economic turmoil and foreign policy crises.

President George Washington

After the new government was organized, he was unanimously chosen to be president. He assumed the office of president on April 30, 1789, acutely aware that everything he did established a precedent. He hoped to prevent the rise of divisive partisanship and sectionalism by appointing the most talented people available to his Cabinet. Before he left office in 1797, the nation had a sound currency, adequate tax revenue to meet government expenses, an internationally respected credit rating, an adequate network of sound banks, and the start of a tax system designed to aid the development of manufacturing and maritime commerce. He decided not to seek reelection in 1796, thereby establishing the tradition of two terms for the presidency upheld until Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected to a third term in 1940.

Pullman Strike

Aftermath of when Pullman cut wages and not prices, involved future Socialist leader Eugene V. Debs

Freedmen's Bureau

Agency established by Congress in March 1865 to provide social, educational, economic services, advice, and protection to former slaves and destitute whites; lasted seven years

Cpt. Alfred T. Mahan

An early president of the Naval War College who wrote The Influence of Sea Power upon American History, 1660-1873 (1890). The book defined foreign policy, and he thought that international strength rested on colonial power.

Federalist Papers

Alexander Hamilton, with the help of James Madison and John Jay wrote this--a brilliant series of essays explaining and defending the national government created by the Constitutional Convention of 1787. These essays serve as a primary source for interpretation of the Constitution, as they outline the philosophy and motivation of the proposed system of government. According to historian Richard B. Morris, they are an "incomparable exposition of the Constitution, a classic in political science unsurpassed in both breadth and depth by the product of any later American writer."

Land Ownership Categories

Alienated Land ,Living Allottees ,Deceased Allottees, Tribal ,State of Wisconsin

Federal and State Policies and American Indians Donald Fixico

All the different acts n stuff

Alger Hiss and the Rosenbergs

All three accused of being Soviet spies, Hiss given sentence for several years for perjury, the Rosenbergs executed. Only instance of executed spies during the Cold War.

Compromise of 1877

Allegedly, a deal was struck to settle the disputed outcome of the 1876 presidential election. In this compromise, Democrats accepted the election of the Republican, Rutherford Hayes. In return, Republicans agreed to withdraw federal troops from the South and end Reconstruction.

Half-Way Covenant

Allowed for Baptism and a "half-way" membership which helped a little but ultimately the church was declining - created in order to improve the church population

Oliver Wendell Holmes

Along with John Marshall, he is often considered considered one of the greatest justices in Supreme Court history. His opinions and famous dissents in favor of individual liberties are still frequently quoted today. He argued that current necessity rather than precedent should determine the rules by which people are governed; that experience, not logic, should be the basis of law.

Boston Tea Party

An early protest done to show hatred for taxes and prices. Colonists dumped tons (literally) of tea into the sea, thus wasting British money and this lead to the Intolerable Acts.

Panic of 1819

An economic crisis that resulted from the War of 1812

U.S. v. E.C. Knight

Also known as the "'Sugar Trust Case,'" this Supreme Court case that limited the government's power to control monopolies. In 1892 the American Sugar Refining Company gained control of a 98% monopoly of the American sugar refining industry. President Grover Cleveland directed the national government to sue the Company under the provisions of the Sherman Antitrust Act. The court ruled that manufacturing was a local activity not subject to congressional regulation of interstate commerce.

Transcontinental Treaty

Also known as the Adams-Onís Treaty, this treaty was ratified in 1821. The United States purchased Florida from Spain and established a definitive boundary between Spanish-held Mexico and the U.S. territory gained in the Louisiana Purchase.

Sherman's March to the Sea

Also known as the Savannah campaign, it was a South-devastating campaign that made use of total war and culminated in the capture of Savannah

Tariff of Abominations

Also known as the Tariff of 1828, this tariff placed high taxes on imported manufactured products to help fledgling industries in New England. Southern planters condemned the tariff because it kept their profits down and stifled free trade. Because it favored the North at the expense of the South, southerners claimed it was unconstitutional. Later, southern states and spokesmen like John C. Calhoun argued for a state's right o nullify unconstitutional laws.

Pinckney's Treaty

Also known as the Treaty of San Lorenzo, this 1795 treaty established commercial relations between Spain and the United States, granted the United States free navigation of the Mississippi River through Spanish territory, and fixed the boundaries of Louisiana and Florida.

Fair Labor Standards Act

Also known as the Wages and Hours Law, this New Deal legislation abolished child labor and established a national minimum wage of 40 cents per hour and a maximum work week of 40 hours.

Payne-Aldrich Tariff

Although President Taft called this tariff a reform measure, former President Theodore Roosevelt and Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin had fought the law because it continued protective rates. The Republican Progressives in Congress had introduced the tariff act at lower rates. Before it passed, however, the Senate attached 847 amendments to the bill, 600 of these providing increases. Consequently, the rates averaged 40.8% of value, lower than the Dingley Tariff of 1897, but still significantly protective of most US products. Taft's acceptance of this bill was one factor causing progressive Republicans to look for a new Presidential candidate in 1912.

John Quincy Adams

Although he was able and principled,he served as an ineffectual president, hampered by accusations that he won the Election of 1824 by arranging a "corrupt bargain" with Speaker of the House Henry Clay. After a bitter and personally abusive campaign, Jackson won a decisive election for the presidency four years later in 1828. He is far better remembered for his earlier accomplishments as a diplomat, notably as secretary of state under President James Monroe, when he help negotiate treaties that secured Florida and the northern border with Canada. As Secretary of State, he also drafted the Monroe Doctirne.

Metis

AmerIndian and Euro-American mixed people - Indian and French

Alfred T. Mahan

America's foremost naval historian and theorist in the 19th century, he wrote, "The Influence of Sea Power upon History" in 1890. He was among the leading advocates of American overseas expansion and naval power, and his theories were employed by President Theodore Roosevelt and other expansionists to further their imperial ambitions for America.

Pueblo Indians

American Indians who live in pueblos and have a long tradition of farming. also called Anasazi

Christopher Columbus

An explorer from Italy he studied the ocean and wind, he "found" the New World and started its colonization

Battle of Gettysburg

An extremely bloody battle seeing ~50,000 deaths, allowed Lincoln to issue the Gettysburg Address; USA victory

Olaudah Equiano

An African involved in the British abolition of the slave trade

John J. Pershing

An American general leading troops, specifically the AEF in the European Theater ( was given the "General of the Armies," the highest rank possible)

Jamestown

An English colony in North America established through a joint-stock company, the first permanent settlement in British America

William Bradford

An English separatist and governor of Plymouth; he served for 30 years and established Thanksgiving

Squanto

An English-speaking Indian who helped the Pilgrims at Plymouth Plantation by showing them where to fish and how to cultivate corn.

Samuel Slater

An Englishman who, with Moses Brown and William Almy, established a cotton mill

Indian Removal Act

An act passed in 1830 that granted the removal of tribes living in the South East to the Mid West, vastly changing their ways of life and leading to the death of thousands. Also called the Trail of Tears

Congress of Industrial Organizations

An alliance of industrial unions that spurred the 1930s organizational drive among the mass-production industries

Teller Amendment

An amendment put forth by Sen. Henry Teller (Colorado) to only help Cuba in its struggle for independence, and not annex it.

Free-Soil Party

An anti-slavery party that aimed to prevent slavery expanding into the former Mexican territories

Black Hills

An area with a large ore deposit

Shay's Rebellion

An armed movement of debt-ridden farmers in western Massachusetts in the winter of 1786-1787; the rebellion created a crisis atmosphere

Marbury vs. Madison

An early USSC court case where CJ John Marshall (Fed) ruled that the USSC could not force the executive branch to give Marbury his commission; he also ruled that the USSC could determine what was constitutional, and Judicial Review was established.

U2 Incident

An incident when an American Pilot did espionage and was shot down over the USSR. Damaged relations.

McCarthyism

Anti-communist attitudes and actions associated with Joseph McCarthy in the early '50s including smear tactics, blacklists, and innuendo.

Meadowcroft Rockshelter

Archeological site of a 1570s Monongahela Indian Village

Measuring Blood Orrin

Argument: The Blood Quantum system is super flawed

Is Equality Indigenous Sally Roesch-Wagner

Argument: White feminism followed/was influenced by Native gender ideals

Martin Van Buren

As President Andrew Jackson's campaign manager, political confidant, secretary of state, vice president, and finally, handpicked successor, this man played a major role in national politics and the establishment of Jacksonian democracy as a significant political force. Elected president in 1836, he promised to adhere to Jackson's policies, but a severe economic depression, the Panic of 1837, lasted throughout his administration and quickly undermined his popularity. He was defeated by the first Whig president, William Henry Harrison in 1840. By 1848, a coalition disgruntled Democrats and Whigs met in Buffalo, New York, formed the Free Soil Party, which was pledged to a platform against slavery, and nominated this former president as their candidate. After losing again, he retired from politics.

Nicholas Biddle

As President of the Second Bank of the United States, this man occupied a position of power and responsibility that propelled him to the forefront of Jacksonian politics in the 1830s. He, along with others who regarded the bank as a necessity, realized the threat posed by the election of Andrew Jackson in 1828. Jackson was bitterly opposed to the national bank, believing that it was an unconstitutional, elitist institution that bred inequalities among the people. A bitterly divisive issue, the rechartering of the bank dominated political discussion for most of the 1830s, and for many, this man became a symbol of all for which the bank stood. After Jackson's reelection, the Second Bank of the United States was doomed.

Eugene Debs

As a leader of organized labor and a presidential candidate for the Socialist Party, he passionately fought for radical social change in the United States. By 1893, he had organized the American Railway Union (ARU) and called a national strike that quickly tied up the nation's railroads to support the Pullman strike in Chicago. He was arrested and indicted on the charge of interfering with the mail. During the six months he spent in jail, he read socialist literature. Between 1904 and 1920, he ran as the Socialist candidate for president five times.

Suicide

As a result of historical trauma, chronically underfunded federal programs, and broken promises on the part of the US government, American Indians and Alaska Natives experience many health, educational and economic disparities compared to the general population, leading them to takes their own lives

Daniel Webster

As an orator, champion of the Union, and constitutional lawyer, he was one of the great statesmen of his day. He was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1812 and served there until1816. He subsequently pursued a highly successful legal practice that involved several precedent-setting appearances before the U.S. Supreme Court. His arguments in Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819), McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), and Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) were supported by Chief Justice John Marshall and earned him the nickname "Expounder of the Constitution." As a member of the newly formed Whig Party, he argued for higher protective tariffs and attacked Calhoun's theory of nullification in his famous debates against Robert Hayne in 1830. Years later, with the Union in danger of a civil war over slavery, he backed Clay's compromise efforts. In the course of debate, he spoke in favor of compromise, "not as a Massachusetts man, nor as a Northern man, but as an American."

Horace Greeley

As editor of the New York Tribune and one of the early members of the new Republican Party, he supported the anti-slavery cause. A strong supporter of the Radical Republican Reconstruction program and an advocate of the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson, he at first applauded Grant's election to the presidency, but he soon denounced the new administration as corrupt and illiberal toward the South. When the Liberal Republicans split from the party in 1872, he became their candidate; the Democratic Party also nominated him for president that year. Urging a conciliatory attitude toward the South, he failed to carry a single Northern state. Crushed by the magnitude of his defeat, he went insane and died on November 29 of that same year, only a few weeks after the election.

Jacob Riis

As his colleague observed, he was a reporter who "not only got the news, but cared about it." Armed with a pencil, a notebook, and a camera, he documented the overcrowding, lack of proper sanitation, and grinding poverty of the slums. In 1890, his first and most famous book, How the Other Half Lives, was published. Packed with harrowing details and illustrated with drawings based on his photographs, How the Other Half Lives was a powerful indictment of slum conditions. His exposés of conditions in New York City's slums influenced a generation of investigative reporters, known as muckrakers, and set the standard for future photojournalists.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

As one of the more radical of the 19th-century suffragists and women's rights leaders, she sought above all else to free women from the legal obstacles that prevented them from achieving equality with men. At the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London, she met Lucretia Mott, sharing her anger that women delegates were not allowed to speak and vote at the convention. The two women decided to hold a women's rights convention as soon as they returned home. In 1848, the first women's rights convention was finally held in Seneca Falls, New York. This woman drafted a Declaration of Sentiments, modeled after the Declaration of Independence and declaring that women were created equal to men. She later met Susan B. Anthony in 1851. The two women would work together for nearly 50 years in the cause for women's rights. In 1869, she and Anthony founded the National Woman Suffrage Association to work for the passage of a federal women's suffrage amendment.

John Foster Dulles

As secretary of state in the administration of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, he became famous for his strong anticommunist views and insistence that the United States help small countries to withstand aggression. In 1954, he articulated a "NEW LOOK" foreign policy that increased reliance on a nuclear weapons to deter communist aggression through threats of "Massive Retalliation"

General Dwight D. Eisenhower

As supreme commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces in World War II, he directed the invasions of North Africa, Italy, France, and Germany. He was not a colorful figure like Gen. George S. Patton or Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery. However, his style of firm, calm leadership proved to be ideally suited for welding the disparate forces of the Allies into an efficient military machine capable of accomplishing the largest amphibious invasion in history at Normandy in 1944 and then crushing Nazi Germany.

John D. Rockefeller

As the moving force behind the Standard Oil Company, he helped create the American petroleum industry. His ruthless and cutthroat business practices brought him tremendous wealth, but his reputation with the public became severely damaged. Although he paid fair market value for many companies he acquired, he drove others into submission through cutthroat attacks. He pioneered large-scale, systematic philanthropy, giving away millions of dollars for the advancement of education, medicine, and science.

Dixiecrats

At the 1948 Democratic National Convention, a group of delegates stormed out of the arena when Hubert H. Humphrey urged the Democratic Party to support President Harry Truman's civil rights platform. Those delegates formed the States' Rights Party, commonly known by this nickname because of the traditional Southern views. Their platform reflected the ideology of many Southern segregationists, as it opposed integration and civil rights, and it championed each state's right to regulate racial issues.

Tippecanoe and Tyler too

At the Whig's first national nominating convention in 1840, the party chose William Henry Harrison as its presidential nominee because he was a military hero, and he did not have a political record that indicated how he felt about controversial issues. The Whigs realized that as a party representing largely upper-income and business voters who stood in opposition to Jackson's and Van Buren's egalitarian democracy, they needed a candidate who would appeal to a wide electorate. Forshadowing modern campaign tactics, the Whigs portrayed Harrison was a man of the people. Model log cabins and kegs of hard cider became Whig campaign symbols, along with this slogan which reminded voters of Harrison's heroics before and during the War of 1812.

Monroe Doctrine

At the suggestion of Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, President Monroe announced in 1823 that the American continents were no longer open to colonization, and the United States would look with disfavor on any attempt to extend European control over independent nations in the Western Hemisphere. Although this policy is not an actual law, it has profoundly influenced the making of U.S. foreign policy. Subsequent presidents often referred to this policy as justification for U.S. intervention in hemispheric affairs.

The Celebrity Athlete

Athletes who were coveted by the media and were extremely popular such as Babe Ruth

Ida Tarbell

Author of 'History of the Standard Oil Company', she documented Rockefeller ruthlessly squeezing out competitors with unfair business

Jacob Riis

Author of 'How the Other Half Lives', a portrayer of NYC's poor

Upton Sinclair

Author of 'The Jungle', he condemned the poor treatment of the lower class

Frederick Jackson Turner

Author of the Frontier thesis, he stated that the US had the right to expand democracy

What was the name of the people who lived in Mexico when Hernan Cortes invaded?

Aztec Empire

The Pueblo revolt (Pope's Rebellion)

Bad relationship between Pueblo Indians and colonists in 1680, led by a native religious leader, there was a massive revolt by the New Mexico Indians who banded together and retook over Santa Fe as well as ending some colonization and re-gaining freedom

Panic of 1857

Banking crisis that caused a credit crunch in the North; it was less severe in the South, where high cotton prices spurred a quick recovery

Keating-Owen Child Labor Act

Banned children under fourteen from working in enterprises in interstate commerce without parental consent

Placer Mining

Basic methods of mining, ex. panning, sifting, and the like

Battle of Fallen Timbers

Battle where Anthony Wayne defeated Natives which divided the Shawnees

1st Battle of Bull Run/Manassas

Battle where Northerners projected a victory, but the outcome proved the war would be long and full of casualties; CSA victory

Battle of Saratoga

Battle which foreshadowed, but did not determine, British surrender

Lexington and Concorde

Battles where the British first attacked, resulting in the start of the Revolutionary War.

Why was Constantinople so important?

Because it was a christian city that were infidels in the muslim/islam religion

Why did it make sense that the Mongols supported merchants?

Because then they would get goods, also the merchants supplied them with goods.

Battle of Fallen Timbers

Beginning in 1790, a coalition of American Indians under Miami chieftain Little Turtle defied efforts by the U.S. government to remove them from their lands. The Miami scored two major victories against the US Army. The government responded by dispatching Gen. Anthony Wayne, a distinguished veteran of the American Revolution, to deal with the uprising. In 1794, Wayne confronted the main force of the Miami at this battle. Though Wayne lost 33 dead and 100 wounded, the Miami villages were destroyed. The defeat of the Indians led to the signing of the Treaty of Greenville in 1795, which ceded much of present-day Ohio to the United States, paving the way for the creation of that state in 1803.

Why did the Indians resent the Spanish missionaries?

Being forced to give up most of their religion and culture and identity. Very mistreated.

Scopes Monkey Trial

Big trial of science vs. religion, a clear verdict wasn't actually found

Blizzards of 1886 and 1887

Blizzards that severely harmed the cattle industry

Russian Revolution

Bolsheviks (Communist) led by Vladimir Lenin violently overthrew the Russian government and established the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (EVENTUALLY the USSR), led to Russia leaving WWI

Poor Richard's Almanac

Book by Ben Franklin filled with wise words and proverbs that became extremely popular

A Century of Dishonor

Book by Helen Hunt Jackson condemning US policy towards Natives

How the Other Half Lives

Book by Jacob Riis that described the poor conditions the lower class was forced to cope with

Common Sense

Book by Thomas Paine that said the British System was tyrannical and for America; George III was a royal brute

The Jungle

Book by Upton Sinclair, a socialist tract set among Chicago packaging house workers

Toussaint Louverture

Born a slave in Saint-Domingue, in a long struggle for independence this man led enslaved Africans to victory over Europeans, abolished slavery, and secured native control over the colony of Haiti. This was the first successful attempt by a slave population in the Americas to throw off the yoke of Western colonialism. When Napoleon lost control of the colony, he became more inclined to sell the Louisiana Territory to the United States.

Marcus Garvey

Born in Jamaica, this black nationalist leader aimed to organize blacks everywhere but achieved his greatest impact in the United States, where he tapped into and enhanced the growing black aspirations for justice, wealth, and a sense of community. During World War I and the 1920s, his Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) was the largest black secular organization in African-American history. Possibly a million men and women from the United States, the Caribbean, and Africa belonged to it. His work demonstrated that the urban masses were a potentially powerful force in the struggle for black freedom.

Executive Branch

Branch that executes the law

Legislative Branch

Branch that handles the making of laws

Judicial Branch

Branch that interprets the law

salutary neglect

British colonial policy that relaxed supervision of internal colonial affairs by royal bureacrats contributed significantly to the rise of American self government

Loyalists

British colonists who opposed independence from Britain (aka Tories).

John Maynard Keyes

British economist who said each government dollar spent had a multiplier effect, pumping $2-3 into the depressed gross national product

Fort Sumter

Built on a small island, this fort was designed to protect the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. When South Carolina seceded in December 1860, the garrison inside Fort Sumter remained loyal to the United States. When the fort's food supplies began to run out, President Lincoln's effort to replenish them generated military reprisal from Confederate forces. The shelling of this fort on April 12, 1861, started the Civil War.

What kind of leaders were in control at this point?

Bureaucrats

Crazy Horse Monument

But Crazy Horse descendants feel the chief didn't have the right to ask that such a thing be done. Elaine Quiver, a descendant of Crazy Horse, told Voice of America in 2003 that Lakota culture requires consensus among family members, but nobody asked his descendants.

spheres of influence

By 1900, Japan and several European nations were carving China into areas by this name, within which each country dominated trade relations. The United States Secretary of State, John Hay issued his Open Door Policy in an effort to encourage and maintain free trade between these foreign dominated markets in China.

unrestricted submarine warfare

By January 1917, the German High Command decided to resume this policy, believing that Germany could win the war against the exhausted Allies before the United States could bring its full force to bear in the conflict. It was the use of submarines that would eventually bring the United States into the war, and in his request to Congress for a declaration of war in 1917, Wilson described the actions of German submarines as "warfare against mankind."

Jefferson Davis

CSA president, he found it very difficult to unify the country; was ultimately imprisoned for two years

Jamestown

Capital of the Virginia colony, named after King of England, Virginia- Virgin Queen, first permanent English settlement

Where was the first area in the New World to experience Spanish conquest and control?

Caribbean; Spanish remained focused on this area for the next 25 years.

Thomas Nast

Cartoonist who exposed William 'Boss' Tweed and Tammany Hall

Gibbons vs. Ogden

Case that prevented NY from gaining a monopoly over steamboat line to the inventor, Robert Fulton

Worcester vs. Georgia

Case where Cherokee fought Georgia in the USSC; they won by Marshall's decree but overridden by Jackson

McCulloch vs. Maryland

Case where USSC denied a state's right to tax federal property

Schecter vs. US

Case where the USSC found the National Recovery Administration unconstitutional in its entirety

Committees of Correspondence

Colonial radicals formed these groups in 1772 in order to step up communications among the colonies, and to plan joint action in case of trouble. Their organization was a key step in the direction of establishing an organized colony-wide resistance movement.

New England Colonies

Colonies that housed Puritans and centered on trade

Middle Colonies

Colonies with more fertile land that were focused on trading

Patriots

Colonists who supported independence

From 1570's onward, how did the Spanish expand their presence in America?

Colonization

who are the Taino?

Columbus finds them when he comes to the new world; native Caribbean people, noble savage/ redman, i.e., innocent, submissive, love nature, "civilized"

George Washington

Commander-in-chief of the continental army, the leader chosen to represent New England forces

John Collier

Commissioner of Indian Affairs 1935; helped with Indian New Deal; stopped loss of tribal lands and supported tribal soverignty

Mao Zedong

Communist leader during the Chinese Civil War who overthrew Chiang Kai-Shek (Nationalist) with support of many Chinese citizens.

Ford Motor Company

Company established by Henry Ford to retail automobiles

Virginia Company

Company named for Elizabeth I, provided nomenclature for Virginia; it was a joint-stock company

SALT II

Completed in 1979, this was the first nuclear arms treaty between the US and USSR which assumed real reductions in strategic forces. Six months after the signing, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan; in protest, the United States Senate never ratified the treaty. Its terms were, nonetheless, honored by both sides until 1986 when the Reagan Administration withdrew from SALT II after accusing the Soviets of violating the pact.

Republican Motherhood

Complex, changing body of ideas, values, and assumptions, closely related to country ideology that influenced American political behavior during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Missouri Compromise

Compromise in 1820 that permitted slavery in Missouri and all territories south of it (36°30′)

Peaceful Co-existence

Concept that the USA and USSR could exist peacefully with one another. It never came into effect in the 1950s.

Discuss religious changes in early modern Europe that led to the exploration and eventual settlement of North America.

Conflict between Protestants and Catholics; Indians offered potential new converts to strengthen each side's cause Wanted to save the natives Religious intolerance pushed dissenters out of England

Second Bank of the United States

Congress (re)chartered this institution in 1816. It had extensive regulatory powers over currency and credit. It came under heavy criticism during the Panic of 1819. In 1823, Nicholas Biddle became president of this institution and pursued a strategy that strategy improved America's financial condition and stabilized the money supply, although it stifled growth in the South and West. Biddle made a major tactical blunder in 1832, however, by calling for Congress to renew the charter four years earlier than necessary. President Jackson vetoed the bill and made it the major issue of his reelection campaign later that year. This war quickly became an extremely divisive partisan issue, with Democrats supporting Jackson and Whigs supporting Biddle.

Force Acts

Congress attacked the Ku Klux Klan with these acts passed in 1870-1871. They placed state elections under federal jurisdiction and imposed fines and imprisonment on those guilty of interfering with any citizen exercising his right to vote. They were designed to protect black voters in the South.

Stamp Act Congress

Congress made to protest stamp act

Kansas Nebraska Act

Congress passed this act on May 30, 1854 to promote the rapid settlement of the American West. As a concession to the South, Senator Stephen A. Douglas suggested that territory previousy closed to slavery by the Missouri Compromise now be opened to popular sovereignty. Few issues stirred greater passion in the decades prior to the Civil War than the status of slavery, and the disastrous results of this act illustrated that fact, as antislavery and proslavery forces within Kansas literally went to war with one another in an effort to determine the new state's status. This act fanned the flames of sectionalism that led to the the division of the Democrats into Northern and Southern wings, and the birth of the Republican Party, which was formed in 1854 in opposition to the expansion of slavery into the territories.

Wade-Davis Bill

Congress passed this bill in 1864 as a substitute for Lincoln's ten percent plan. It required a majority of voters in a southern state to take a loyalty oath in order to begin the process of Reconstruction and guarantee black equality. It also required the repudiation of the Confederate debt. The president exercised a pocket veto, and it never became law.

Fugitive Slave Act

Congress passed this law as part of the Compromise of 1850. Under it, federal commissioners were authorized to compel citizens to assist in the return of runaway slaves; fugitives could not testify in their own behalf, and they were denied a jury trial. This was the strongest concession to the South in return for accepting California as a free state.

National Defense Act

Congressional bill allowing an army of 220,000 & integrated National Guard under federal government

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

Congressional resolution passed in 1964 which authorized President Lyndon Johnson to take "all necessary measures" to ensure the security of US armed forces and to defeat aggression in South-East Asia. It arose from an attack by North Vietnamese torpedo boats upon US naval vessels and, although technically not a declaration of war, it was interpreted by Johnson as offering a legal basis for his commitment of US troops to Vietnam.

Hernan Cortes

Conquistador who conquered Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec empire, with 600 soldiers (and the help of smallpox, local peoples oppressed by the Aztecs, horses, and firearms). Extended Spanish control over the Yucatan and Guatemala.

Fundamental orders of Connecticut

Considered the First written constitution of British North America

President Grant

Considering his military success in the Civil War, his nomination for president by the Republican Party in 1868 seemed almost inevitable. On matters of Reconstruction, he supported the efforts of the Radical Republicans to enfranchise African Americans and spoke out for the need to control secret societies known as the Ku Klux Klan in the South. Shortly after he was reelected in 1872, the nation sank into a deep depression, and corruption scandals began to plague the administration.

Northeast Indians

Consisted of hundreds of tribes from Cherokee to Iroquois - lack of authority until 1500s forming Great Councils

Oligopoly

Control of a market by a few large producers

Constitutional Convention

Convention that met in Philadelphia in 1787 and drafted the Constitution

Blacklists

Created by the HUAC containing Hollywood personnel accused of being communists. Element of McCarthyism.

Medicine Lodge Treaty

Created the Reservation Policy

Enforcement Acts

Criminal codes which protected blacks' right to vote, to hold office, to serve on juries, and receive equal protection of laws; if the states failed to act and enforce these laws, the federal government had the right to intervene

American Indian Literary Nationalism Robert Warrior

Critiques Alfred "the singular key to an indigenous future is tradition" Tohe's argument Says she generalizes using her own experiences Not everyone had as strong a sense of Diné tradition

cash crops

Crops, such as tobacco and cotton, raised in large quantities in order to be sold for profit.

Chinese Exclusion Act

Curtailed Chinese immigration of ten years, it was meant to stop Chinese Americans from entering hard labor

Chinese Exclusion Act of 1887

Curtailed Chinese immigration of ten years, it was meant to stop Chinese Americans from entering hard labor

What were the 2 major NEGATIVE effects that this wealth had on Spanish economy and government?

Didn't develop an industrialized economy and they had rigid top-down control which stifled colonial economy.

Why was Onate recalled to Mexico in 1606?

Didn't find any Gold, Franciscan missionaries complained that Onate's bad treatment of the Indians was making it hard to convert them, and spanish colonists complaining about food shortages.

There is No Word for Feminism in My Language Laura Tohe

Diné matrilineal customs

XYZ Affair

Diplomatic row between the United States and Napoleonic France where the Americans were outraged by the demand of the French for a bribe as a condition for negotiating with American diplomats

New York City draft riots

Discontent with new laws passed by Congress to draft men to fight in the ongoing Civil War, and objection to Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, led to this violent protest. The riots were the largest civil insurrection in American history. The military suppressed the mob using artillery and fixed bayonets, but not before numerous buildings were ransacked or destroyed, including many homes and an orphanage for black children. Estimated fatalities during the five days of violence totaled more than 100. More than 50 large buildings were destroyed by fire, and property damage was about $2 million.

Manifest Destiny

Doctrine, first expressed in 1845, that the expansion of White Americans across the continent was inevitable and ordained by God

King Philip's War

Done and led by Metacomet, it was a Native-English conflict which was considered one of the bloodies conflicts between them

Annexation of Hawaii

Done on behalf of Congress's Newlands Resolution. The act had been planned for a while, and the US Military overthrew Queen Liliuokalani and installed a protectorate before it became a territory in 1900.

Usus: European group? Region? What it provided? Larger significance?

Dutch. New Netherland. Women retained civil identity. Gave women civil equality in marital and legal rights.

Watson Brake

Earliest mound complex in North America, dated before Poverty Point

Price revolution

Due to influx from New World mines, value of silver declined - i.e., prices rose Effects: Landowners and merchants thrived; wages of artisans, laborers, and landless agricultural workers did not keep pace, inciting many to migrate to America; rising prices stimulated commercial development.

sharecropping

During Reconstruction, southerners adopted this labor system. In it, the landowners provided land, tools, housing, and seed to a farmer who provided his labor. The resulting crop was divided between them (i.e., shared). Most laborers in this system were newly released slaves and poor, white farmers. A difficult and unrewarding system, this system perpetuated the economic inequalities in the South after the Civil War.

Election of 1916

During his first term, Woodrow Wilson fulfilled many progressive aspirations for reform and expanded presidential authority. But as this presidential election approached, another issue concerned the electorate even more than progressive reform: the "Great War" broke out in 1914. From the war's outset, Wilson implored Americans to remain "impartial in thought as well as in deed" and a campaign slogan, "He kept us out of war" was a popular refrain during this election. Wilson won this election as the peace candidate, but less than six months after this election, America had entered the war.

Alexander Hamilton

During the American Revolution, he helped lead the assault at Yorktown that resulted in a British surrender. In the 1780s, he became a vocal critic of the Articles of Confederation, condemning them for their ineffectiveness. At the Constitutional Convention, he, with such notables as James Madison and Benjamin Franklin pushed for a powerful executive and federal supremacy. He rallied support for the new constitution through writing of several articles that, along with those of Madison and John Jay, became known as the Federalist Papers. With the Constitution ratified and Washington elected, he was appointed secretary of the treasury. As Treasury Secretary, he immediately confronted the main problem facing the new government, namely its finances. In building support for his program, Hamilton created the Federalist Party. In 1804, he was killed in a duel with his political nemesis, Aaron Burr.

Vicksburg

During the Civil War, this strategic location earned the label "The Gibraltar of the Confederacy" because of its impregnable situation on the Mississippi River. In July, 1863, Union major general Ulysses S. Grant completed a successful campaign to capture the city. The Union victory came at a high cost, but it succeeded in cutting off the Confederacy's only remaining route to its western regions with their indispensable supplies. The capture of this location solidified Grant's reputation as a fighting general, prepared to win the war despite the casualties. Lincoln later named him commander of all Union forces.

Freeport Doctrine

During the Lincoln-Douglas debates in 1858, Douglas declared that, even in the face of the Dred Scott decision, the people of a territory could exclude slavery simply by not passing the local laws essential for holding blacks in bondage. This attempt to reconcile the Dred Scott Decision with popular sovereignty was unpopular in both the North and South, as antislavery sentiment grew in the North and proslavery sentiment hardened in the South. Although he defeated Lincoln in the senatorial contest in November 1858, Douglas lost any hope of securing the Democratic Party nomination for president in 1860, mostly because this doctrine grew increasingly unpopular.

Crittenden Compromise

During the Secession Crisis in 1860-1861, a Kentucky Senator proposed this North-South compromise on slavery. He proposed a constitutional amendment recognizing slavery in all territory south of 36° 30' (the "Missouri Compromise line"), and an unamendable amendment guaranteeing slavery in slave states. President-elect Lincoln and the Republicans rejected the proposals. The failure of compromise suggested that all hope for a peaceful resolution was lost.

U.S. v Nixon

During the Watergate investigation the special prosecutor asked the White House to turn over certain specific tape recordings of oval office conversations about the Watergate cover-up. President Nixon refused, citing "executive privilege." A unanimous Supreme Court ordered the tapes to be handed over as evidence. The decision is now considered a crucial precedent limiting the power of any U.S. president.

Herbert Hoover

During the campaign for president in 1928, the stock market soared, and this candidate said in a speech, "We are nearer to the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of any land." He won the election in a landslide. In October 1929, less than a year after he took office, the stock market crashed and so too did his dream of presiding over a period of increasing prosperity. He failed as a president to lead the United States effectively during the Great Depression. Relief activities belonged, he believed, to state and local governments. From the perspective of those in need of immediate relief, it appeared as though he was helping the rich instead of the poor. His name became associated with the misery of the Great Depression.

John Kenneth Galbraith

Economist who wrote "The Affluent Society", he believed that Americans had to spend more on services than on themselves

Denmark Vesey

Educated, proud, and charismatic, he became a leader of Charleston's free African-American community and began forming plans for a slave rebellion. The date for the insurrection was set for July 15, 1822, but a house servant who had discovered the plot informed his master of the plan. He was arrested a few days later and executed by hanging. Throughout the summer, more than 100 African Americans were arrested and tried in connection with the plot; 35 were executed. As a result of the conspiracy, restrictions on African Americans (both slave and free) were tightened in South Carolina.

Lillian Wald

Education and women's rights reformer, she worked with Jane Addams toward the same purpose

Martin Van Buren

Eighth president who presided over bank failures, bankruptcies, and massive unemployment

The surviving Spanish of the Pueblo Revolt fleed to

El Paso

William Seward

Elected governor of New York in 1838, this Whig became strongly identified with the growing antislavery movement when he refused to surrender three African-American sailors for extradition to Virginia as runaway slaves. When the old Whig Party merged with the new Republicans in 1855, he became one of the most outspoken representatives of the antislavery North. As a U.S. senator from 1849 to 1861, he believed the issue of extending slavery into the territories was not negotiable because slavery was prohibited by "a higher law than the Constitution." As secretary of state during Abraham Lincoln's presidency, he eventually became Lincoln's closest adviser and consistently supported him in the dark days of the Civil War.

James Buchanan

Elected president in 1856, this Democrat was blamed by critics for the outbreak of the Civil War. His administration was marked with controversy; he attempted to recognize the Lecompton Constitution and he supported the Dred Scott Decision. He will be remembered most, however, for his refusal to take steps to prevent the South from seceding in the last months of his term.

Election of 1864

Election spurning Lincoln as a re-elect, it saved the Republican Party, results were affected by the fall of Atlanta

Election of 1932

Election that produced Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt as the winner over Republican President Hoover

Election of 1936

Election that produced Democrat President Roosevelt as the winner over Republican Alfred Landon

Election of 1896

Election that produced McKinley as the winner as opposed to Bryan

Election of 1824

Election where Adams defeated Jackson through the House of Representatives

Election of 1912

Election which produced Wilson as a victor as opposed to Roosevelt, Taft, or Debs

Indian CCC

Employed young men on reservations at irrigation, forest restoration; the Indian Division built schools and operated an extensive road-building program in and around many reservations. The mission was to reduce erosion and improve the value of Indian lands. Crews built dams of many types on creeks, then sowed grass on the eroded areas from which the damming materials had been taken.

Espionage and Sedition Acts

Enacted in 1917 and 1918 respectively, these laws mandated stricter punishments for those who attempted to undermine the U.S. war effort during World War I. Intended primarily to curb the activities of socialists and pacifists, the acts made it a crime to aid enemies of the United States or to interfere with the war effort or with military recruitment. In additon, speech and the expression of opinion that cast the government or the war effort in a negative light or interfered with the sale of government bonds was made illegal. Considered "the nation's most extreme antispeech legislation," some fifteen hundred prosecutions were carried out under these acts.

King James I

England king in 1603, stopped privateers

Impacts of English Civil War

England: Major political issues between Parliament and the monarchs, Parliament won and the monarchy was abolished and England was declared "a commonwealth and free state" governed by the people America: A new sect was formed (Quakers) and there were large efforts to suppress them, when the monarchy was restored Protestant sects gained rights but there was still limited persecution

Competency: Definition? Who accessed it? Who didn't? (e.g. African slaves? Indian slaves? English indentured servants? Tobacco planter? A skilled artisan?)

English Colonies. Self-sufficiency, Independence. Slaves didn't. Tobacco planters, Freed Indentured servants did.

Pilgrims

English Separatists who drafted the Mayflower Compact and established Plymouth Plantation in 1620. They celebrated their survival with a Thanksgiving feast in 1621 with local Wampanoag Indians.

John Smith

English captain who took control of Jamestown in 1608, famously declaring that "he who shall not work shall not eat". Instrumental in relations between the Powhatan confederacy and the English due to his relationship with Powhatan's daughter Pocahontas. His work ethic and willingness to trade with the Indians saved the settlement.

Puritans

English religious group that sought to purify the Church of England; founded the Massachusetts Bay Colony under John Winthrop in 1630.

Feme covert: European group this applied to? Definition? Significance?

English, gave husband more obligation and legal rights, demonstrated male dominance in English society

The Amos 'n' Andy Show

Entertainment show that was a direct descendant of the 19th century blackface

What was the major reason for the high death rate among Native Americans?

Epidemic disease brought by Spanish.

Transportation Revolution

Era between 1800 and 1840 which improved transportation in the US: the national road was built

Interstate Commerce Commission

Established in 1887, this was the first federal regulatory agency. It arose in response to public outrage over malpractice and profiteering by the railroad companies. The agency was primarily used to regulate the railroads and it sought to make sure prices were fair.

18th Amendment

Established prohibition and banned alcohol

Sioux Act

Established six reservations, renamed the Pine Ridge Reservation; partitioned the Great Sioux Reservation

Columbian Exchange

European-American Exchange From Europe: barley, wheat, rice, citrus fruits, sugar cane, horses, pigs, sheep, goats, oxen, oats, coffee, and bananas; diseases including smallpox, measles, bubonic plague, influenza, typhus, diphtheria, and the scarlet fever From Americas: corn, potatoes, yams, beans, squash, peppers, tomatoes, tobacco, manioc, peanuts, pumpkins, pineapples, cacao, turkeys, guinea pigs, llamas, and alpacas; diseases such as hepatitis, yaws, and syphilis.

Dust Bowl

Event that resulted from drought, it caused deep economical and psychological losses, while killing crops

Chicago "Black Sox" Scandal

Event where 8 members of the poorly paid Chicago White Sox became involved in a scheme to throw the World Series in exchange for cash

Black Tuesday

Event where more than 16 million shares were traded as panic selling took hold

Court-Packing

FDR's logic that age prevented justices from keeping up with their workload; he also wanted to expand the number of judges from 9 to 15 and install an age limit

Frances Perkins

FDR's secretary of labor and the nation;s first woman cabinet member, she captured the close relationship between the new unionism and the New Deal

What were the two phases attempted to colonize New Mexico?

Failed conquest and Sante Fe Colony

Flapper

Female character motif who was a young, sexually aggressive woman with bobbed hair, rough cheeks and a short skirt, who would engage in bad habits; the style was frequently emulated

Betty Friedan: The Feminine Mystique

Few individuals played as important a role in the 1960s rise of the feminist movement as did this author of The Feminine Mystique (1963) which described the contemporary alienation of the middle-class American woman. She encouraged women to embrace a new feminine lifestyle based on valuing a career outside of the home as of equal importance to their husbands' careers. Women should no longer accept being secretaries and not executives, nurses and not doctors, church workers and not ministers. She also founded the National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1966 and served as its first president.

James Monroe

Fifth American president, last member of the Virginia dynasty

Range Wars

Fights farmers had over land, normally, they were because of poorly drawn borders around each farm

Carlisle Indian Industrial School

First Indian boarding school; 1879

Gifford Pichot

First head of US Forest Service, he recruited many rangers and was a conservationist

Comstock Lode

First major U.S. discovery of silver ore

Alexander Hamilton

First secretary of the treasury, killed in a duel against Aaron Burr, 3rd VP, served w/ T. Jefferson. Federalist

Rugged Individualism

First seen in American Individualism, it stated that radicals "would assume that all reform and human advance must come through government", but progress must come from individuals

President Gerald Ford

Following Vice President Spiro Agnew's resignation in 1973, President Nixon selected this man to be the first vice president appointed according to the provisions of the Twenty-fifth Amendment. As vice president, he defended Nixon throughout the long Watergate scandal ordeal. Upon Nixon's resignation in August 1974, he assumed the presidency. In September, he granted "a full, free and absolute pardon" to Nixon. Facing a depressed economy at home, he ineffectively acted to curb inflation and lower the deficit. In foreign affairs, he oversaw the withdrawal of U.S. forces from a defeated South Vietnam. He lost his bid to be elected president in 1976 when he was defeated by Democrat Jimmy Carter.

Theodore Roosevelt

Following the assassination of President William McKinley in 1901, he became the youngest president in American history. A lifelong champion of the strenuous life, he preached time and again, "I always believe in going hard at everything." During his two terms from 1901 to 1909, he was one of the most activist presidents in U.S. history. In pursuit of his "Square Deal," he tackled the social and economic problems created by a modern industrial society; railroads, labor, and the processed food industry came under his scrutiny. His greatest domestic concerns were the regulation of business trusts and the conservation of natural resources. Perhaps the most notable events in foreign affairs during his administration was his foreign policy transition to an "international police power" and the building of the Panama Canal. He ran for president again in 1912 as the Progressive "Bull Moose" candidate, but lost to Progressive Democrat, Woodrow Wilson.

Twelfth Amendment

Following two chaotic presidential elections in 1796 and 1800, the U.S. Congress adopted this Amendment on December 2 and 3, 1803, proposing serious electoral reform for the presidency and vice presidency.

Irish/German Immigration

For most of the first century after the United States was formed, immigration to the country was essentially open. By the mid-19th century, as more third-, and fourth-generation Americans began to feel a strong sense of an increasingly American heritage and national identity, they began to regard immigrants as foreign elements who competed with native-born Americans for jobs and corrupted American traditions. Anti-immigration hysteria reached fever points during periods of massive influxes of foreigners, especially when these groups came between 1840 and 1860. Nativist sentiment skyrocketed, with the formation of the Know-Nothing Party in the 1850s

Oregon Territory

For twenty years, the British and the United States agreed to jointly occupy this region. But in the mid-1840s this region became a political issue in the United States, with many expansionists willing to risk war to get all of the territory, including present-day British Columbia (54 40 or fight!). In 1846, Britain and the United States agreed to extend the 49th Parallel, forming the modern border between Canada and the United States. The settlers quickly applied for territorial status, which Congress granted in 1849. The territory was gradually split up, and in 1859, it—with its present borders—became the 33rd state.

Anti-Imperialist League

Formed in 1898, this organization opposed U.S. imperialism during a time when the United States was negotiating for control of Hawaii, fighting the Spanish-American War, and suppressing a rebellion for independence in the Philippines. Instead, this group advocated free trade without aggression or conquest of foreign territory. Mark Twin was the most famous member of the organization.

War Industries Board

Formed in 1917; it reorganized industry for maximum efficiency and productivity during WWI

Al Smith

Former presidential candidate (against Hoover), he was a conservative Democrat who viewed the New Deal's laws as socialistic

Henry Clay

Former speaker of the house who let Adams win the 1824 election, went on to become the Secretary of State

Jamestown: Founded when? Where? How? European group? How did its status change?

Founded May 14, 1607. Colony of Virginia.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)

Founded in 1957 at the conclusion of the Montgomery bus boycott, this civil rights organization was led by Martin Luther King Jr. The group sought through nonviolent protest to appeal to the moral conscience of white Americans and end discrimination against blacks. Their efforts included the desegregation of Birmingham, Alabama; the March on Washington; the voting rights campaign in Selma, Alabama; and many sit-ins and voter registration drives.

OPEC Oil Embargo

Founded in 1960, this organization comprises nations whose main export income comes from the sale of petroleum. In support of the Arab invasion of Israel that occurred in October 1973, the Arab oil producing countries decided to cut their oil production; this action raised oil prices by some 300% by the end of the year.

John D. Rockefeller

Founder of the Standard Oil Company

Benjamin Franklin

Founding father from Pennsylvania and the oldest delegate. Wrote many proverbs.

Tenements

Four- to six-story residential dwellings, once common in New York, built on tiny lots without regard to providing ventilation or light

Who came along to New Mexico to convert Indians?

Franciscan missionaries and spanish civilians.

Despite obvious failure, why did teh Spanish continue to maintain a presence in the area?

Franciscans said they had converted nearly 86000 indians (lied). Adopted New Mexico to continue to convert Indians.

Who was the first Spanish explorer to travel extensively through the present-day southwestern U.S. in 1540?

Francisco Coronado

Pet Banks

Jackson's favored state banks that held deposits from the national bank

Jacques Cartier

French explorer: first voyage in 1534 (Stadacona), second voyage 1535-36 (Hochelaga)

"Fish, Fur, Faith": European group/religious order? Type of fish? Type of fur? Black Robe movie: How was Father LaForgue viewed by Indians? Did the French subjugate the Indians? Did the Indians influence the French?

French term. Cod and beaver [waterproof]. Black Robe movie: he was viewed as a witch and evil for conversion. The French believed the Indians were wild because they used unknown methods to cure sickness. Indians influenced French-->would kill; convert when famine.

Métis: Spanish, French or English term? Definition? Reveals what about diversity of America?

French term. French-Indian. That there are more diversity in America rather than just two different races due to racial-mixing

James Otis

From 1761 to 1769, he was a political leader of Massachusetts and the chief publicist of the American cause. His pamphlets explaining the patriot perspective on the relationship between the American colonies and England laid the broad theoretical groundwork for American independence. In 1764 he wrote that everyone should be "free from all taxes but what he consents to in person, or by his representative."

Cornelius Vanderbilt

From steamboats to railroads, he built the infrastructure crucial to America's late-19th-century industrialization. A tough business leader and bold financial operator, he created transportation systems that stimulated and supported America's tremendous industrial growth. He ranked among that era's dominant business leaders and was one of America's richest men.

Francis Scott Key

From the deck of the a British ship on the night of September 13th 1814, this man observed the ineffectual British bombardment of Fort McHenry, the city's principal defensive fortification. He was so inspired to see the American flag still flying over the fort on the morning of September 14 that he composed "The Star-Spangled Banner" while returning to shore with his friends. His words were soon set to music, and before long, the tune was being played all around the nation. In 1931, Congress resolved that the "Star-Spangled Banner" would become the nation's official anthem, which President Herbert Hoover then promptly signed into law.

Was was Juan de Onate's motivation?

GOLD

What was Hernan Cortes' motivation for invading Mexico?

GOLD

Denmark Vesey

Gabriel's rebellion, a failed slave revolt by a preacher with a slave revolt for an attack

16th Amendment

Gave Congress the ability to levy an income tax

Fourteenth Amendment

Gave birthright citizenship and prevented states from obstructing voting privileges; some state laws would work around this

22nd Amendment

Gave limit that President could only serve 2 terms.

Indentured Servants

Gave up their freedom temporarily to go to the New World

Battle of Long Island

George Washington and his army are badly beaten at this battle on August 27, 1776. Sorely outnumbered and surrounded at Brooklyn Heights, the 9,500 troops that survived retreated under cover of night across the East River to Manhattan.

Redemptioner System (Woweck/Mittelberger): European group? Definition? Class dimensions?

Germans, gained passage to America by selling themselves into indentured servitude, usually poor

Battle of Little Bighorn

Gold Discovered in Black Hills; George Armstrong Custer & U.S. Army entered Black Hills, 1874; The fight was an overwhelming victory for the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho; led by Crazy Horse and Chief Gall, inspired by the visions of Sitting Bull ; Sioux Wars; 1854 and 1890; resisting relocation; force the Lakota and the Cheyenne back to their reservations

Bullion

Gold and silver, some of the primary resources exploited in the New World.

gold rush

Gold was discovered on January 24, 1848 in a stream at Sutter's Mill, California. The news prompted this stampede of settlers from the eastern United States and all over the world to pour into the California gold fields in search of their fortunes. Miners who rushed to California after the discovery of gold in the northern part of the territory in 1848 were called "forty-niners." By the end of 1849, the population of California had increased from about 15,000 to more than 150,000. Over the next 10 years, some $550 million was extracted from the California mines. The rapid population growth led to California's application for statehood, which Congress eventually accepted on September 9, 1850 when it forged the controversial "Compromise of 1850."

What was Coronado's motivation for traveling to the U.S.?

Gold, but was UNsuccessful.

Federal Trade Commission (FTC)

Government agency established in 1914 to provide regulatory oversight of business activity

Liberty Bonds

Government borrowing system where interest certificates were sold to finance American WWI effort

How far did Coronado go in U.S.?

Grand Canyon

Grant's Peace Policy

Grant's decision to stop "resisting" Native people and make them assimilate to white Christian culture in 1850. This started the reservation system and boarding schools to Christianize Native children.

"Sinners in the hands of an angry god"

Graphic depiction of the underworld, a part of speech that was meant to warn agnostics

Berlin Crisis

Happened due to the effects of the Iron Curtain where Stalin blocked West Berlin making air the only way to reach. In Spring '49, aircraft gave relief to the people of West Berlin. Led to establishment of West (FRG) and East (GDR) Germany.

Suez Canal Crisis

Happened in '56 when Egyptian President Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, previously part of the UK. Israel, the UK and France intervened, and Egypt was aided by the USSR to end the conflict.

Northwestern Securities Case

Happened in 1904, a case that held that the stock transactions constituted on illegal combination in restraint of interstate commerce

Immigrant Labor Conditions

Hard and long, about twelve hours in duration. They weren't paid a lot, and they had to use dangerous methods sometimes

Calvin Coolidge

Harding's death in August 1923 made this man president. He moved quickly to neutralize the effects of the Harding scandals and secure the 1924 presidential nomination for himself. His victory seemed to confirm the popularity of the conservative policies that he claimed were responsible for a growing national prosperity. In the domestic policy sphere, his pro-business policies helped secure further cuts in federal taxes and expenditures, maintain a high protective tariff. Among his administration's diplomatic achievements were the Dawes Plan and the Kellogg-Briand Pact. In 1927 he announced that he would not run for president again.

Trenton

Having lost at Newport, Rhode Island and been driven out of New York, the Continental Army's morale was very low. But Washington's bold decision to cross the icy Delaware on Christmas night, 1776 produced a victory here against Hessian soldiers and helped turned the tide for the Americans.

Harry S Truman

He assumed the office of president after the unexpected death of Roosevelt on April 12, 1945. He became president during an extraordinarily difficult period with very little preparation. Roosevelt had not included him in Cabinet or important policy meetings. During his first two years in office, he had to decide whether to use the atomic bomb to end the war with Japan and he had to confront the immensely difficult tasks of rebuilding the nations ravaged by World War II and containing the powerful appeal of communism.

Edward Bellamy

He attracted a huge following with his utopian novel, Looking Backward (1888). The novel's hero falls asleep in 1887 and wakes up in 2000 to discover that the poverty and suffering of late-19th-century industrial America have been replaced by a perfect society. The government owns the means of production and all members of society share equally in the nation's wealth. The book had a powerful impact, inspiring large numbers of reformers to take on the cause of reform.

John F. Kennedy

He became, at 43, the youngest man ever to be elected President, as well as the first Catholic. His domestic program, the New Frontier, called for new civil rights legislation, more comprehensive welfare, social security, and health insurance; and urban development and renewal. In foreign affairs he recovered from the fiasco of the Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba to demand successfully the withdrawal of Soviet missiles from the country, and negotiated the Test-Ban Treaty of 1963 with the USSR and the UK. He was assassinated while riding in a motorcade through Dallas, Texas, in November 1963.

William Randolph Hearst

He copied Joseph Pulitzer's methods and made his "New York Journal" newspaper even more popular than Pulitzer's "New York World." The circulation war between the two papers produced "yellow journalism," or an excessively lurid style of reporting. Also, by firing public sentiment against Spain, he helped cause the Spanish-American War of 1898. His journalistic empire grew through buying or starting newspapers in Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, Atlanta, Seattle, and other cities. He also acquired such magazines as Cosmopolitan, Good Housekeeping, and Harper's.

Cyrus McCormick

He developed a mechanical, horse-drawn reaper that multiplied several times over the acreage of wheat that a farmer could harvest in a given time. This machine opened vast new lands to farming and provided the food that fed Union soldiers during the Civil War and the urban dwellers in America's burgeoning cities.

W.E.B. DuBois

He earned a PhD from Harvard in 1895 and became a staunch advocate of African-American rights. He came into conflict with Booker T Washington, opposing Washington's policy of compromise on the issue of race relations. In 1905 he founded the Niagara Movement, which was merged with the newly founded NAACP in 1909. His book Souls of Black Folk (1903) emphasized his revolt against the principles of Booker T Washington. He was also a pioneer of Pan-Africanism, the belief that all people of African descent should join together to fight against discrimination.

Noah Webster

He established a uniform national language based on the unique way Americans wrote and spoke English. Dismayed by the fact that elementary schoolbooks in use were based on British models and contained practically no information about the United States, he prepared his own speller to rectify these omissions. For the first time, information about the European voyages to America and the history of the American Revolution appeared in a textbook. He then published his famous "A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language" in 1806. His work constituted the nation's social and cultural declaration of independence from England.

Cesar Chavez

He formed the first effective and enduring migrant worker union in the United States. Previous efforts to mount farmworker strikes had always failed for two basic reasons: the workers did not have enough money to outlast the growers, and the growers could easily replace the striking workers with imported Mexican farmworkers. To help overcome these weaknesses, he formed United Farm Workers of America (UFW) union and shrewdly sought out the assistance of other labor unions and liberal politicians across America.

What did Amerigo Vespucci figure out?

He found out that south america was it's own continent that was not apart of Asia. He claimed it to be the "new world"

Samuel Slater

He has been called the founder of American industry. He built the first modern textile mill in the United Sates, doing so by importing secrets from his native country, England. Given his expertise, however, leaving England posed a problem. The British government did not want any plans for textile manufacturing to leave the country out of fear that other nations would use them to gain an industrial advantage. He circumvented the English restrictions in two ways. First, memorized the details about its machinery. Second, when he departed in 1789, he did so without telling anyone, and he wore a disguise.

Gerald Nye

He headed a Senate investigation into banking and the munitions industries. He concluded that they had conspired to drag the United States into World War I for their own profit. He labeled munitions manufacturers "merchants of death." His committee's report fed the isolationist mood of Americans in the mid-1930s.

Henry George

He helped launch an entire generation of economic and social reform with his best-selling book, Progress and Poverty (1880). He advocated a single tax on land as a means of dealing with the wide disparity between enormous wealth and poverty in California.

Dr. Benjamin Spock

He influenced generations of parents who reared the children of the baby boom with his best-selling manual, Baby and Child Care. In contrast to the traditional manuals with their rigid rules, he emphasized permissiveness in child rearing, in striking contrast to earlier child-rearing guides that stressed harsh discipline. Critics have blamed him for contributing to an unhealthy child-centeredness that they felt produced guilt-ridden mothers and spoiled children.

Who is Emperor Akbar?

He is a very successful emperor who is the grandson of Barbur II.

Alexander Graham Bell

He is best remembered for his invention of the "electrical speech machine"—the telephone—which quickly became the industrialized world's only means of long-distance vocal communication. He also founded the National Geographic Society in 1888 and served as its president from 1896 to 1904.

Aaron Burr

He is chiefly remembered as the man who killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel in 1804. In the Election of 1800, he received the same number of votes as Thomas Jefferson. With no clear winner, the Constitution provided that the House of Representatives elect one of the two highest vote getters. Hamilton's influence helped secure the election of Jefferson for president. As vice president, he engaged in a scheme to establish several states in what was then the western United States as an independent country. This plan to help these areas secede from the United States was a treasonable offense and almost resulted in his conviction in 1807.

Charles Lindbergh

He is famed for completing the first solo crossing of the Atlantic on 21 May 1927, flying from Long Island, New York to Paris, France in 33 hours in his plane, The Spirit of St. Louis. He became a popular hero over night and was nicknamed 'Lucky Lindy' by the press. On his return to New York he was given an unprecedented ticker-tape reception. He relentlessly used his fame to help promote the rapid development of U.S. commercial aviation.

James Madison

He is often called the "Father of the Constitution" for his critical role in the drafting of the U.S. Constitution. In addition to his remarkable contributions at the Constitutional Convention, he dedicated his life to public service: he authored many of the Federalist Papers; he crafted and sponsored the Bill of Rights; he joined Jefferson in founding the Democratic-Republican Party; he drafted the Virginia Resolves; (as Secretary of State) he guided the successful negotiations for the Louisiana Purchase; and (as president) he successfully guided the United States through the War of 1812.

Billy Graham

He is regarded as America's foremost modern-day evangelist. In 1950, he began preaching on an ABC radio show called The Hour of Decision. He further spread his message by producing religious films, writing a daily newspaper column, and publishing numerous books. He increased his fame by becoming associated with various presidents, including Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson and Nixon.

General William Henry Harrison

He led the militia assault upon Tecumseh's village at Tippecanoe Creek in October 1811. Then, after the British had captured Detroit in the summer of 1812, he took charge of efforts to halt the British advance. After recapturing Detroit in late September 1813, he pursued the retreating British forces into Canada. At the Battle of the Thames in October of that same year, British troops along with their Native American allies, were so soundly defeated that they never posed a threat to the security of the Northwest Territory again. (Tecumseh was killed in the battle.) In 1840, he became the first Whig President, winning the election with a "log cabin" and "hard cider" appeal to the common people. The 68-year-old caught a cold at his inauguration and died after serving only one month in office.

Sam Houston

He moved into Texas and took up residence among the Anglo settlers there in 1832; he was chosen to head the Texas rebel army against Mexico in March 1836. He commanded the troops that defeated the Mexican Army at the Battle of San Jacinto on April 20-21, 1836. He was then elected president of the Republic of Texas, serving from 1836 to 1838 and again from 1841 to 1844. After Texas was annexed by the United States in 1845, he was elected to the U.S. Senate and served in that body for the next 14 years. In 1859 he became governor in the state but he was forced to resign as governor on March 18, 1861 for refusing to take the oath of allegiance to the Confederacy.

Why did Columbus name the people he encountered los indios?

He named those people los indios because he thought that he was in the Indian subcontinent, so he thought that the people that he first encountered were indian.

Stokley Carmichael

He popularized the slogan 'Black is Beautiful', and promoted a distinctive Black-African heritage. His radical stance was seen as unnecessarily hostile to whites, and he became distanced from the leadership of Martin Luther King. He coined the term "Black Power." As leader of the Black Panthers (1967-69), he demanded black liberation rather than integration, and called for armed revolution. He became 'prime minister' of the Black Panthers in 1968, but left the United States in 1969 to live in Guinea, West Africa.

Henry Ford

He revolutionized the automobile industry, life in the United States, and possibly Western culture with the Model T. His assembly-line production method enabled cars to be made in quantity at a cost that brought them within reach of the average person. He controlled his company despotically, discouraged the introduction of modern ways of management, and fiercely resisted unionization. When World War II broke out his company became heavily involved in American defense production notably at its huge Willow Run plant, where thousands of B-24 Liberator bombers were built.

Andrew Carnegie

He rose from poverty to become one of the richest men in the world by gaining virtual control of the U.S. steel industry. He had begun the process of vertical integration, by which he came to control raw materials, transportation, and distribution within the steel industry, managing every stage of the production process from beginning to end. U.S. steel production increased until the nation surpassed Great Britain as the foremost steel producer in the world. He was also notable as a philanthropist, who gave millions of dollars to advance education, establish public libraries, and promote world peace.

General William Howe

He took command of British troops in North America after the Battle of Bunker Hill. He captured New York and Philadelphia, but botched the plan to isolate the New England colonies in 1777. He resigned in 1778.

John Marshall

He was Chief Justice of the United States from 1801 to 1835. His rulings strengthened the role of the court and constantly upheld the sanctity of contracts and the supremacy of federal legislation over the laws of the states. Though he established the precedent of judicial review, he also clashed with presidents Jefferson and Jackson over questions of constitutional interpretation.

Robert Owen

He was a British utopian socialist who believed in economic and political equality, and he considered competition debasing. He founded New Harmony, Indiana, a commune where members challenged sexual and religious mores of Jacksonian America. It became a costly failure.

Alexis de Tocqueville

He was a French visitor to the United States in the early 1830s. He was impressed by the relative equality of opportunity and condition in America and wrote of it in his classic description of Jacksonian America, "Democracy in America." The question that concerned him throughout his work was whether or not an egalitarian society could preserve liberty. In the end, he believed American democracy would endure and that that America showed one way in which a democracy could work.

Martin Luther King

He was a US civil-rights campaigner, black leader, and Baptist minister. He first came to national attention as leader of the Montgomery, Alabama, bus boycott of 1955-56, and was one of the organizers of the march of 200,000 people on Washington, DC in 1963 to demand racial equality, during which he delivered his famous 'I have a dream' speech. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1964 for his work as a civil-rights leader and an advocate of nonviolence. He was assassinated on 4 April 1968 in Memphis, Tennessee.

John Deere

He was a blacksmith who, in 1839, invented the steel plow. His plow cut easily through the tough and sticky prairie sod of the upper Mississippi Valley and opened it to extensive farming.

Nicholas Trist

He was a chief clerk in the State Department whne President Polk sent him to negotiate a peace treaty with a defeated Mexico in 1847. Before he could open negotiations he was summoned to return, but he ignored the order and stayed to negotiate the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

Henry David Thoreau

He was a leading literary romantic and Transcendentalist in the early nineteenth century. He is best known for his account of two years spent in seclusion in the Massachusetts woods. In Walden (1854) and elsewhere, he gave memorable expression to a social theory that stressed self-reliance and close communion with nature as a route to meaning in life. As a protest against the war with Mexico, he had refused to pay a poll tax owed to the federal government. This act of resistance resulted in his arrest; the experience led Thoreau to write an essay, "Civil Disobedience," which held that individuals were obliged under certain circumstances to offer nonviolent resistance to unjust laws. the essay became influential in the 20th century among such political leaders as Martin Luther King Jr. and Mohandas Gandhi.

General Nathaniel Greene

He was a major general of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War. When the war began, he was a militia private, the lowest rank possible; he emerged from the war with a reputation as George Washington's most gifted and dependable officer. He commanded Patriot armies in the backcountry of North and South Carolina in 1778-1781. His guerrilla tactics harassed General Cornwallis's army as it moved toward Virginia and the decision at Yorktown in 1781.

William Rainey Harper

He was a noted academic who was selected by John D. Rockefelelr to organize the University of Chicago. As its first President, he set the standards very high; he elevated the compensation of academic professions above that of school teacher, and by doing so attracted the best and the brightest to the University. One of his ideas, that students should be able to study the first two years of college in their own communities to be better prepared for the rigors of college, helped lead to the creation of the community college system in the United States.

Nat Turner

He was a religious mystic who felt that he was ordained by God to lead the struggle to destroy slavery. His plan was to murder as many whites as possible in the process. In one August night in 1831, some 55 whites were killed before most of the slave rebels were killed or captured. On November 5, this leader was tried and convicted; six days later, he was executed by hanging. His rebellion caused a wave of vindictive legislation in the South against all African Americans, which limited their few privileges and restricted their activities. It also ended all discussions of gradually emancipating slaves in the Upper South and virtually destroyed any hopes of ending slavery by reform.

Francisco Pizarro

He was a spanish conquistador that traveled to South America and took over the Incan Empire

Ben Franklin

He was a writer, scientist, delegate to the Continental Congress, signer of the Declaration of Independence, and delegate to the Constitutional Convention.

John Trumbull

He was an American artist during the period of the American Revolutionary War famous for his historical paintings including his Declaration of Independence.

Langston Hughes

He was an American poet, novelist, playwright, and columnist. He was one of the earliest innovators of the new literary art form jazz poetry. He is best-known for his work during the Harlem Renaissance. He famously wrote about the period that "Harlem was in vogue".

John Wilkes Booth

He was an American stage actor who assassinated President Abraham Lincoln at Ford's Theatre, in Washington, D.C., on April 14, 1865. He was a Confederate sympathizer vehement in his denunciation of the Lincoln Administration and outraged by the South's defeat in the American Civil War. He strongly opposed the abolition of slavery in the United States and Lincoln's proposal to extend voting rights to recently emancipated slaves. After shooting the president, he shouted, "Sic semper tyrannis! The South is avenged!"

George Whitfield

He was an Anglican minister with great oratorical skills. His emotion-charged sermons were a centerpiece of the Great Awakening in the American colonies in the 1740s.

Robert Fulton

He was an excellent inventor, engineer, and naval architect. He was especially recognized for his inventions that substantially improved steamboats. His first steamboat, called the Clermont, left New York City for its first trip up the Hudson River to Albany (about 130 miles) in 1807. A huge success, he built many more steamboats and vastly improved the fledgling transportation network in the United States by making upstream river transport more efficient, reliable, and affordable.

General George Washington

He was appointed by the Second Continental Congress as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in 1775. His ability to learn under duress and refusal to accept defeat kept an American army in the field. At the Battle of Yorktown in 1781 with French troop and naval support, he was able to entrap the British troops and force surrender. At the end of the war in 1783, he was the most famous man in America.

Louis Sullivan

He was arguably America's most important modern architect. His contributions were the development of high-rise commercial buildings at the end of the 19th century. He was determined to unite the priorities of commercial endeavor with aesthetic imperatives. "[The high rise] must be tall," he wrote in 1896. "It must be every inch a proud and soaring thing, rising in sheer exultation . . . from bottom to top . . . without a single dissenting line." The "skyscraper" as a new thing under the sun, an entity with . . . beauty all its own, was born.

Benedict Arnold

He was arguably the finest tactical commander in the Continental Army and directly responsible for several important American victories. But his tempestuous disposition alienated friends and superiors alike. Furious because of a lack of recognition, he threatened to resign and ultimately considered joining with the British. When he offered to betray West Point to the British for a large cash sum, he fled to the safety of a British warship, completing the most notorious episode of treason in U.S. history.

Roger Williams

He was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony for challenging Puritan ideas. He later established Rhode Island and helped it to foster religious toleration and separation of church and state.

Frederick Douglass

He was born a slave around 1817 in Maryland. In 1838, he escaped using the borrowed papers of a free African-American sailor. He soon became one of the abolition movement's star orators, traveling throughout the North to lecture to large audiences. To prove the truth of what he said, in 1845 he published an account of his experiences in slavery, "Narrative of the Life..." Two years later, he started his own abolitionist newspaper, the North Star. He welcomed the coming of the Civil War, which to him was a crusade for freedom. He urged President Abraham Lincoln to free the slaves as a war measure and to let African Americans fight in the Union Army.

Chief Joseph

He was chief of the Nez Perce Indians who conducted one of the most epic retreats in military history. Across 1,700 miles of foreboding terrain, they evaded 10 columns of U.S. Army troops and beat them in 18 skirmishes, only to succumb to exhaustion. This leader's surrender to the US Army marked a turning point in Native Americans' attempt to maintain their sovereignty. The Nez Perce were then sent to reservations in Oklahoma.

Admiral Chester Nimitz

He was commander in chief of the Pacific Fleet throughout World War II. As rapidly as ships, men, and material became available, he shifted to the offensive and defeated the Japanese navy in the Battle of the Coral Sea, and the pivotal Battle of Midway. He culminated his long-range island-hopping strategy by successful amphibious assaults on Iwo Jima and Okinawa. On September 2,1945 he signed for the United States when Japan formally surrendered on board the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay.

William Westmoreland

He was commander of the 500,000 American forces in South Vietnam and he directed the American ground effort until March 1968. His strategy remains the subject of heated debate. Critics suggest that he misunderstood the nature of the war, which required small-unit pacification operations rather than large-scale, main force attacks. Others continue to endorse his strategy, arguing that the civilian-imposed limits on operations led to its failure.

William McKinley

He was elected president in 1896. His first priorities in office were to defend the gold standard and secure the passage of a new high protective tariff, but he is more remembered as the president when the United States became a world power at the turn of the 20th century. During his administration, the country defeated Spain in the Spanish-American War, annexed the Hawaiian Islands, and acquired other overseas colonial possessions. He won reelection in 1900, but was assassinated by anarchist Leon Czolgosz in 1901.

Where was Babur from?

He was from Afghanistan

Malcolm X

He was important in shaping a Black Muslim and black power movement that challenged the nonviolent and integrationist struggle for African-American equality favored by Martin Luther King Jr. Instead of integration and equality, advocated black separatism and self-dependence, using violent means if necessary for self-defense. But in 1964 he modified his views and publicly broke with the Black Muslims and preached racial solidarity. A year later he was assassinated while addressing a rally in Harlem, New York. Three Nation of Islam members were convicted of his murder.

Al Capone

He was one of America's most notorious criminals, and the crime organization that he created in the 1920s became a symbol of the Mafia. In addition to the flourishing trade in alcohol, the mob expanded its operations in gambling, prostitution and bribery during the 1920s. In 1931, the U.S. Department of Justice successfully prosecuted him for income tax invasion, resulting in a 10-year prison sentence.

Matthew Perry

He was one of the foremost naval officers of his generation. His experiments with steam vessels rendered him the "father of the steam navy." But his dramatic visit to Japan was the catalyst for dramatic global change. Japan existed in a state of self-imposed isolation dating back to 1640 when the Tokugawa shogunate, recognizing the danger foreign influence represented to its rule, sealed the county off from the outside world. But this American Naval Commander recognized that the Tokugawa regime would respect force. His squadron made its unannounced appearance in Japan on July 8, 1853. After two and a half centuries of isolation, Japan was "opened" to world trade and technology and it began to assume its role as a world player.

President John Adams

He was one of the lawyers who agreed to defend the British soldiers involved in the Boston Massacre. At the Second Continental Congress in 1775, he pressed for a complete break with England . In 1778, he was sent to Europe to obtain a treaty of alliance with France. Later, he returned to France and in concert with Franklin and John Jay, negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1783) with Great Britain to end the revolution. He was elected the first vice president of the United States. In 1796, he overcame Hamilton's opposition to his candidacy to win a narrow victory for the presidency. Vilified by the Republicans for not vetoing the Alien and Sedition Acts, he was defeated for reelection by Jefferson in 1800.

Pancho Villa

He was one of the most prominent Mexican Revolutionary generals. His reputation as a "bandit" grew when he seized hacienda land for distribution to peasants and soldiers and robbed and commandeered trains. In 1916, he led a raid on the New Mexico town of Columbus. His gang killed 10 civilians and 8 soldiers, and burned the town, took many horses and mules, seized available machine guns, ammunition and merchandise, before they returned to Mexico. On March 15, on orders from President Woodrow Wilson, General John J. Pershing led an expeditionary force of 4,800 men into Mexico to capture this leader. While Pershing failed to caputre his target, he and his troops reduced Mexican incursions in to the United States.

J.P. Morgan

He was one of the richest men in America and was a dominant figure in the U.S. economy during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He reorganized American railroads, becoming the greatest railroad magnate of his day. He also funded mergers between several prominent American companies, creating large American corporations, including General Electric Company, AT&T, and the United States Steel Corporation. His growing success and power frightened many people and prompted the U.S. government to take a more active part in regulating the economy.

What made Akbar a successful ruler?

He was religiously tolerant, a good ruler, and conquered a lot.

William Penn

He was the Quaker proprietor of a colony that became a refuge for persecuted Quakers. He treated Indians fairly, and his well-advertised colony became the most economically successful in English North America.

Frederick Jackson Turner

He was the author of a provocative essay, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History," that opened up a new period in the interpretation of American history. He believed that the frontier had shaped the American character; from it stemmed the American's toughness, resourcefulness, and individualism, as well as American democracy. He is also remembered as a historian who brought to historical research a scientific and interdisciplinary approach.

Robert Kennedy

He was the brother of President John F. Kennedy and served as his Attorney General and advisor. After JFK's assassination, he resigned as attorney general and was elected senator for New York. When running for president in 1968, he advocated social justice and civil rights at home and an end to the Vietnam War. On 5 June 1968, after winning the Californian primary election, he was shot by Sirhan Bissara Sirhan who alleged that he supported the Zionist cause against the Arabs. He died the following day.

John J. Pershing

He was the commander of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) in World War I. Eventually commanding a force of 2 million men, he landed in France on June 14, 1917. He initially resisted attempts by Allied generals to disperse American forces along the front, instead insisting that the AEF remain a "distinct and separate component" in compliance with his orders. He returned to the United States in September 1919 as a national hero.

Gerneral Robert E. Lee

He was the commander of the Confederacy's Army of Northern Virginia. Always outnumbered but never outfought, he was one of the most brilliant tacticians in American military history and the embodiment of Southern military prowess during the Civil War. For three years, he defied and outmaneuvered superior numbers of Union troops, though his Army of Northern Virginia was perpetually short of men, equipment, and supplies. He surrendered to General Grant at Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia, in 1865.

Emperor Montezuma II

He was the emperor of the Aztec Empire, and he was captured and killed during war.

John Winthrop

He was the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. His "Model of Christian Charity" encouraged fellow Puritans to create a "city upon a hill."

John Tyler

He was the first vice president to become president following the death of the incumbent. He served only for the remainder of William Henry Harrison's term in the early 1840s because of a fierce battle with political rivals in Congress from within his own Whig Party. He could not bring himself to support Clay's American System because of his apprehension over its intrusion upon the rights of the states. After he vetoed two bills authorizing a new Bank of the United States, Clay engineered the resignation of the entire Cabinet. The crowning achievement of his administration was the annexation of Texas.

James Fenimore Cooper

He was the first writer to capture the popular imagination with stories rooted in America's own history. He wrote romances, the heroes of which embodied the ideals—courage, integrity, and love of the wilderness—of a nation destined to expand and prosper. His stories, like Last of the Mohicans, constitute an American epic, as they relate the story of the exploration of the frontier in terms of human heroism, a majestic landscape, and a sense of national destiny.

Andy Warhol

He was the foremost prophet and practitioner of the American pop art movement of the late 1950s and 1960s. His art was intentionally devoid of emotional and social comment. He produced more than 2,000 images, including a silk-screen series of star portraits and a series of sculptures that duplicated product wrappings. His famous dictum, "I like boring things," was evidenced in repetition and duplication (210 Coke Bottles and Twenty-Five Colored Marilyns) to alter our concepts of meaning in art.

Boss Tweed

He was the leader of New York's Tammany Hall and the most notorious of all late nineteenth-century corrupt politicians. He controlled thousands of patronage jobs and millions of dollars in contracts and government benefits. He could and did steer city contracts to those who paid the biggest bribes or kickbacks or did the biggest favors for his Tammany political machine. He was lampooned by cartoonist Thomas Nast, and eventually jailed.

Ralph Waldo Emerson

He was the leading transcendentalist thinker of the early nineteenth century. Optimism and self-confidence marked his philosophy, and, like other romantics, he glorified individualism. His essay "Self-Reliance" articulated a particularly American notion of the independence of the individual within society. He is widely regarded as the father of American literature.

General Ulysses S. Grant

In 1864, President Lincoln placed this victorious commander at Vicksburg in command of all Union forces. He slowly battered Lee's armies into submission around Richmond in 1864-1865, and received Lee's surrender at Appomattox Courthouse. He was elected president in 1868 and 1872 and guided the nation through the difficult period of Reconstruction. His scandal-ridden administration seemed to suggest a transition into a new "gilded age."

Gilbert Stuart

He was the most important and the most technically accomplished portrait painter in the years after the American Revolution, and his many paintings of the new country's president, George Washington, were in great demand. In the early fall of 1796, the president sat for a portrait. Commissioned by Martha Washington, it was never finished. Nevertheless, it became the most popular image of Washington, and it appears on the United States' $1 bill. Following the national government to Washington, D.C., he painted Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and James Monroe.

Thomas Nast

He was the most important political cartoonist in 19th-century America, known for exposing government corruption. His legacy lives on—it was he who made the donkey and the elephant the symbols of the Democratic and Republican parties and who created the roly-poly image of Santa Claus, modeled on himself. His greatest triumph occurred in 1869, when he launched a campaign to expose the corruption of the Tweed Ring, which under the leadership of Tammany Hall boss William Marcy Tweed had robbed New York City of $100 million.

General George Patton

He was the most outstanding American combat general of World War II. Known as much for his showmanship and eccentric behavior as for his boldness, he was an extraordinarily intellectual and cultured man who employed his encyclopedic knowledge of history to fight his battles. His command of the U.S. Seventh Army during the Sicily campaign in the summer of 1943 brought him fame. He then commanded the Third Army, which spearheaded the breakout from the Normandy bridgehead in early August 1944. His finest hour occurred during the Battle of the Bulge when he turned Third Army to the north in record time to relieve Bastogne and help ensure the failure of the German attack.

William Lloyd Garrison

He was the publisher of "The Liberator," and an immediate abolitionist. The Liberator created a stir by sternly denouncing slavery as a crime and a sin and calling for its immediate abolition without compensation for slave owners. He also advocated full equality for African Americans. For the next 35 years, the paper was the leading vehicle of antislavery thought.

Joseph Pulitzer

He was the publisher of the first newspaper publisher to reach a truly mass audience--the "New York World." He did it with a combination of sensationalism, solid political and financial coverage, and civic crusading. His sensational coverage and fierce competitiveness with William Randolph Hearst led to the spread of yellow journalism at the end of the 19th century.

Edmund Andros

He was the royal governor of the Dominion of New England. Colonists resented his enforcement of the Navigation Acts and the attempt to abolish the colonial assembly.

Emperor Atahualpa

He was the ruler of the Incan Empire, and he was captured and killed.

Hernando Cortes (1519)

He was the spanish conquistador that conquered the Aztecs.

William Jennings Bryan

He was the voice of the Democratic Party at the turn of the 20th century and a leading advocate of free silver and as a loyal spokesman for the Midwest and West. Nominated by Democrats and Populists in 1896, he campaigned energetically, staging one of the first national traveling campaigns, before losing to his Republican opponent, William McKinley. A fundamentalist crusader, he took a militant position against the theory of evolution. In the summer of 1925, he appeared as prosecutor in the famous Scopes trial and won his case against the teaching of evolution in schools. He died in his sleep on July 26, 1925, a few days after the trial ended.

Military Industrial Complex

Heavy defense spending, opposed even by former General Eisenhower.

Dry Farming

Helped in times of drought, it tried to conserve moisture and then use it

Radio Corporations

Helped provide information on the war

Who led the Spanish invasion of Mexico?

Hernan Cortes

Simple Chiefdoms

Hierarchical political organization controlled by select elites (inherited role)

Robert E. Lee

High-ranking general for the Confederacy, former Union commander

Conspicuous Consumption

Highly visible displays of wealth and consumption

William Howard Taft

His experience as governor of the newly acquired Philippines and then Secretary of War led President Theodore Roosevelt to support his nomination as President in 1908. Having to serve after the immensely popular Roosevelt was perhaps his greatest handicap. Although he instituted twice as many anti-trust suits as Roosevelt, and although the supported the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amendments, he lost support of Progressives when he compromised the tariff issue and forced the resignation of Gifford Pinchot. In foreign affairs, he replaced the Roosevelt "Big Stick" military posturing for an economic influence called "Dollar Diplomacy." He lost his bid for re-election in 1912 because of the defection of Roosevelt, who ran on a "Bull Moose" ticket. The split vote helped Woodrow Wilson win the presidency in 1912. He later became the 10th Chief Justice on the United States Supreme Court. He was the only man to hold both positions.

George Washington

His first military action occurred on the frontier in 1754. During a campaign to dislodge French and Indian troops in the Ohio Valley, his troops were overwhelmed at Fort Necessity by a larger and better positioned French and Indian force. Released by the French, he later becme an aide to British General Edward Braddock. By 1758, he participated in the expedition that prompted French evacuation of Fort Duquesne, and British establishment of Pittsburgh.

John Jay

His involvement in the First Continental Congress drew him into full-time public service. He was elected president of the Second Continental Congress on December 10, 1778. Along with Ben Franklin and John Adams, he successfully negotiated the terms of the Treaty of Paris in 1783. Convinced that the Articles of Confederation did not provide a strong enough central government, he wrote five Federalist Papers in support of the new Constitution. President George Washington named him to be the first chief justice of the Supreme Court. Washington then asked him in 1794 to negotiate a treaty with Great Britain that recognized U.S. neutrality rights. His success was limited. The treaty he returned with bought time and helped avoid a war, but it did not contain British acceptance of American neutrality rights or halt the impressment of American seamen. He resigned as chief justice in 1795 to become governor of New York.

President Ronald Reagan

His presidency may well be regarded as one of the most important in 20th-century U.S. history. He lowered taxes and increased defense spending. Unemployment dropped and inflation declined. From 1983 to 1990, the nation enjoyed one of the longest stretches of uninterrupted economic growth in its history. On the other hand, by 1988, the national debt had soared past $3 trillion. In the area of foreign policy, he adopted a hostile attitude toward the Soviet Union, which he described as the "Evil Empire." His vast defense expenditures and determination to battle communist aggression everywhere contributed to the demise of the Soviet Union.

Washington Irving

His stories and sketches made him the first American writer with an international reputation as a man of letters. His two best-known pieces, "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," became legends and are the first fully developed examples of the American short story.

Southwest Indians

Hopi and Zuni, drought caused groups to decline - survivors became the Pueblo Indians who advanced in farming and irrigation

Terra Nullius

Indian lands were wilderness and could be claimed by US; 18th century

Tituba (Breslaw): Ethnic background and probable place of origin? Event she contributed to? Where? When?

Indian/northeastern coast of South America/Salem Witch Trials/Salem/1690s

Merrit

How you are ranked in society

Black Panthers

Huey Newton and Bobby Seale founded this group in October 1966. Its 10-point program demanded freedom, full employment for African Americans, decent housing and education, an end to capitalist exploitation and police brutality, and the release of all African Americans in jail. They promoted the use of physical force and armed confrontation for black liberation.

Dorthea Dix

Imbued with the spirit of reform, she embarked on a study of the prevailing treatment of the mentally ill. She discovered that most institutions housed the insane under sordid conditions, neglecting and abusing them. She was successful in securing funds for new institutions. Not long after the outbreak of the Civil War, she proposed the plan to establish a volunteer corps of women nurses. Commissioned as superintendent of women nurses for the Union Army, she began the difficult task of finding nurses and procuring medical supplies. After the war, she continued her work for the mentally ill, raising money for the more than 50 hospitals that had been established as a result of her efforts.

Dollar Diplomacy

Implemented by W.H. Taft, it was a 'weapon' where political influence would follow increased U.S. trade and investment.

Jane Addams

Improver of health, education, and welfare in urban immigrant neighborhoods, founder of the Hull House (while she was newly college-educated)

Hernan Cortes

In 1519 he found the Aztec empire in Tenochtitlan and conquered the city and due to disease (smallpox) wiped out the Aztecs

Boston Tea Party

In 1773, patriot colonists led by the Sons of Liberty protested the Tea Act and the monopoly granted to the British East India Company by boarding three British ships in Boston Harbor and destroying 342 chests of Britsh Tea.

Continental Association

In 1774, the First Continental Congress called for the boycott of British goods and the stopping of exports to England. This organization was created to enforce these measures. Local committees were established to enforce the provisions of the association.

Bank of the United States

In 1791 Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton proposed the creation of this to store government funds, collect and expend government revenue, and issue common currency to serve as a national medium of exchange. Hamilton defended this institution as "necessary and proper" and therefore constitutional. Strict constructionists, like Jefferson and Madison however, believed it to be unconstitutional.

Citizen Genet

In 1793 he was dispatched to the United States to promote American support for France's wars with Spain and Britain. His goals in were to recruit and arm American privateers which would join French expeditions against the British. He also organized American volunteers to fight Britain's Spanish allies in Florida. His actions endangered American neutrality in the war between France and Britain, which Washington had pointedly declared in his Neutrality Proclamation.

Alien and Sedition Acts

In 1798 the Federalist Congress passed these four acts to attack the Republican party and suppress dissent against Federalist policies. The Acts curtailed freedom of speech and the liberty of foreigners resident in the United States. Democratic-Republicans maintained that the acts were an unconstitutional weapon to suppress political dissent, and the acts themselves proved wildly unpopular.

Specie Circular

In 1836, President Jackson issued this executive order to halt a speculative land mania fueled by the easy availability of paper currency issued by pet banks and state banks. This order provided that purchasers must pay for public land in gold and silver. It abruptly halted the speculative boom and contributed to the Panic of 1837.

John C. Fremont

In 1838 this second lieutenant in the U.S. Topographical Corps became famous after writing a lively account of a journey he made with the frontiersman Kit Carson. In 1843, his adventures exploring Oregon created a sensation, and his account became an important travel guide to the American West. In early 1846, while on another exploratory journey in northern California, he received word from President Polk that war with Mexico was imminent. He took part in the Bear Flag Revolt against Mexican rule in June. He then took command of the Bear Flag Republic, the nickname of the newly independent Republic of California. American troops arrived in California in July, and soon California was proclaimed to be a part of the United States. In December 1850, he was elected one of California's first U.S. senators. In 1856, he was nominated as the new Republican Party's first antislavery presidential candidate.

Wilmot Proviso

In 1846 a Pennsylvania Congressman introduced an amendment to an appropriations bill that provided for banning slavery from any territory the United States might acquire from Mexico as a result of war. It never passed Congress, but it reignited the slavery debate by generating questions about the authority of the federal government to ban slavery from the territories.

Zachary Taylor

In 1846, President Polk ordered him to lead a small American army to Texas to defend the Rio Grande as the southern border. Fighting broke out between his forces and the Mexican Army in April 1846. His victory against a Mexican army four times the size as his at Buena Vista was his most spectacular victory and he was embraced as a national hero. He was elected president in 1848- at a time of national crisis. The central issue concerned whether slavery was going to be allowed into the territory acquired from Mexico. This Whig president made it clear that he did not support the extension of slavery. He met Southern threats of secession with the promise that if any state tried to leave the Union, he would personally lead the U.S. Army against it. He promised to veto the proposed Compromise of 1850. His tragic death on July 9, 1850 enabled his successor, Millard Fillmore, to secure the passage of the Compromise of 1850.

Republican Party

In 1854, Northern outrage over the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act prompted several independent political factions—including the Free Soil Party, the Know-Nothings, former Whigs, and other smaller groups—to come together to form this political party. The party was formed to oppose what its members perceived as the growing political power of the South during the 1850s and to oppose the extension of slavery into newly acquired Western territories. In 1860, the party chose Abraham Lincoln, an unknown moderate and former Whig from Illinois, for the presidency. In the mid-19th century, the party was known for leading the Union war effort during the Civil War and supporting the rights of newly freed African Americans during Reconstruction.

Abraham Lincoln

In 1858, the Illinois Republican Party nominated him to run for the Senate against Democrat Stephen A. Douglas. In his acceptance speech, he identified slavery as the most serious threat to the union:"A house divided against itself cannot stand." He hoped that by preventing the expansion of slavery, its ultimate extinction could be gradually obtained. He challenged Senator Douglas to a series of debates. What they said was reported across the nation. Though he lost the Senate election to Douglas, he was again nominated by the Republican Party to run for president in 1860. His victory in that contest prompted South Carolina to secede from the union. The Civil War dominated his presidency.

what role did religion play in the Pueblo Revolt?

In 1860, pueblo Indians revolted because of inhumane labor and religious repression, forced to convert to Catholicism, 12 years for Spanish to regain control of Santa Fe, Don Diego de Vargas offered full pardon if converted to Christianity, keep tribal religion

Homestead Act

In 1862, Congress passed this act that gave 160 acres of public land to any settler who would farm and improve the land within five years of the grant. It encouraged westward migration into the Great Plains after the Civil War. This remained in effect for over a century. During that time, over 2 million people filed for a homestead on a quarter section of public domain land. However, only about 40%, or 783,000, succeeded in finally earning the title to their property.

Little Big Horn

In 1876, Colonel George A. Custer and 260 of his men were killed by Sioux Indians led by Sitting Bull at this battle in southern Montana. "Custer's Last Stand" became enshrined in American mythology as a symbol of the brutality of the Indian wars, although there is substantial evidence that Custer acted recklessly in attacking the large Indian encampment.

The trust

In 1882, this new business organization was designed by Standard Oil. All shares of stock from participating companies were held for the company owners by a small number of trustees. The trustees established prices and divided markets, thus eliminating competition and financially disastrous price wars among the participating companies. Owners profited from better earnings, stockholders profited from better dividends, and trustees profited from the fees they collected. Before long, many industires adopted this form of business organization. But their growing power and influence led newspapers, politicians, and the public to increasingly attack these business organizations, especially Standard Oil.

Dawes Allotment Act

In 1887 the government broke down the former systems of living into private parcels. Also forced patriarchal nuclear family ideals onto Native peoples

Jane Addams

In 1889, she moved into a mansion donated by Charles Hull on the west side of Chicago. She then transformed the mansion into the "Hull House," the nation's first settlement house. Hull House helped new immigrants and others in need with a variety of programs. At one time or another, it offered kindergarten and daycare facilities for children of working mothers, an employment bureau, an art gallery, libraries, music and art classes, a theater, and a meeting place for trade unions. In 1931, this founder became the first American woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize.

Sherman Anti-Trust Act

In 1890, Congress passed the first federal law to regulate large corporations and trusts and eliminate monopolies. It based on the constitutional power of Congress to oversee interstate commerce. The act outlawed any contract, combination, or conspiracy that restrained trade or monopolized any market. The act established a precedent for subsequent antitrust legislation and laid the groundwork for the trust-busting campaigns of President Theodore Roosevelt in the early 20th century.

Front Porch Campaign

In 1896, William McKinley conducted this low-key campaign wherein he never left his Canton, Ohio home. Large crowds of spectators were brought to his home to meet the candidate. This campaign contrasted sharply with McKinley'sopposing candidate, William Jennings Bryan, who gave over 600 speeches and traveled many miles all over the United States to campaign. McKinley outdid this by spending about twice as much money. McKinley won this election.

Square Deal

In 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt introduced this domestic program, which emphasized the conservation of natural resources, control of corporations, and consumer protection. Among its accomplishments, this program helped the middle class by attacking powerful trusts and monopolies. Roosevelt also created a new Department of Commerce and Labor, and managed to quell a number of labor strikes.

Northern Securities Case

In 1904, a Supreme Court decision ruled that this giant railroad holding Company had violated the Sherman Act. The case, the first successful federal prosecution of a single interstate corporation, was a signal victory for Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt did not want to eliminate large corporations, he used antitrust prosecutions to enhance the authority of the executive branch. With this and other successful suits, Roosevelt won acclaim as the great "trustbuster."

Warren G. Harding

In 1920, Republican presidential candidate promised "less government in business and more business in government" to help bring back prosperity after the recession and inflation that followed World War I. He promised to keep America out of the League of Nations and to return the country to "normalcy," or the way it used to be before the traumas of World War I, postwar inflation, labor unrest, and recession. It was precisely the right theme for the time. But prosperity was no substitute for leadership, as his incompetent, scandal-ridden administration would soon prove.

Sacco and Vanzetti

In 1920, these two Italian immigrants were arrested for an armed robbery in which two men had been killed. In the eyes of immigrant union members, left-wing radicals, and rebels of all kinds, they were innocent men who were being railroaded for their political beliefs. Members of the established power structure saw them as dangerous foreigners out to subvert the American way of life. In what many observers felt was an unfair trial, both men were convicted of murder and given the death penalty. The question of the two men's guilt or innocence is still a matter of historical controversy.

Warren Harding

In 1920, this Republican presidential candidate promised "less government in business and more business in government" to help bring back prosperity after the recession and inflation that followed World War I. But prosperity was no substitute for leadership. After becoming president, he admitted to his friend, "I knew that this job would be too much for me." He was right. The widespread abuse of the public trust by his cronies shocked the nation. The most notorious abuse was the Teapot Dome scandal by Secretary of Interior, Albert Fall.

Native Americans had no religion

Indians are deeply religious. Each tribe has its own religion

Andrew Mellon

In 1921, President Harding selected this man to be secretary of the treasury. He proved so competent at dealing with the broad range of complicated economic issues that he was retained in this position in the succeeding Coolidge and Hoover administrations. He reduced individual and corporate tax rates and substantially cut the federal budget. He also significantly lowered the national debt, from $24 billion to $16 billion. His policies were hailed by many Americans during the prosperous 1920s but drew criticism as the country sank into a deep depression in the early 1930s.

Hawley-Smoot Tariff

In 1930, Congress enacted this tariff which raised U.S. tariffs on over 20,000 imported goods to record levels. Unable to earn American dollars in trade, Europeans could not make their war debt payments, which further aggravated the depression of both the American and European economies. Ensuing retaliatory tariffs by U.S. trading partners reduced American exports and imports by more than half. Some economists have opined that the tariffs contributed to the severity of the Great Depression

Court Packing Plan

In 1937 in one of his fireside chats, President Franklin D. Roosevelt announced this plan to the public. In the preceding years, the U.S. Supreme Court had declared several components of his New Deal program unconstitutional, so Roosevelt wanted to appoint additional justices to the Court who would be more sympathetic to his policies. This plan met with widespread public and congressional condemnation, as Roosevelt was accused of suggesting a major constitutional reform without sufficient cause, and the plan was ultimately defeated.

Destroyers for Bases

In 1940, the Roosevelt Administration was sympathetic to Britain's plight in the European War, but American public opinion at the time overwhelmingly supported isolationism. President Roosevelt arranged this deal to trade fifty old American naval destroyers to Britain in exchange for six Caribbean naval bases. It was a shrewd deal that helped save Britain's fleet and bolster U.S. defenses in the Atlantic.

Four Freedoms

In 1941, before the United States entered World War II, President Roosevelt enumerated these goals for world peace and for which World War II was being fought--freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from want, and freedom from fear.

Marshall Plan

In 1947, the Secretary of State proposed a massive economic aid program to rebuild the war-torn economies of European nations. The plan was motivated both by humanitarian concern for the conditions of those nations' economies and by fear that their economic dislocation would promote the spread of communism in Europe, particularly Western Europe. More than any other enterprise, the $17 billion in American aid under this program stimulated the speedy recovery of Europe from the dislocation of war.

Alger Hiss

In 1948, "this former State Department officer was accused of having been a communist in the 1930s. He was convicted of perjury sentenced to a five-year term in prison. This case fed the fears of many Americans that a communist underground was operating in the United States and had agents within the government. .

NATO

In 1948, the United States, Canada, and ten European nations formed this a military mutual-defense pact. General Eisenhower was the first commander of these forces. The Soviet Union countered this alliance with the formation of the Warsaw Pact. Originating as an anticommunist alliance during the cold war, this alliance has recently sought to redefine its role as East-West tensions have eased.

McCarran Internal Security Act

In 1950, Congress passed this law over President Truman's veto. This measure required communists and other groups deemed subversive to register with the U.S. attorney general. Furthermore, it prevented members of these identified organizations from holding government or defense employment and denied them passports. Additionally, it prohibited any alien's entry to the United States if he or she had ever belonged to the Communist Party. The act is indicative of the anti-communist fear of the 1950s.

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg

In 1950, this former member of the American Communist Party was arrested for spying and providing Russia with secrets about the atomic bomb. His wife, a homemaker and political activist, was also arrested and charged with assisting her husband with his espionage activities. The trial ended in1951, and the jury found both guilty of espionage. Their death sentence was pronounced and they were electrocuted at on June 19, 1953—the only civilians ever to be executed for spying.

Watergate

In 1972, several men were caught breaking into the offices of the Democratic National Committee in the Watergate building in Washington, D.C. It was soon revealed that at least some of the burglars had ties to people in the presidential administration of Richard Nixon. Senate inquiries revealed that Nixon himself had directed a cover-up of the crime. Secret recordings made by Nixon of Oval Office conversations revealed the extent to which Nixon himself was involved. By 1974, the House Judiciary Committee voted three articles of impeachment against Nixon. Rather than face that certainty, on August 9, 1974, Nixon became the first U.S. president ever to resign from office.

Pequot War

Indians had initially attempted to from alliances with the colonists to pose a threat for inland tribes, when a fur trader was killed by the Pequot Indians Connecticut and Massachusetts soldiers surrounded the village and set it ablaze killing 500 Indians

Kellogg-Briand Pact

In August 1928, representatives of a number of nations met in Paris to sign this pact to renounce war. It was subsequently adopted by over sixty governments. It represented the most ambitious attempt to outlaw war that the modern world had yet seen; at its heart lay the simple notion that war ought to be illegal. In the end, despite the noble intentions of those who promoted the Pact, its lack of any means of enforcement guaranteed its failure.

March on Washington

In August 1963, this rally was arranged to push for a comprehensive civil rights bill in Congress, to call for national desegregation of schools, and to demand a higher minimum wage. Leaders of the event included A. Philip Randolph, and Martin Luther King Jr., president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. In all, some 200,000 people marched to Lincoln Memorial, where King delivered his famous "I Have A Dream" speech. The procession gave a new and fresh impetus to the growing civil rights movement and showed the government that action was needed quickly.

Hartford Convention

In December 1814, this meeting of Federalists in Connecticut was organized to protest the War of 1812 and propose several constitutional amendments, including changes to protect the commercial interests of New England. These antiwar Federalists were discredited when the United States achieved an honorable peace in the Treaty of Ghent that same month. This meeting became a synonym for disloyalty and treason, and the Federalist Party, which rapidly declined after the war, never lived down its notoriety.

Tet Offensive

In February 1968, the North Vietnamese and Vietcong (communist guerrillas) in South Vietnam launched a major offensive against Saigon and more than ninety other towns and fifty small villages, hoping to provoke widespread rebellion in the country. The name is derived from the word for the lunar new-year celebrations, during which the attack was launched. The effort failed, but the psychological impact on South Vietnam and the United States made it a great victory for the Vietcong and North Vietnam. The United States thereafter reversed its policy of escalation and began to Vietnamize the war.

Stephen A. Austin

In January 1822, he established the first legal settlement of Anglo-Americans in Texas. Largely through his efforts, by 1830 there were over 20,000 Americans living in Texas. As an empresario, he did more than settle colonists. He also mapped and charted bays and rivers, promoted commerce with the United States, and encouraged the growth of commercial enterprises and the establishment of schools. He is considered the founder of Anglo-American Texas.

Open Door Policy

In January 1900, Secretary of State John Hay announced this policy. It emphasized the economic development of China, which would preserve China's independence and political unity. It called for free access for all nations to the Chinese ports, in contrast to the practice of claiming exclusive spheres of influence by individual powers. Actually, few nations--including the United States--adhered to it in practice.

Bonus Army

In June 1932, these 20,000 World War I veterans marched on Washington, D.C., to demand immediate payment of their "adjusted compensation" bonuses voted by Congress in 1924. Congress rejected their demands, and President Hoover had the army forcefully remove them from their encampment. He feared their ranks were infested with criminals and radicals. The event proved to be the fatal blow to Hoover's political career; Franklin D. Roosevelt used the incident against him during the election of 1932.

Sherman's March

In September 1864, General William Sherman's army captured Atlanta and began marching toward Savannah on the Georgia coast. He intended to defeat the enemy's forces, destroy its economic resources, and break its will to resist. Sherman himself estimated his raid had inflicted $100 million worth of damage. Sherman's strategy of destruction was designed, as his own saying went, to "make Georgia howl."

John C. Calhoun

In a remarkable 40-year political career, he played a vital role in protecting Southern interests. At the beginning of his congressional career, he was a militant nationalist. In Congress, he joined a group of young men led by Henry Clay who were known as War Hawks. Years later, as a political philosopher and statesman, he defended the institution of slavery as "a positive good," and as an ardent proponent of states' rights, he authored the South Carolina Exposition and Protest that advanced the right of the South to nullify those laws passed by the national legislature that were viewed as harmful to its sectional interests.

Plains Indian Prisoners

Indians imprisoned without trial because a war between a ward and its federal government was illegal.

California Indians

Indians lived in independent villages and were fisherman and gatherers (Pomo, Costano, Luiseno)

Great Plains Indians

Indians were hunters because of the bison herds (Apache, Crow, Flathead)

Proclamation of 1763

In an effort to avoid any future conflict with the Native Americans after the French and Indian War, the British issued this proclamation--that no English colonists shall be allowed to settle west of the Appalachian Mountains. Passed in the wake of Pontiac's Rebellion, the edict forbade private citizens and colonial governments alike to buy land from or make any agreements with natives; the empire would conduct all official relations. Theoretically the act protected colonists from Indian rampages, the measure was also intended to shield Native Americans from increasingly frequent attacks by white settlers. The majority of colonists despised the proclamation because it restricted their freedom to settle on western lands. It became one in a long list of colonial grievances against the British.

Stagflation

In economics, this term is a situation in which the inflation rate is high and the economic growth rate is low. It raises a dilemma for economic policy since actions designed to lower inflation may worsen economic growth and vice versa. The Misery Index (derived by the simple addition of the inflation rate to the unemployment rate) reflected the dire economic circumstances. Presidents of the time--Nixon, Ford and Carter--all proved incapable of finding a remedy for this troublesome economy that characterized the 1970s.

nullification

In his 1828 "South Carolina Exposition and Protest," John C. Calhoun argued that if an act of Congress violated the Constitution, a state could interpose its authority and declare it legally void or inoperative--within its own boundaries. This policy would evolve into the doctrine of states' rights and even secession.

funding

In his Report on Public Credit in 1791, Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton recommended that the national debt be funded at par. This meant calling in all outstanding securities and issuing new bonds of the same face value in their place, and establishing an untouchable sinking fund to assure payment of the interest and principal of the new bonds.

Hinton Helper

In his book, The Impending Crisis of the South, he blamed the South's economic stagnation on slavery, which he claimed hindered the development of a free white labor sector. He did not concern himself with the immorality of slavery or its harmful effects on African Americans; his only concern was improving the lot of nonslaveholding Southern whites. He violently denounced slaveholders and threatened a slave uprising. Although written by a native of North Carolina, this book infuriated Southerners and intensified the sectional conflict that led to the Civil War.

Underwood Tariff

In order to end the Payne-Aldrich Tariff of 1909, President Wilson called a special session of Congress to meet in April, 1913, to revise the tariff bill downwards. This progressive tariff provided for a cut in average rates from 40.8% to 27%, reducing duties on 900 items and creating new free items such as raw wool and steel rails. While partly protective, this was the first substantial reduction below 30% rates since the Civil War.

Incan Empire, Peru

It is a empire in South America, located in Chile. Their animal that they used were camels and they had a lot gold and silver.

plantation

It is a large area where people plant crops

Dominion of New England

In the 1680s, King James II reorganized the American colonies to bring greater imperial supervision of the New England colonies and New York. James II planned to combine eight northern colonies into a single large province, to be governed by a royal appointee (Sir Edmund Andros) with an appointed council but no elective assembly.

Mugwumps

In the 1884 presidential election, this group of eastern Republicans, disgusted with corruption in the party, campaigned for the Democratic candidate Grover Cleveland. They switched parties because they rejected the financial corruption associated with Republican candidate James G. Blaine. In a close election, they supposedly made the difference in New York state and swung the election to Cleveland.

Relocation Act

In the 50's, the effort was made to remove Native people from the reservation and integrate them into the cities. By doing this, the government terminated their relationships with many tribes

impeachment

In the constitutional system of checks and balances, this power is given to the House of Representatives as a check against the executive branch. In 1868, President Andrew Johnson became the first president to be formally accused of crimes by the House. In all of American history, Andrew Johnson of Tennessee is one of only two presidents (Bill Clinton is the other) who have been formally accused of crimes serious enough to stand trial in the Senate.

Joseph McCarthy

In the early 1950s, this Wisconsin Senator conducted a witch-hunt of government employees that he charged with being communists or communist sympathizers. In the early years of the Cold War, his power and influence grew. Although he never unearthed a single communist spy, he became so powerful that even Dwight D. Eisenhower did not dare to criticize him. Televised Senate hearings eventually exposed his erratic behavior and made it obvious to the television audience that his charges were without foundation. After the televised hearings and his public humiliation, a majority of senators finally felt sufficiently secure enough to vote to censure him in 1954.

muckrakers

In the early twentieth century, this group of journalists was committed to exposing the social, economic, and political ills of industrial life. In 1906 they were given this nickname by President Theodore Roosevelt, who described them as those who raked filth rather than look up to nobler things. Their articles and books heightened moral indignation among middle-class Americans over the corruption of big business and politicians. They rallied public support for several progressive federal regulatory measures and they were the impetus for uniting fragmented local and national reform movements into a single, more potent national political movement: provressivism.

Lecompton Constitution

In the fall of 1857, proslavery delegates met to draft a state constitution for Kansas. Antislavery advocates boycotted this Constitution. In December, without the participation of antislavery advocates, the referendum on statehood easily passed. Kansas then petitioned the federal government to join the Union as a slave state. President Buchanan supported federal acceptance of this state constitution. But key Congressional leaders, led Senator Stephen A. Douglas, refused to accept this fraudulent Constitution. Kansas' application for statehood was defeated in Congress and a new referendum for all voters was held in January 1858. At that time, the voters of Kansas overwhelmingly voted to reject the Constitution. The disagreement between Buchanan and Douglas over this document further divided the Democratic party.

Era of Good Feelings

In the nationalistic spirit that followed the War of 1812, rival political parties disappeared. President Monroe was so popular and the nation appeared so secure, prosperous and content that in 1817, a Boston newspaper coined this phrase to describe the mood that had settled upon the country. The era lasted from 1817 to 1823 in which the disappearance of the Federalists enabled the Republicans to govern in a spirit of seemingly nonpartisan harmony.

Okinawa

In the spring of 1945, it was the site of the largest and final confrontation between the United States and Japanese imperial forces during World War II. The Americans hoped to capture the island so it could be used to stage raids against the Japanese mainland. The Japanese, having dug into caves and bunkers, ambushed every U.S. force. Japanese resistance included kamikaze attacks. After three months of severe fighting, the Americans finally prevailed on June 21, 1945 at a cost of 13,000 dead. Approximately150,000 Japanese soldiers and civilians died. . The tenacity of the Japanese forces convinced President Harry Truman to drop the atomic bomb on Japan rather than invade and suffer potentially horrendous losses.

Independent Treasury Act

In the wake of the Specie Circular and the Panic of 1837, President Van Buren proposed, and Congress passed this act. The system that was created took the federal government out of banking. All payments to the government were to be made in hard cash and it was to be stored in government vaults until needed.

John Dickinson

In the years leading up to the Revolution, his writings were widely read in both America and England and he gained a reputation as the "penman of the Revolution." Essays like his "Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer" helped to define American grievances. He was a member of the First and Second Continental Congresses and he helped to write the Articles of Confederation.

Saratoga

In this 1777 battle, British General Burgoyne surrendered his force to American General Horatio Gates. The American victory proved to be a turning point in the American Revolution because it thwarted a British plan to divide the colonies and it convinced France to recognize the United States and sign the Treaty of Amity and Commerce.

Rush-Bagot Agreement

In this 1817 agreement, the United States and Britain agreed to limit naval forces on the Great Lakes. Perhaps the first arms limitation agreement in history, this agreement was an example of a larger Anglo-American rapproachment that followed the War of 1812. Eventually, as an outgrowth of this decision, the entire border between Canada and the United States was demilitarized, a remarkable achievement.

McCulloch v Maryland

In this 1819 decision, the Supreme Court ruled that the second Bank of the United States was constitutional, thus affirming the doctrine of implied powers and a loose interpretation of the Constitution. The Marshall Court decision also determined that "the power to tax involves the power to destroy," thus state governments could not tax a federal agency like the Bank.

Charles River Bridge v Warren Bridge

In this 1837 Supreme Court Case, Chief Justice Roger Taney that a state had a right to place the public's convenience over that of a private or particular company, over the presumed right of monopoly granted in a corporate charter. Thus a company that had a prior long-term contract for a toll bridge over the Charles River between Boston and Cambridge—and hence a monopoly on bridge traffic—could not prevent a second company from receiving another state contract to construct a competitive toll-free bridge. It advanced the interests of those who favored economic development.

Cuban Missile Crisis

In this 1962 event, the United States and Soviet Union came close to nuclear war when the United States insisted that the Soviets remove their missiles from Cuba. The Soviets eventually did so, nuclear war was averted, and the crisis passed. The repercussions of this event were considerable. Having come closer to nuclear war than ever before, both the United States and the Soviet Union were more cautious about offensive deployment of nuclear arms during the remainder of the cold war.

Gibbons v Ogden

In this Marshall Court case, the U.S. Supreme Court invalidated a state monopoly and reaffirmed Congress' power to oversee commerce between states. Of all the cases that have interpreted the scope of congressional power under the commerce clause, none has been more important than this "steamboat case." The case established a basic precedent because it paved the way for later federal regulation of transportation, communication, buying and selling, and manufacturing. Today, little economic activity remains outside the regulatory power of Congress.

Worcester v Georgia

In this Supreme Court case, the Marshall Court held that Cherokee Native Americans were entitled to federal protection from the actions of state governments which would infringe on the tribe's sovereignty. The court established the doctrine that the national government of the United States, and not individual states, had authority in Indian affairs. However, the judicial outcome that was apparently favorable to the claims of the Cherokee was subsequently precluded by a hostile Congress and the equally hostile President Andrew Jackson. In reaction to this decision, President Andrew Jackson has often been quoted as defying the Supreme Court with the words: "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it!" Jackson did not enforce Marshall's decision, and the Cherokee were eventually relcoated to Indian Territory (part of present-day Oklahoma) in what would become known as the Trail of Tears.

Munn v. Illinois

In this case, the Supreme Court ruled that a business that served a public interest (like a railroad or grain elevator) could be regulated by state laws. The decision seemed to hold that Granger laws were constitutional.

Brown v. Board of Education

In this controversial 1954 decision, the Supreme Court reversed the 1896 "Plessy v. Ferguson" decision that established the "separate but equal" doctrine. The decision found segregation in schools inherently unequal and in violation of the Constitution. This landmark ruling paved the way for integration and the civil rights movement.

Commonwealth v Hunt

In this court case, the Massachusetts Supreme Court established the legality of labor unions, refuting the notion that they were inherently criminal conspiracies guilty of restraining trade. Other state courts followed this precedent.

Election of 1824

In this election, four candidates from the same party competed for the nation's highest office. In the end, Andrew Jackson received the most popular votes and the most electoral votes but he was not elected. Because no candidate won a majority of electoral votes, the election was thrown into the House of Representatives. Speaker of the House Henry Clay steered the election toward John Quincy Adams. When Adams then appointed Clay to be Secretary of State, Jackson and his supporters leveled charges of a "corrupt bargain."

Sentimentalism

In this era it was when there was extraordinary emphasis on sincerity and feeling; it especially pertained to women

Civil Rights Cases

In this group of five similar cases, the Supreme Court held that the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which provided that "all persons within the jurisdiction of the United States shall be entitled to the full and equal enjoyment of the accommodations" was unconstitutional. The Court held that the language of the 14th Amendment, which prohibited denial of equal protection by a state, did not give Congress power to regulate these private acts. The decision put an end to the attempts by Republicans to ensure the civil rights of blacks and ushered in the widespread segregation of blacks in housing, employment and public life that confined them to second-class citizenship throughout much of the United States until the passage of civil rights legislation in the 1960s.

Election of 1960

In this landmark presidential election, youthful John F. Kennedy defeated Vice President Richard Nixon. Kennedy was just 43 years old and a member of the US Senate. Nixon and Kennedy agreed on most basic issues, which meant the campaign boiled down to varying perceptions of the men's images. For the first time, television was a deciding factor in the outcome of an election. The largest television audience in history—an estimated 70 million adults—tuned in to a debate between Kennedy and Nixon—the first presidential debate in US history. During the debate, the two seemed evenly matched, but television viewers credited Kennedy with the win. Radio listeners felt Nixon had won. In the Novembeer election, Kennedy received 34.2 million votes to Nixon's 34.1, a difference of just 115,000 votes.

Convention of 1818

In this meeting, Britain and the United States agreed to the 49th parallel as the northern boundary of the Louisiana Territory between Lake of the Woods and the Rocky Mountains. The two nations also agreed to joint occupation of the Oregon country for ten years. This agreement was an example of a larger Anglo-American rapproachment that followed the War of 1812.

Election of 1856

In this presidential election, Democrat James Buchanan defeated Republican candidate John C. Fremont. He won the general election by denouncing the abolitionists, promising not to allow any interference with the Compromise of 1850, and supporting the principle of noninterference by Congress with slavery in the territories.

Election 1852

In this presidential election, the Whig party fieded a candidate for the last time. Whig candidate Winfield Scott was defeated decisively by Democrat Franklin Pierce in this contest for president. The Whigs split between northern "Conscience Whigs" and southern "Cotton Whigs" over the terms of the Compromise of 1850. The demise of a national political party over issues regarding slavery was an ominous sign for the nation.

Insular Cases

In this series of cases, federal courts held that "the Constitution does not follow the flag." In other words, the courts determined that full constitutional rights did not automatically extend to all areas under American control. Those who lived in American possessions were given only the rights Congress would grant.

Coureurs de bois

Independent French-Canadian woodsman who traveled in New France and the interior as fur hunters and Native negotiators

Indian captivity vs. Indian slavery (Rushforth): How these differed in meaning? How captivity practices changed after Europeans arrived?

Indian captivity was more of an adoption of the captive with his/her status does not transfer to his/her offspring.

Florence Kelley

Industrial reformer who advocated for the end of child labor

Interstate Highway Act

Inis1956, President Eisenhower signed this bill into law. With an original authorization of 25 billion dollars over a 20-year period, it was the largest public works project in American history through that time. A significant side effect of the law was the development of suburbs--furthering the flight of citizens and businesses from inner cities, and compounding vehicle pollution and excessive petroleum use problems.

Barbed Wire

Invented by Joseph Glidden, it ended open range with boundaries and led to range wars

Refrigerator Railcar

Invented by Swift, the railroad advances did not need the long drives due to redundancy

cotton gin

Invented in 1793 by Eli Whitney, this simple machine could clean the seeds from 50 pounds of cotton in one day, whereas previously a laborer could clean only one pound a day. The machine was largely responsible for revitalizing the plantation system and the Southern state's dependence on slave labor. This device made the United States the dominant world supplier of cotton by the 1820s.

Walter Winchell

Inventor of the gossip column, he wrote "Your Broadway" for the NY Daily Graphic

Stadacona

Iroquoian village near Quebec City. Cartier arrived June 1534

Gifts of the Spirit Richard W. Hill

Iroquois beads, lacrosse, Niagara

Deganawida

Iroquois, known as the Great Peacemaker, born 12th century, helped unite 5 nations of Iroquois

Dawes Severalty Act

It created reservations and the Bureau of Indian (Native) Affairs

Emergency Banking Relief Act

It enlarged federal authority over private banks; it also established government loans to the banks

National Housing Act

It gave federal funding for public housing and slum clearance

Social Security Act

It gave federal old-age pensions and unemployment insurance

Emergency Relief Appropriations Act

It gave large-scale public works program for the jobless, including the WPA

National Industrial Recovery Act

It gave self-regulating industrial codes to revive economic activity

Hatch Act of 1887

It gave states money to create agricultural stations

National Labor Relations Act

It had federal guarantee of right to organize trade unions and collective bargaining

Public Works Administration

It had federal public works projects to increase employment and consumer spending

War Service Committee

It helped get various agencies to interact and housed the Creel Committee, and advertized for recruitment

Hagia Sophia

It is the most important church in Constantinople. Later, Memet II changed it into a mosque

What effect did the conquest of South America have on Spain?

It made it really rich because they got a lot of money from the Native Americans who were picking crops

What does Mughal mean?

It means Mongol in persian

Fair Labor Standards

It provided for federal minimum wage and maximum hours

Resettlement Administration

It provided for relocation of poor rural families and for reforestation and soil erosion projects

Civilian Conservation Corps

It provided unemployment relief and worked for natural resource conservation

Tennessee Valley Authority

It started economic development and cheap electricity for the Tennessee Valley

Department of Agriculture

It took the responsibility of regulating food, products, trade, and it had to meet the needs of farmers

What is the significance of the Byzantine empire?

It was a christian city and it was controlling a strait that could be used for trade. It was located next to the Ottoman homeland.

smallpox

It was a disease from animals that transfered to humans that weakened the Aztec Empire and killed off a lot of the population, also making it easier for the conquistadors to kill them.

Why was trade naturally a focus for the Ottomans?

It was a natural focus because the Ottomans were pastrol nomads, meaning that they had to live.

Why were the Spanish able to conquer the great Incan Empire so easily?

It was because of guns, steel (steel weapons), germs (small pox)

Why were the spanish able to defeat the great Aztec Empire despite their inferior numbers?

It was because the Aztecs thought that they were gods so they would not harm them, the disease of smallpox was killing them, and they had better weapons like guns and steel swords

Why did the Native Americans succumb to disease brought by the Europeans?

It was because they didn't have natural immunities

What was Mongol rule like in Persia, at first?

It was really bad because the first il-Khan didn't have a steady tax system. Also, the was no agriculture.

Why is Columbus's arrival in the Americas considered a turning point in history?

It was the first time any european came to the americas

Aztec Empire,Mexico

It was where Cortes and the conquistadors came and destroyed. The people there thought that they were gods that came down from earth, but instead they killed everyone

Why was Babur considered a Mughal?

It's because his goal was to conquer central Asia like Genghis Khan did.

Discuss political changes in early modern Europe that led to the exploration and eventual settlement of North America.

Italian merchants revived long-distance trade, leading to merchant-led city-states New monarchs wanted to expand Prince Henry of Portugal funded mariners and improvements in naval technology Reconquer Moorish Spain England began looking outwards as their textile trade flourished and merchants opened posts in the Middle East, Scandinavia, India, and Russia England destroyed the Spanish armada

Who were the Jannissaries and why are they important?

Janissaries were an army of slaves who became loyal.They were important because they helped make a aristocracy to help the Ottomans with the military and politics.

Which religious order/European group was responsible for Blessed Kateri Tekakwitha's conversion? (Koppedrayer)

Jesuits

What was the nature of slavery in British North America before the 1680's?

John Rolfe purchased 20 African slaves in 1619, start of slave trade, much less harsh, slaves worked with other servants and natives, often intermarried, they could become free and own land, in 1600s much more integrated in European society less connected to culture

George Calvert

King Charles I gave Maryland to him, first Lord Baltimore

Charles I

King of England in 1625, religious Anglican uniformity, 1629 dismissed Parliament for 11 years, Parliament's army beheaded him in 1649

Winfield Scott

Known as "Old Fuss and Feathers" for his meticulous dress and behavior, he was the founder of America's professional army. He led the United States through the triumphant Mexican-American War of 1846-1847 and influenced a remarkable generation of military men who would command both sides of the fighting in the Civil War. In 1852, as sectional tension threatened to rip the country apart, the Whig Party nominated him as its presidential candidate. His unsuccessful candidacy marked the last time that the Whig Party would field a presidential candidate before its decline shortly thereafter.

Stalwarts

Led by New York Senator Roscoe Conkling, this anti-reform faction of the Republican party believed in the blatant pursuit of the spoils of office. They were pitted against the "Half-Breeds" (moderates) for control of the Republican Party. The only real issue between this group and Half-Breeds was patronage. Chester A. Arthur, sympathetic to the cause, was the vice president for Half-Breed James A. Garfield. He became president after Garfield was assassinated by Charles J. Guiteau on July 2, 1881.

House Un-American Activities Committee

Led by R. Nixon, originally made to ferret pro-fascists, it later investigated "un-American propaganda" that attacked constitutional government.

National War Labor Board

Led by Samuel Gompers; it had many worker-oriented issues, such as supporting union rights and the idea of an 8 hr workday

America First Committee

Led by aviation hero Charles Lindbergh, this was an isolationist organization in the 1930s that opposed any U.S. intervention in world affairs that might lead the United States into war. Peaking at 800,000 members, it was likely the largest anti-war organization in American history. Started in 1940, it became defunct after the attack upon Pearl Harbor in December 1941.

Encomienda

Legal American system under the Spanish Crown dealing with Native labor, much like slavery

Worcester V. Georgia 1832

Legal basis of tribal sovereignty; Indian Tribes report to the federal government; constituted a nation holding distinct sovereign powers.

GI Bill of Rights

Legislation in June 1944 that eased the return of veterans into American society by providing educational and employment benefits.

Northwest Ordinance

Legislation prohibiting slavery in the Northwest territories and provided the model for the incorporation of future territories into the union as co-equal tribes

Earl Warren

Liberal Chief Justice who served from '53-'69, who led Brown v. BOE case.

Radical Republicans

Like all Republicans, this faction of the party shared a dislike of slavery and preference for free labor, but this faction further insisted that correcting the moral wrong of slavery outweighed all considerations of property loss, possible civil war, constitutional objections, and existing racial prejudices. These Republicans in Congress, headed by Thaddeus Stevens and Benjamin Wade, insisted on black suffrage and federal protection of the civil rights of blacks. They gained control of Reconstruction in 1867 and required the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment as a condition of readmission for former Confederate states.

Maryland Toleration Act (1649)

Limited toleration of some religions, Christians were given "free exercise" but there were still some problems

A House Divided

Lincoln's speech at the Republican Convention, Lincoln said a house divided can't stand and either there will be slavery or there will not

Describe Native American beliefs pertaining to the natural world.

Live in harmony with natural environment, leave it as undisturbed as possible while subsiding on it. Stemmed from religion, as spirit of nature was in everything around them (trees, rocks, animals, soil, et cetera)

Three factors that enabled Cortez to subdue the Aztec Empire were:

Local Indians (who weren't happy with Aztecs), Small Pox, Superior weapons

Sutter's Mill

Located between Sacramento and San Francisco, it helped bring miners and aided railroads

Hull House Settlement

Located in Chicago, it was a slum area with educational facilities

Sod House

Log cabin-like houses built into hillsides, they were for temporary purposes

Burke Act

Loophole legislation then passed to eliminate trust period in Dawes Act; assess whether individuals were "competent and capable" before giving them free simple patents to their allotted land.

Huey Long

Louisiana governor who called for radical wealth redistribution, he helped the poor; in the Senate he supported Roosevelt but then turned on him, organizing the Share Our Wealth Society

Gullah/Geechee: Region/colonies? Ethnic/cultural influences? Significance or what these show?

Lowcountry: Carolinas/Georgia. Synchrotism. Shows that African traditions do not die out and that there were certain regions that culture does not die out.

English colonial region where African culture most likely to endure in the 1700s (Berlin)?

Lowcountry; the work there was very hard which forced more slaves to be supplied there which allowed African culture to endure.

John Wilkes Booth

Man who assassinated Abraham Lincoln

Francis Cabot Lodge

Man who built the world's first automated cotton mill

Henry Cabot Lodge

Massachusetts Republican Senator, leader of the influential irreconcilables

Boston Massacre

Massacre on March 5 1773 during a colonist-soldier conflict, leading to 5 dead colonists.

Great Migration

Massive migration of African Americans from the former Confederacy into the northeast for new opportunities (1910s).

Columbian Exchange

Massive problems for society - plants and crops were now interfering with old plants, disease also was an issue, germs, war and slavery

Describe Native American beliefs pertaining to family.

Matrilineal - property rights and political inheritance descended through the mother, the son of a chief's sister inherited his position, and a married man joined his bride's people.

Explain West African beliefs about family.

Matrilineal; family was the basic unit of social organization, very important due to ancestor worship.

Bureau of Indian (Native) Affairs

Meant to assimilate Natives to American society

Federal Highway Act

Measure that provided federal funding to build a nationwide system of interstate and defense highways.

1st Continental Congress

Meeting of delegates from most of the colonies held in 1774 in response to the Coercive Acts. The Congress endorsed the Suffolk resolves, adopted the Declaration of Independence Rights and Grievances, and agreed to establish the Continental Association

Anne Hutchinson

Member of the antinomianism which challenged the Puritan beliefs that led to her exile from their community

War Hawks

Members of Congress predominantly from the South and West who aggressively pushed for war with Britain after their election in 1810

Describe Native American beliefs pertaining to gender roles.

Men: duties that involved travel (hunting, fishing, warfare, making tools and weapons) Women: duties at home (raising children, building + maintaining wigwams, gathering firewood, butchering and storing game, preparing meals, gathering shellfish, berries, roots, herbs), held family line, initiated divorce, involved in politics, chose sachem

Who are mestizos?

Mestizo is a person who is both Spanish and Native American. This happened when the peninsulares and the Native American women had relationships.

George Whitefield

Methodist preacher who stressed emotionalism and spirituality (evangelism)

Vaqueros

Mexican-American cowboys, they were paid less than and were treated worse than freedmen

After the Caribbean, where did the Spanish next focus their attention?

Mexico

Mound-builders

Midwestern societies who constructed giant sculptured earthworks in geometric designs or the shapes of animals, and ceremonial mounds. The Ohio Valley's society declined long before Europeans reached the continent, but the Mississippi valley produced another society in 600 AD. Additionally, small tribes along the Atlantic coastal plain built small-scale versions.

William Lloyd Garrison

Militant northern abolitionist who published The Liberator

Gospel of Wealth

Millionaire and industrialist Andrew Carnegie advanced this philosophy that held that those who had accumulated wealth were morally and socially obligated to redistribute that wealth back into the community and help those less fortunate than themselves. During his lifetime, Carnegie reportedly donated more than $350 million to build schools, libraries, and public buildings, as well as supporting causes devoted to working for world peace.

Protective Association

Mine owners' organization formed to stop unions

Missouri Compromise

Missouri's application for statehood in 1819 caused considerable controversy because, if it had been admitted as a slave state, Missouri would have tipped the balance in the Senate toward slave states. Opponents of slavery wanted Missouri to eliminate the institution prior to being admitted as a state; proponents thought that was a matter for Missouri alone to decide. In 1820, this compromise, hammered out by Speaker of the House Henry Clay, solved the problem at least temporarily by admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine (formerly part of Massachusetts) as a free state. The law further provided that slavery would be prohibited in the Louisiana Territory north of 36°30' north latitude and permitted south of that line.

American Indian Movement (AIM)

Modeled on African-American civil rights organizations, this organization was the Native American effort to advance the cause of Native American rights. During the 1970s, the organization succeeded in restoring Native Americans to the public consciousness and raising awareness of their plight. The group was involved in the major Native American protests of the early 1970s—including the Trail of Broken Treaties (1972), which declared their opposition to government policy toward Native Americans, and the invasion of Wounded Knee (1973), which led to gunfights between protesters and government agents that left three people dead.

League of Iroquois

Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca

American "Exceptionalism"

Moral foreign policies compared to militarism and expansionism.

caribou

Most important resource of sub-arctic region. Those who missed caribou migration probably died. Consistent tracking patterns ensured successful hunt, timing was essential

How did most Spanish authorities see the role of religion?

Mostly as a great way to gain control over the Indians.

Calvinism

Movement built off Protestantism by John Calvin. Preached direct relationship between each Christian and God, and that God had saved a few souls at random before Creation, who must each understand and accept God's saving grace by doing good. Proposed reformed Christian communities, controlled by saints and governed by elected ministers and laymen ("prebysteries"). Put into practice in Geneva in the 1550's, and converted large numbers of Europeans, mostly middle class (artisans and shopkeepers), nobility, merchants, landowners, and laywyers.

Protestant Reformation

Movement to revert to the pure ways of early Christianity, begun by a German monk called Martin Luther whose theology, Protestantism, preached salvation through inward faith ("grace"), rejected hierarchy of luxurious-living officials, and attacked Pope's sale of decreased time in purgatory. Called upon German princes to control religion rather than relying on Rome. Bible was the authority; no intervention from Church. Appealed mostly to middle class (artisans and shopkeepers), nobility, and privileged class (merchants, landowners, and lawyers).

Know-Nothings

Name given to the anti-immigrant party formed from the wreckage of the Whig Party and some disaffected Northern Democrats in 1854

Waltham System

Named after Francis Lowell, the Lowell Mills were a complex of textile mills built by the Boston Company in 1823 in the town of East Chelmsford (later renamed Lowell), Massachusetts. Staffed largely by young women, the Lowell Mills were famous for this system--an innovative method of factory management that provided on-site dormitories, cultural activities, and strict supervision of its workers. By 1840, for economy reasons, the women were replaced by immigrant laborers.

Zimmerman Note

Named after German Foreign Minister A. Zimmerman, it was a telegram sent by the German Empire, bound for Mexico; it was intercepted by the UK and given to the US, which found out that Germany planned to form an alliance with Mexico to help Mexico regain land from the US which had seceded from the former. It led to the US declaration of war against the German Empire.

The Great White Fleet

Named so because of the gleaming white hulls, an armada (a fleet of ships) built for oversea power by congressional funds.

Intolerable Acts

Named such by colonists, they were acts imposed by the British Government in retaliation for the Boston Tea Party.

Marshall Plan

Names for Gen. George C. Marshall, it was a US plan to help war-torn Europe by aiding non-communist/socialist countries with $13 billion a year.

Jingoism

Nationalism by keeping a very aggressive foreign policy

Squaw drudge: Positive or negative image? Who created it? Who this applied to? Significance?

Negative. Spanish word to describe female Indians. Demonstrates how Indian Women were exploited by Europeans because women did men's work.

Treaty of Versailles

Negotiated at the Paris Peace Conference throughout the spring of 1919, this treaty formally brought World War I to an end. Its lengthy and complicated provisions placed severe penalties on Germany. Although U.S. President Woodrow Wilson had been an active participant in the conference and enthusiastically supported the treaty and the League of Nations it created, the U.S. Senate felt differently and after fierce debate, voted down ratification. Instead, the United States made a separate peace with Germany and its allies.

Hartford Convention

New England Federalists discussed secession, but the idea died out

John Brown's raid

New England abolitionist John Brown's ill-fated attempt to free Virginia's slaves with a raid on the federal arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia, in 1859

"City upon on a hill": Region? Which European group believed in this? Their Religion? Broader significance in American history?

New England, English, Puritans, The idea that the U.S. has an obligation as a world leader, to protect the world from "evil" such as communism, the idea is to bring all other countries closer to that "hill"

English region where Africans experienced most contact with whites during 1700s (Berlin)?

New England.

Describe Native American beliefs pertaining to wealth.

No concept of personal property, and were thus confused and manipulated by Europeans attempting to buy land that they did not see themselves as owning in the first place. Material wealth: wampum and deerskins, prizes in battles between tribes. Seasonal changes in location caused them to acquire few possessions beyond what was needed for survival.

Did Akbar keep the empire as a whole?

No he did not. Instead he made them into provinces. In these provinces, no one was assigned to a place because of their religion or race, but of their merrit

African slavery in New France (Rushforth): Was it extensive? Factors that shaped it or deterred it?

No it very hard and geographically expensive. Limited amounts (too far north and inland). Main labor --> fur--> not many workers needed.

Appomatox Court House

On April 9, 1865, Confederate general Robert E. Lee surrended to Union general Ulysses S. Grant in this town in south-central Virginia. The Confederate surrender was the end of the Civil War in Virginia and marked the beginning of the end of the war across the South.

Central Pacific Railway

Railway stretching from Sacramento to Ogden

Poverty Point

Northern Louisiana, comprised of earthworks and mounds built between 1550 and 200 BC

Kachina (Knaut): Region? Group who practiced this? Religious order/European group who targeted this religion for persecution and eradication?

Northern New Mexico. Pueblo spirit-->dolls. Franciscans. Looked down upon the Europeans; thought of as idols. Used to teach children stories.

Carpetbaggers

Northern transplants to the South, many were Union soldiers who re-settled in the South

Fish-Ins

Northwest Coast Washington State has been fishing rights. In the 1960s Native Americans successfully defended these rights,

Acadiens: Region? European group? Larger significance for Indian-European relations?

Nova Scotia. French. They represent a path that others could have taken; Accommodation in order for better Indian relations.

Ernest Hemingway

Novelist who wrote books depicting the war and its aftermath in world-weary and unsentimental tones

Watts Riots

On August 11, 1965, a riot broke out in this African-American ghetto of Los Angeles. Violence erupted as the residents protested police brutality, white oppression, and the generally miserable, impoverished condition of their lives. Over the course of one week, 34 people were killed as masses of angry people looted their own neighborhoods, burned and destroyed white-owned buildings and homes, and attacked police officers and the National Guard. This event symbolized the continued dissatisfaction and alienation of urban minorities, even in the era of Civil Rights reform.

The Maine

On February 15, 1898, the battleship USS Maine exploded and sank in Havana Harbor. Some 266 crewmen lost their lives in the incident, which had its roots in the Cuban struggle for independence from Spain and was one of the triggers of the Spanish-American War. The rallying slogan "Remember the Maine, to Hell with Spain!" swept the country. In April 1898, Congress called for Spain to relinquish authority over Cuba and declared war. The Spanish-American War ended later in 1898.

Zimmerman Telegram

On January 16, 1917, German foreign minister sent a telegram to the German minister to Mexico. The German government attempted to forge a German-Mexican alliance in case the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies. British intelligence decoded this telegram and handed its contents over the U.S. State Department, which in turn announced it to the American press on March 1, 1917. U.S. outrage over Germany's dealings with Mexico served to heighten the calls for American entry into the war, which were answered when the United States declared war on Germany on April 6.

Executive Order 8802

On June 25, 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed this executive order, "Reaffirming Policy Full Participation in the Defense Program by All Persons, Regardless of Race, Creed, Color, or National Origin, and Directing Certain Act in Furtherance of Said Policy." It ended discriminatory practices in the defense industry, as the United States prepared for its possible entry into World War II.

Texas Annexation

On March 1, 1845, the U.S. Congress passed this joint resolution extending an offer to the Republic of Texas. The Texas legislature accepted the offer at a convention on July 4. The people of Texas ratified the convention's acceptance on October 13, and Texas officially joined the Union on December 29, 1845. The Mexican government was infuriated by this and soon the United States and Mexico were at war.

Manila Bay

On May 1, 1898, Naval Commander George Dewey launched a devastating surprise attack against Spanish forces in the Philippines. This resulting battle was one of the most one-sided naval engagements in history. Dewey's modern steel squadron easily destroyed the aging Spanish ships without significant American losses. With this decisive battle, the United States acquired the Philippines, though the Filipinos themselves continued with a guerrilla struggle against U.S. land forces that dragged on for years. The battle extended U.S. influence in the western Pacific and marked the emergence of the United States as a world power.

Kent State University

On May 4th, 1970 four students were shot dead by National Guardsmen on the campus of this University near Cleveland, Ohio during a violent demonstration by students against the recent movement of US troops into Cambodia. It was the most notorious and bloody episode in the widespread unrest over the war which affected American universities at that period.

Gettysburg Address

On November 19, 1863 in a ceremony to commemorate the Battle of Gettysburg fought the previous July, President Abraham Lincoln delivered this brief address to a crowd of 15,000 people as he dedicated a cemetery for the battle's dead. Both at the time and since, Americans have looked to this address as representing the noblest vision of America and the sacrifice that is often called upon to attain that vision.

Korean War

One of the armed conflicts in the Cold War which started after the US established South Korea and the USSR established North Korea. After North invaded the South, many UN forces led by Gen. MacArthur intervened for the South, but the PRC and the USSR helped the North. Ended in '53.

Henry Demarest Lloyd

One of the early muckrakers, this crusading journalist and author exerted a major influence on reform in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1894, he published Wealth Against Commonwealth, a thoroughly researched attack on Standard Oil and other monopolies. He advocated government regulation of industry and public ownership of all monopolies.

Alonzo Catití: Who was he? Event associated with? What he did? Larger significance?

One of the leaders of the Indian rebellion.Mestizo. Was a fear to the Spanish because he showed that a mestizo could side with Indian roots.

Embargo Act

One of the most controversial episodes of President Thomas Jefferson's administration, this Act of 1807-1809 halted all trade between the United States and foreign nations in response to both British and French restrictions on neutral trade during the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. Many merchants, particularly in New England, suffered great financial losses, despite the dramatic rise in smuggling during these years. In the end, the this policy had little effect in compelling either France or Britain to respect American neutrality.

Fugitive Slave Act

One of the provisions of the Compromise of 1850, this act mandated that Northerners were constitutionally required to assist slave owners in recapturing runaway slaves. The law infuriated many Northerners, even those who had not previously supported the abolition movement, mainly because they believed such a mandate violated their liberty. As Northerners raged over the law's passage and Southerners fumed at the Northern response to the law, the country moved closer to the outbreak of the Civil War.

15th Amendment

One of three Reconstruction amendments enacted in the years immediately following the Civil War, this amendment was adopted by the U.S. Congress on February 26, 1869 to protect the voting rights of African-American men. It was intended to guarantee blacks the right to vote in the South.

Indentured Servants

One who typically gave servitude and labor for about seven years before becoming free, many did not survive through it

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the Constitution in the debate over its ratification

What kind of regime did Onate set up?

Oppressive

Woman's Christian Temperance Union

Organization that appealed to women angered by alcohol-abusing men, it worked to stop alcohol sale, consumption, and production

Seneca Falls Convention

Organized in 1848 by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, and Elizabeth and Mary Ann McClintock, this was the first women's rights convention in U.S. history. After considering the literature of the abolition and temperance movements, the women selected the U.S. Declaration of Independence as the model for the Declaration of Sentiments that they prepared for the convention. With a program and leadership established, the women's movement in the United States had officially begun.

Chautauqua movement

Organized in 1874, and named for the original location in New York State, these meetings sprang up in various locations across North America. The movement may be regarded as a successor to the Lyceum movement earlier in the 19th Century. It offered instruction, texts, and lectures on many subjects, and it provided educational opportunities for thousands who were seeking intellectual stimulation in the new industrial age.

Negro National League

Organized in 1920 by Andrew Foster, it allowed African Americans to play professional baseball

Birth of a Nation

Originally called The Clansman, this1915 American silent film was directed by D.W. Griffith and was the highest-grossing film of the silent film era and has been praised for its technical innovations. The film was, and remains, highly controversial due to its portrayal of African American men (played by white actors in blackface) as unintelligent and sexually aggressive towards white women, and the portrayal of the Ku Klux Klan as a heroic force.The film is also credited as one of the events which inspired the formation of the "second era" Klan and was used as a recruiting tool for the KKK. It was the first motion picture to be shown at the White House.

Civil Rights Act of 1875

Outlawed racial discrimination in theaters, hotels, railroads, and other public places

Truman Doctrine

Outlined containment policy, used in Turkey and Greece , and pledged to give $400 million to help them.

Ku Klux Klan

Perhaps the most prominent of the vigilante groups that terrorized blacks in the South during the Reconstruction era, formed by CSA veterans in 1866

Robert LaFollette

Over the course of a 25-year political career, "Fighting Bob" never let the lure of wealth or political power deter him from his successful efforts to champion progressive reforms in Wisconsin and Washington, D.C. Elected governor of Wisconsin in 1900, he introduced open nominating primaries, state regulation of railroads and public utilities, and management of public resources in the public interest. Journalists publicized the "Wisconsin Idea," and his continual struggle to implement it soon marked him as a rising star in the nationwide progressive movement. In 1905 he was elected to the U.S. Senate, where he remained until his death. In 1912, he sought to challenge the incumbent William Howard Taft, but his bid was preempted by that of the resurgent "Bull Moose" candidacy of Theodore Roosevelt

Oregon Trail

Overland trail of more than 2,000 miles that carried American settlers from the Midwest to new settlements

Dorset

Paleo Eskimo culture (500 BC-1500 BC): first evidence in Nunavut, Canada and preceded Inuit culture. 4 phases in culture because of distinct differences in hunting and tool making

Declaratory Act

Parliament passed this act in 1766 when it repealed the Stamp Act. It stated that the colonies were entirely subordinate to Parliament's authority, and that Parliament had the authority to legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever."

Coercive Acts

Parliament responded to the Boston Tea Party by passing these acts in 1774. They intended to punish Boston and Massachusetts generally for the crime committed by a few individuals. Colonists called these the Intolerable Acts.

Fugitive Slave Act of 1852

Part of the Compromise of 1850 that required the authorities in the North to assist southern slave catchers and return runaway slaves to their owners

French and Indian War

Part of the seven years war, this fraction was a war between the French and some natives against the British and the Iroquois. While New France was seceded, many people from the colonies and British commanders died. Mainly fought in Canada.

Republican Party

Party that emerged in the 1850s in the aftermath of the bitter controversy over the Kansas-Nebraska Act, consisting of former Whigs, some northern Democrats, and many Know-Nothings

Gag Rule

Passed by Congress in 1836 to stop abolition petitions

Fifteenth Amendment

Passed by Congress in 1869, guaranteed the right of American men to vote, regardless of race

Judiciary Act of 1801

Passed by the lame-duck Federalists in Congress in 1801 after the election of Democratic-Republican president Thomas Jefferson, this act was a blend of needed judicial reform and partisan politics. The law added six new circuit courts and added 16 new judgeships, along with their support staffs, for outgoing Federalist president John Adams to fill. These judgeships were criticized as "midnight appointments."

Hundred Days

Period from March to June 1933 when FDR pushed through Congress an extraordinary number of acts designed to combat various Depression aspects

Bull Market

Period where stock market prices increased at roughly twice the rate of industrial production

Playing Indian

Philip Deloria

Taft-Hartley Act

Passed in 1947, this was the strongest anti-union measure in fifteen years. The Act, passed over President Truman's veto forbade closed shops, outlawed certain strikes or boycotts (including sympathy strikes and strikes by federal employees) and restricted the amount unions could pay on political activity. The Act has never been repealed.

Morrill Land Grant Act

Passed on July 2, 1862 in the midst of the Civil War, this act encouraged the founding of agricultural (and later engineering) colleges across the United States by providing land for campuses in all states loyal to the Union. Under its auspices, more than 70 land-grant colleges have been founded in the United States.

Quota Act

Passed on May 26, 1924, this law stemmed the massive tide of immigration that had been flowing into the United States since the mid-19th century. Of particular concern was the high number of nonwhite and Eastern European immigrants who had been coming into the country by the hundreds of thousands for decades. The law established a system for immigration that highly favored Northern Europeans over all others and set the standard for immigration policy until the 1960s.

Pacific Railway Act

Passed without Southern Democratic presence, it gave land from Nebraska through California to the railway companies

XYZ Affair

Peace commissioners sent to France by President Adams in 1797 were insulted by their French counterparts' demand for a bribe as a condition for negotiating with American diplomats. America's tender sense of national honor was outraged by this episode and Federalists increased demands for war against France.

German immigration (Woweck): Port city/colony where most entered? Skill level? Immigration pattern? Literacy?

Pennsylvania

William Penn

Pennsylvania's proprietor, was Quaker, founded Philadelphia, peaceful with Indians, had slaves

Holy Experiment: What was this? When established? Limitations for inclusion?

Pennsylvania; William Penn created this, allowed people to enter a religious tolerant society; 1681; Does not allow an Established Church

Puritans

People who opposed the Protestant reformation, they all believed that the church of England was too Catholic and generally it rejected Catholicism, people should find truth through the bible and sermons, not sacraments from priests, salvation was predetermined

Federalists

People who supported a strong central government; early political party with ideologies including nationalism and industrialism. The de facto party of George Washington

Charter of New England: Religious group the Puritans wanted to deter from entering?

Pilgrims.

Frederick W. Taylor

Pioneer of scientific management, said managers must take decisions

Jonas Salk

Pioneered first-ever successful polio vaccine in '55.

Anaconda Plan

Plan made by the North to slowly defeat the South with various blockades to cut it off

Great (Connecticut) Compromise

Plan that established a national bicameral legislature where all states would be equally represented in the Senate and proportionally represented in the House

Ten-Percent Plan

Plan with state acceptance on reconstructed governments, it called for 10% citizens of Confederate States (based on the election of 1860) to swear allegiance to the USA

John Slidell

Polk appointed him commissioner to Mexico shortly after taking office in 1845. His mission was to negotiate a settlement of the dispute over the southern border of the Republic of Texas and the purchase of New Mexico and California but the Mexican government refused to accept his appointment. This diplomatic rejection paved the way for Mexican-American War of 1846-1847.

James Weaver

Populist leader who ran on the national ticket in 1892

Henry VIII

Portuguese prince who kicked off the age of exploration Motivated by trade and conquest of the Muslim world Sponsored advancements in naval technology (navigation, mapmaking, and ship design) and exploration Established gold trade in Africa Colonized the Indian Ocean to reach Indonesia and southern China, where he traded extensively Agricultural plantations in Madeira, the Canaries, and the Azores.

Massachusetts Bay Colony

Powerful colony established by the Congregationalists

Opechancanough

Powhatan's brother, who had long endured European abuse 1617: Came to power 1622: Led an attack that killed a third of the colonists 1644: final desperate assault against the vastly more populous settlers, in which he was captured 1646: killed

Pocahontas: Culture group/tribe? Timing? Region? Her significance?

Powhatan. War with the English/Powhatan. Tidewater region of Virginia. Married John Rolfe for an alliance between Powhatan and English.

Imperialism

Practice of taking over a smaller nation by a larger one; countries which perform this are normally called "empires"

Red Paint People (Maritime Archaic)

Pre-columbus culture in New England. Named after their graves with no bones and red ocher, made clovis points with translucent material from Ramah Bay in Northern Labrador

Indian Removal Act 1830

President Andrew Jackson; grant unsettled lands west of the Mississippi for Indian lands within state borders; forcibly moving Native populations away from US

Eisenhower Doctrine

President Dwight D. Eisenhower became convinced that the tumultuous political situation in the Middle East had become a battleground of the cold war. His foreign policy commitment in the middle east became known by this term. Eisenhower demanded that Congress grant him the military and financial resources to aid those Middle Eastern powers attempting to fend off communism. Congress complied, thus initiating a period of extensive U.S. involvement in the Middle East that continues to this day.

Quarantine Speech

President Franklin Roosevelt delivered this speech in 1937 as an alternative to the political climate of American neutrality and non-intervention that was prevalent at the time. He condemned international aggression and suggested the use of economic pressure, a forceful response, but less direct than outright aggression.

General George McClellan

President Lincoln appointed him commander of Union forces in 1861. After months of preparation however, his army was defeated by Robert E. Lee's Confederate Army in the Peninsular Campaign of 1862. His egotism and overcautiousness cost the Union the chance to end the Civil War quickly and finally forced President Abraham Lincoln to relieve him of command after Antietam in 1862. Thereafter, he identified with the political opposition to Lincoln and in 1864 ran unsuccessfully for president as a Democrat.

"Reaganomics" : supply side economics

President Reagan supported this economic theory (derisively nicknamed Reaganomics by critics). The idea was that reduced taxes would spur investment, which would increase productivity and jobs. More people working and increased business revenue would produce greater tax revenues. Social programs could be cut because fewer people would need them.

pell-mell

President Thomas Jefferson took this informal approach to the ceremonial responsibilities of his office--a demeanor he thought appropriate to the leader of a republic. At state dinners, for example, he ignored protocol and invited his guests to sit wherever there was an empty chair.

Washington's Farewell Address

President Washington decided not to seek reelection in 1796. Near the end of his term he delivered this address that warned the nation against the harmful effects of rivalry between political parties, and against the dangers of permanent alliances with foreign nations.

Fourteen Points

President Wilson outlined this plan for a permanent peace in the wake of the First World War. His dream was to implement a permanent "peace without victory." Wilson's proposed terms included: open diplomacy; freedom of the seas; removal of trade barriers; international disarmament; adjustment of colonial claims; European territorial adjustments; and a general association of nations (which was to become the League of Nations). Although Wilson noticeable did not punish Germany, he was obliged to compromise on many of the points. The Germans, having agreed to the armistice largely on the basis of the Wilson's plan, felt betrayed by subsequent decisions imposed upon them by the Treaty of Versailles.

William Jennings Bryan

President Woodrow Wilson selected this man to be Secretary of State. Although he had no foreign policy experience, he was the Democratic (and Populist Party) nominee for president in 1896. As a pacifist, he disagreed with Wilson's strong stand against German aggression and resigned in 1915 when asked to send a stern note protesting the sinking of the Lusitania.

Prince Henry

Prince Henry the Navigator was the son of Portugal's son and he started exploring in 1415. After getting a glimpse of the wealth that could be made in trading, he became a very successful over-seas trader and did it very often.

Pre-clovis people

Prior to 15,000 years ago, thought to have come over 22,000 years ago. Crossed land bridge from Europe to America. Still controversial, but thought to have arrived 45,000-12,000 years ago

Olive Branch Petition

Pro-George III petition signed by some colonists in hope of reduced atrocities.

Lecompton Constitution

Pro-slavery draft written in 1857 by Kansas territorial delegates elected under questionable circumstances; it was rejected by two governors, supported by Buchanan, and decisively defeated by Congress

Initiative

Procedure by which citizens can introduce a subject for legislation, usually through a petition signed by a specific number of voters

Johnson's Impeachment

Process in which Congress tried to impeach Johnson (126-47 vote); Johnson decided to abide by the acts passed and barely (35-19 vote) avoided conviction by the Senate

Impressment

Process where Royal Navy members searched American ships and captured sailors, regardless of their nationality

Open Door Policy

Proclaimed by John Hay where the US could advance just as other imperial nations would.

Putting Out System

Production of goods in private homes under the supervision of a merchant who "put out" the raw materials, paid a certain sum per finished piece, and sold the completed item to a distant market

What products were manufactured in India during the Mughal Empire?

Products that were manufactured in India during the Mughal Empire include surpluses of crops, textiles made of cotton, steel and cannons.

Virginia Plan

Proposal calling for a national legislature in which the states would be represented according to population

New Jersey Plan

Proposal of the New Jersey delegation for a strengthened national government in which all states would have an equal representation in a unicameral legislature

Equal Rights Amendment

Proposed amendment which said men and women would have equal rights

Albany Plan of Union

Proposed by B. Franklin, it proposed all native settlements and western areas to be under one government.

Platt Amendment

Proposed by Sen. Orville Platt (Connecticut), it was an amendment which replaced the Teller Amendment and gave the US many rights over Cuba, effectively making Cuba a protectorate.

Clarence Darrow

Prosecutor in the Scopes Monkey trial. he was a famous trial lawyer who argued in favor of Scopes

Transcontinental Railroad

Railroad formed with the merger of the Union Pacific and Central Pacific

Union Pacific Railroad

Railway stretching from Chicago to Omaha

Queen Elizabeth I

Protestant Queen of England between 1558 and 1603. She and Catholic King Philip of Spain passive-aggressively aided their respective causes until Philip dispatched the Spanish armada to conquer England and was humiliatingly defeated, solidifying English Protestantism and national pride and opening the seas to Dutch and English explorers

In exchange, what were the Indian villagers supposed to do?

Provide free labor, food, and other goods.

Federal Emergency Relief Administration

Provided direct federal money for relief, funneled through state and local governments

Agricultural Adjustment Administration

Provided federal farm aid based on parity pricing and subsidy

17th Amendment

Provided for the direct election of Senators, done through William Jennings Bryan

Federal Workmen's Compensation Act

Provided injured workers with compensation benefits

Uncle Tom's Cabin

Pubished in 1852, this book was the first by an American author to have as its hero an African American. Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel appealed strongly to 19th-century readers, and because the book presented the horrors of slavery in vivid human terms, it had a powerful impact. More than 300,000 copies were sold within the first year. While fueling antislavery sentiment in the North,it infuriated Southerners, who charged that Stowe knew nothing about plantation life and grossly misrepresented it.

Who were the native people already living in New Mexico?

Pueblo Indians

Halfway Covenant

Puritan law that allowed children with baptized parents to become baptized; it came because too few second- and third-generation Puritans were willing to testify publicly about their conversion experiences

John Eliot (Thomas): Who was he? What did he do? Region? Significance for interracial relations?

Puritan missionary, tried to recreate a Christian community by putting converted Indians in towns, New England

Great Migration (Anderson): Background of migrants? Motivations for migration? Timing?

Puritans from England and to New England (1620-1643)

12th Amendment

Put the president and vice president on different ballots

"Inner Light": Definition? Religious group? Whose authority it challenge?

Quakers

Society of Friends: Alternate name? How differed from Puritans?

Quakers. Believed in gender equality.

Articles of Confederation

Ratified in 1781, this was the United States's first constitution. It sharply limited central authority by denying the national government any coercive power including the power to tax and to regulate trade. The articles set up the loose confederation of states that comprised the first national government from 1781 to 1788.

Stereotype- Native Americans have no religion.

Reality- Indians are deeply religious. Each tribe has its own religion.

Stereotype- Native American tribes did not value women

Reality- Native American women often wielded considerable power within their tribes.

Stereotype- Native Americans were warlike and treacherous.

Reality- Native Americans fought to defend their lands, sovereignty and way of life from invaders.

Stereotype- Native Americans had no culture until Europeans brought it to them.

Reality- Native Americans were civilized. Their cultures were distinct from those of Europeans.

Stereotype- Native Americans were conquered because they were inferior.

Reality- Native Americans were conquered because of their lack of immunity to European diseases.

Stereotype- Indians are a vanished race

Reality- There is a population of 2.1 million United States Native Americans today

Stereotype- Indians get a free ride from the government.

Reality- the benefits Native Americans receive from the government derive from treaty agreements, which purport to compensate them for the surrender of some or all of their invaluable lands.

Stereotype- Native Americans had nothing to contribute to Europeans or to the growth of America.

Reality- the contributions of American Indians have changed and enriched the world.

Dawes Plan

Reduced German debt, stretched repayment period, and arranged for American bankers lend funds to Germany

Splendid Little War

Refers to Spanish American War (the Cuban front) since the war only lasted 16 weeks and cost less than other American Wars. In addition, fewer lives were lost.

Quakers

Religious group that settled in Pennsylvania and led by William Penn—believed in equality, tolerance, and religious freedom

Second Great Awakening

Religious revival among black and white southerners in the 1790s

Clayton Anti-Trust Act

Replaced the old Sherman Act of 1890 as the nation's basic antitrust law. It exempted unions from being construed as illegal combinations in restraint of trade, and it forbade federal courts from issuing injunctions against strikers.

Wade-Davis Bill

Required 50% of a former seceding state's white male citizens to take a loyalty oath before elections and could be held for a convention to rewrite the state's constitution (also had to guarantee equal rights)

Philadelphia Convention

Responding to calls for a stronger and more energetic national government, 55 delegates met in the summer of 1787 to draft a new constitution to replace the ineffective Articles of Confederation. The product that was created here, the Constitution of the United States, was ratified in 1788. It replaced the Articles of Confederation as the governing document for the United States, and transformed the constitutional basis of government from confederation to federation, also making it the world's oldest federal constitution.

Hay Market Square Riot

Riot where anarchists threw a bomb during the main melee; the Knights of Labor was blamed and their role was severely damaged

General Motors

Rival company to Ford Motor Company that made different automobiles for different people

Assimilation Schools

Schools meant to change the ways of Native children to be more like European-American children

John Adams

Second president of the United States and first Vice President.

Sons of Liberty

Secret organizations in the colonies formed to oppose the Stamp Act

strict construction

Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson held this view of the Constitution claiming Congress was limited to making only laws that were necessary. Unless powers were specifically delegated to the Congress by the Constitution, the powers should be reserved to the states or to the people. This interpretation of the Constitution would limit the power of the new national government.

loose construction

Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton held this view of the Constitution claiming that Congress had the authority to pass all laws that were proper (implied powers). Unless the Constitution specifically forbade national legislation (Article I; section 9), then Congress had the authority ubnder the elastic clause of the Constitution. This interpretation of the Constitution would expand the power of the new national government.

Missouri Compromise

Sectional compromise in Congress in 1820 that admitted Missouri to the Union as a slave state and Maine as a free state and prohibited slavery in the northern Louisiana Purchase territory

Nullification Crisis

Sectional crisis in the early 1830s in which a states' rights party in South Carolina attempted to nullify federal law

Pilgrims

Separatists (Puritan minority) who formed a colony at Plymouth

Marshall Trilogy

Several acts by which Marshall ultimately ruled that Native people have less property over the land than whites (only as wanderers/nomads). This enforced rights of conquest and supremacy over the states

Sacajawea

She accompanied the Lewis and Clark Expedition during its journey to the Pacific Ocean between 1804 and 1806. She made important contributions to the success of the Corps of Discovery: she helped guide the expedition through unfamiliar territory and she helped translate when the expedition encountered Indian tribes.

Margaret Sanger

She dedicated her life to the birth-control movement in the United States, of which she was the founder and controversial leader. She founded the American Birth Control League, serving as president until 1928; the organization later became the Planned Parenthood Federation of America in 1942.

Abigail Adams

She holds a unique place in American history as both the wife of one president and the mother of another. In her own right, she was an ardent American patriot. Her perseverance during the American Revolution kept her family together and enabled her husband, John, to devote himself entirely to the patriot cause. Her letters provided her husband with information and shrewd insights into the political situation in Boston while he was absent. She remained a dedicated correspondent and apt political observer during the tumultuous early years of the nation until her death in 1818.

Phyllis Schlafly

She is a leading spokesperson for the conservative viewpoint on women's rights issues. She played a major role in defeating the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the Constitution which demanded equality of rights for women under the law. She argued that ERA represented a serious threat to women and the family, because it would thrust mothers into military combat and make wives responsible for providing 50% of the financial support of their families.

Anne Hutchinson

She was a Massachusetts Bay Puritan who was banished for criticizing the colony's ministers and magistrates, and for her heresy of antinomianism. She then moved to the colony of Portsmouth in Rhode Island.

Frances Perkins

She was the U.S. Secretary of Labor from 1933 to 1945, and the first woman appointed to the U.S. Cabinet. As a loyal supporter of Franklin D. Roosevelt, she helped pull the labor movement into the New Deal coalition. During her term as Secretary of Labor, she championed many aspects of the New Deal, including the Civilian Conservation Corps and the Public Works Administration. Through the Fair Labor Standards Act, she established the first minimum wage and overtime laws for American workers, and defined the standard 40-hour work week.

Queen Liliuokalani

She was the last monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii. In 1893, a group composed of Americans and Europeans formed a Committee of Public Safety in opposition to the Queen. The Queen was deposed on January 17, 1893 and temporarily relinquished her throne to "the superior military forces of the United States". On July 4, 1894, the Republic of Hawaii was proclaimed and Sanford B. Dole became president.

The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian Sherman Alexie

Short story, poor Indian kid

How to Write the Great American Indian Novel Sherman Alexie

Shows the way Euro-Americans glamorize/fetishize certain aspects of Indianness, ignore, oppress others

Executive Order 9066

Signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on February 19, 1942, this executive order to authorize the internment of over 100,000 Japanese Americans during the war. Both the U.S. government and much of the public feared that Japanese Americans would commit acts of sabotage in the United States to undermine the U.S. war effort and assist the Japanese. Instead, the government forced Japanese Americans into camps throughout the West, where they suffered from deprivation, despair, and disease for much of the war, even as Japanese-American units distinguished themselves in the U.S. military.

Kellogg-Briand Pact

Signed by the US & 62 others, it grandly and naively renounced war in private

Webster-Ashburton Treaty

Signed in 1842, this treaty was negotiated by Secretary of State Daniel Webster of the United States and the Special Minister of Great Britain to settle disputes of the northeastern border between America and Canada. The treaty established the current borders between Canada and Maine, New York, and Vermont. The U.S. Senate approved the treaty on August 20 by a vote of 39 to 9.

Treaty of Ghent

Signed on December 24, 1814 in Belgium by representatives from the United States and Great Britain, this treaty officially ended the War of 1812. The war had essentially been a draw, and the treaty did not call for any significant changes to the status quo from before the war. The U.S. Senate unanimously ratified the treaty on February 16, 1815.

Sand Creek

Simon Ortiz

Fort Laramie Treaty

Sioux would allow railroads through Great Sioux Nation (article 11) ,U.S. would remove certain forts (Article 16); settlers could continue to move across the area and not fear for their safety;assign each tribe a defined territory where they were to remain.

Appomattox

Site of the final battle of the Civil War where Lee surrendered to Grant; USA victory

Fort Sumter

Site of the first battle of the Civil War, at Fort Sumter, South Carolina; CSA victory

Panic of 1837

Six-year recession caused by the bank war and the disestablishment of the second bank

Dwight D. "Ike" Eisenhower

The 34th President and former General of the Army, a Republican who won races in '52 and '56, both against A.E. Stevenson.

3/5 Compromise

Slaves were agreed to make up 3/5 an American citizen

Hoovervilles

Slums set up by homeless people, they were made up of cardboard shacks

Speakeasy

Small place where people could (illegally) drink and enjoy entertainment, they were in most urban areas and were secretive

Describe Native American beliefs pertaining to community.

Socialist: tribespeople were assigned plots of land to tend based upon their abilities, and received crops based upon their needs. Sachem (chief) was expected to be the most generous, giving away as much as he could and entertaining visitors

Fur Trade

Some of the first people to settle in America were the fur traders, it was also a connection between the French and Indians

Tories

Sometimes called Loyalists, these Americans hesitated to take up arms against England. They may have been as much as one-third of the colonists in 1776. Many were royal appointees, Anglican clergymen, or Atlantic merchants. They were poorly organized and of limited help to British armies, but the Patriots persecuted them.

Discuss economic changes in early modern Europe that led to the exploration and eventual settlement of North America.

Sought an oceanic route to Asia Sought to circumvent Muslim traders and join in directly with the African gold trade Columbus' reports of fertile soils and gold-filled rivers Resources in S./C. America Wages of laborers and artisans did not increase to meet silver influx's rising prices Fish off the Canadian coast Nearly limitless land in America for tobacco farming Breaking Iberian monopoly on New World goods Bad economic conditions in England

Overall, how successful were the Spanish in gaining wealth from their New World settlements?

Spain had more than 10x the gold and silver than the rest of the world.

What were some motivations of Spain in settling the New World? Of England? Of both?

Spain: Gold (and silver, sugar, coffee, cacao, indigo); God, Glory (national pride + reconquest of Moorish Spain) England: Fish, rising prices, population growth, bad socioeconomic conditions at home, tobacco, religious intolerance Both: circumvent Muslim traders in trade with Asia and African gold, New World's resources, new converts in schism between Protestantism and Catholicism

Cabacera-Visita system: Religious order? European group? Region? How this affected Indian culture in the Cabacera? In the Visita areas?

Spanish Franciscans. Visit the vista to enforce Christian belief among Indians. Created tension between the Indians in the Cabacera and the Spanish.

Juan de Onate

Spanish explorer/conquistador in the Southwest. Known for cutting off the feet of Pueblo Indians who opposed him.

Hernando de Soto

Spanish explorer; first documented European to cross Mississippi. Looking for riches, ran into Natchez who drove him out

Conquistadores

Spanish explorers and military leaders who explored, claimed, and conquered what is now Latin America Overthrew Aztec & Inca, nearly exterminated native Caribbeans, established Catholicism and Spanish authority Notable leaders: Cortes, Pizarro

Exploration/Conquest Motives

Spanish led the exploration and wanted to spread Catholicism and find wealth and national glory

What were Presidios and why were they built?

Spanish military bases built to protect the catholic priests from any hostile natives nearby.

"God, Gold, Glory": European group? Region? Missionary group/religion?

Spanish motives to come to America; (spread catholicism, make money, and dominate). New Mexico; Spanish Franciscans.

Bartolome de las Casas

Spanish priest who campaigned to reduce exploitation of the Indians

Mestizaje (Knaut/Gutierrez): Spanish, French or English term? Definition? Region? Represent a frontier of inclusion or exclusion?

Spanish term for racial mixing. New Mexico. Represents exclusion--> Looked down upon

Electoral College

Specified in Article II, Section 1 of the Constitution, this group elects the nation's president. It was a compromise worked out during the Constitutional Convention of 1787 that allowed small and large states, and Federalists and Antifederalists, to feel that their interests were being met. It placed power in the hands of the states by allowing state delegates to choose the president. It is an important invention of the early republic and signifies the Founding Fathers' distrust of popular sovereignty by keeping the presidency out of the reach of direct democracy.

Three-Sisters: What is this? Who cultivated? Significance?

Squash, Maize, and Beans. Women cultivated them; Women had power. All three crops provided a balanced diet.

Cahokia: Where? Significance for understanding native history?

St. Louise. mounds: 100 feet, 16 acres span. Center of trade/ mound building culture. Ability to construct huge buildings.

Admiralty Courts

Starting with the Proclamation of 1763, these courts were given jurisdiction over a number of laws affecting the colonies. The jurisdiction was expanded in later acts of the Parliament, such as the Stamp Act of 1765. The colonists' objections were based on several factors, most notably that there was no trial by jury, and evidence standards were weaker than in criminal courts.

Meditations of the Spirit Inés Hernández-Ávila

Starts by delineating identity: Nimipu-Mexican descent, mother and grandmother, scholar, etc. "It matters very much who is speaking, about what, and from which particular social, historical, and political location" Sweat lodges

Granger Laws

State laws enacted in the Midwest in the 1870's that regulated rates charged by railroads, grain elevators, and other middlemen

American Indians Stereotypes and Realities Devon A. Mihesuah

Stereotype... Reality

Indian Reorganization Act

Stopped land allotment Reorganized governments; Written Constitutions; Funds scholarships, cultural programs restoring lost land bases reverse assimilation encourage culture Indians the management of their assets

Homestead Strike

Strike against Carnegie's steel company, federal troops had to subdue it

Coeur D'Alene Strike

Strike staged by miners against leaders

Referendum

Submission of a law, proposed or already in effect, to a direct popular vote with approval or rejection

Ulysses S. Grant

Successful general from the USA, he was originally in the west but then went south, also the 18th president, Republican

Social Darwinism

Superimposed that the brutal struggle for existence that supposedly dominated nature onto modern society, and underscored the principle of "survival of the fittest"

Encomienda (Gutierrez/Knaut): Definition? Region? Time period? Groups involved? What event stopped this practice?

System set up by the Spanish conquistadors. Natives paid tribute to the Spanish and was given food. During the 1600s, ended in 1692 with Reconquista. Exploitation of Indian labor.

Spoil System

System used by Jackson where most positions were given to his personal friends

Navigation Acts

Tariffs that required colonists to buy and sell to England only (anything else had to come in from London)

Foreign Miners Tax

Tax placed on foreign miners that charged extra

How did civil war in England shape the development of British North America?

Tensions between Pilgrims and Puritans caused them to flee and England had civil was in 1640, King Charles lost head, Puritans ruled for 11 years, religious groups found havens, King Charles II took over and rewarded his supporter, colonies were violent with each other in north America, pilgrims and puritans in Massachusetts, Catholics in Maryland, others in Rhode island, supporters in Virginia

Gilded Age

Term applied to late nineteenth-century America that refers to the shallow display and worship of wealth characteristic of that period

Corrupt Bargain

Term used to describe how Clay became the Secretary of State after let Adams become president

Trace the beginnings of English colonization of the New World.

Textile market expanded into Russia, Middle East, India, Scandinavia Rising prices, religious intolerance, population growth pushed Englishmen out Began with tobacco in West Indies and fishing off Newfoundland Decimated the Spanish armada over religious conflict, opening seas

According to lecture and G. E. Thomas's article, what correction should we make in our understanding of the Puritans and their association with religious freedom and racial equality?

That the Puritans did not even follow their own beliefs of religious freedom and racial equality as they had a racial bias against Indians and did not even really let them convert to Puritan faith

John Dewey

The "father" of progressive education, he argued for the need for an education that was practical and useful. He insisted that education should be child centered and that schools should build character, teach good citizenship, and be instruments of social reform. He abandoned the tradition of rote learning and recitation, focusing instead on problem-solving activities ("learning by doing") that encouraged children to think creatively.

Tenure of Office Act

The 1867 Act prohibited the president from removing any official who had been appointed with the consent of the Senate without obtaining Senate approval. President Johnson challenged the act in 1868 when he dismissed Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton. For this, the House of Representatives impeached Johnson.

Interstate Commerce Commission

The 1887 law that expanded federal power over business by prohibiting pooling and discriminatory rates by railroads and establishing the first federal regulatory and agency, the ICC

Federal Reserve Act

The 1913 law that revised banking and currency by extending limited government regulation through the creation of the Federal Reserve System

Which empire had already broken apart when the Mongols invaded Persia?

The Abbasid Caliph was broken down.

Custer's Last Stand

The Battle of Little Big Horn, it was when General Custer died against a large alliance of Natives

Bay of Pigs

The Bay of Pigs invasion was one of the first attempts sponsored by the U.S. government to overthrow the Castro government of Cuba following the Cuban Revolution of 1959. Though the troops that fought in the invasion were exiles from Cuba, the operation was organized and funded by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The invasion was a disaster, both for the fighters, who were easily defeated and imprisoned, and for the administration of President John F. Kennedy, which had authorized the mission.

Mount Rushmore

The Black Hills are sacred to the Lakota Sioux, the original occupants of the area when white settlers arrived. For some, the four presidents carved in the hill are not without negative symbolism.

Proclamation of 1763

The British government put the western region behind the Appalachians aside for the natives, even though colonists thought it theirs.

Constantinople

The Christian capitol in the christian city, byzantine

1892 Chicago World's Fair

The Colombian exposition, it opened less than 2 months after an economic collapse; crowds gathered in more than 400 buildings with many domestic and international expositions

checks and balances

The Constitution contains ingenious devices of countervailing power. These checks on centralized power balance the authority of government between the co-equal branches of the presidency, Congress, and the Supreme Court. This is sometimes called the separation of powers.

How did New York get its name?

The Duke of York took it from the Dutch.

New France

The French and the Indians had connections and were "respectful" to one another, accepeted one another and shared cultures

Sussex Pledge

The German policy of "unrestricted submarine warfare" led to the attack on a French passenger ferry without warning on March 24, 1916; the ship was severely damaged and about 50 lives were lost. Although no U.S. citizens were killed in this attack, it prompted President Woodrow Wilson to declare that if Germany were to continue this practice, the United States would break diplomatic relations with Germany. Fearing the entry of the United States into World War I, Germany attempted to appease the United States by issuing this pledge, which promised an end to "unrestricted submarine warfare." However, in 1917 Germany became convinced they could defeat the Allied Forces by instituting unrestricted submarine warfare before the United States could enter the war. The this pledge was therefore rescinded in January 1917. The resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare caused the United States to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917.

How did the Ottomans create an effective bureaucracy?

The Janissaries helped them with the bureaucracy.

Menominee Tribe V. United States

The Menominee tribe supposed to be terminated; didn't need government because they were rich from timber; Menominee Tribe v. United States: found that termination of a tribe did not abrogate treaty rights unless there was specific legislative intent to do so.[40] They ruled that the Menominee were still entitled to their traditional hunting and fishing rights free from state control.[

Middle Passage: Definition? Average time of travel? Mortality rate?

The Middle Passage was the stage of the triangular trade in which millions of people from Africa were shipped to the New World, Several months, 15%

Why did the Mongols import Muslims to be government officials?

The Mongols thought that if they let the Chinese in their government, then they would rebel against them

What did the end of Mongol rule in Persia look like?

The Mongols were not kicked out of their empire, just like they were with the Chinese.

How did the Pax Mongolia encourage trade and travel through out the empire?

The Mongols were very opening to traders and made sure they were safe through-out the Pax Mongolia.

transcontinental railroad

The Pacific Railroad Act, passed in June 1862 by the U.S. Congress, authorized the building of this--a railroad across the continental United States. The Union Pacific Railroad worked westward from Omaha, Nebraska to meet the rails of the Central Pacific, which had built eastward from Sacramento, California. The railroad was completed on May 10, 1869, when crews of the Central Pacific and Union Pacific railroad lines met and joined tracks at Promontory Summit, Utah.

President Woodrow Wilson

The Progressive governor from New Jersey was elected president of the United States in 1912. As a Progressive Democrat, he secured passage of a lower Underwood Tariff and the first progressive income tax. The Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Trade Commission were also noteworthy accomplishments of his domestic agenda. After the outbreak of World War I in Europe in 1914, he gradually became preoccupied with foreign policy issues. Initially, the position of his administration was to adopt a policy of strict neutrality. But three years later, he asked Congress for a declaration of war on April 2, 1917. "The world," he said, "must be made safe for democracy." His "Fourteen Points" became the basis of peace negotiations that led to the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations.

Pueblo Revolt, 1680

The Pueblo Revolt of 1680 occurred in the Pueblo Region, which is present day New Mexico. The spanish came in and tried to force the people to convert to christianity. They arrest the pueblo holy men and some of them are put to death. As revenge, Pope (a pueblo man), leads a revolt against the spanish and kill 400 spaniards all together and 35 priests. The spanish are forced to leave the area. The significance is: when the spanish arrive 13 years later, they realize they cannot force the pueblo to christianity. For a time they lived in harmony with one another.

SEATO

The Southeast Asian Treaty Organization, formed by the USA, the Philippines, Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the UK and Thailand. Formed to block communism in Southeast Asia, especially in Vietnam.

Sputnik

The Soviets expanded their space program during the cold war and beginning in 1957, they launched this first artificial satellite to successfully orbit the Earth. This success in space fed fears of Soviet technological superiority and prompted the U.S. government to vastly increase its dedication to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

Plessy v Ferguson

The US Supreme Court decision of 1896 that upheld the legality of racial segregation with the doctrine of 'separate but equal' public facilities. This standard for segregation legitimized the widespread Jim Crow laws in the South and remained in force until 1954, when it was finally overturned by the Brown v. Board of Education case.

Containment

The United States' idea to keep communism from spreading, using espionage, an arms race, proxy wars, and bi-polarization of Europe.

Salutary Neglect

The age of British treatment of colonies during the period preceding the Seven Year' War; England interfered in its colonial affairs as little as possible

Central Powers*

The alliance between the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria (and some co-belligerents).

Entente Powers*

The alliance between the Russian Empire, the British Empire, France, Italy, and many others (the United States would join in 1917).

Wilmot Proviso

The amendment offered by David Wilmot (PA-D) in 1846 which stipulated that "as and express and fundamental condition to the acquisition of any territory from Mexico...neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any part of said territory"

Iran Hostage Crisis

The anti-American anger and the ability of the fundamentalist Muslim leaders and their followers to stand up to U.S. power inspired others in the Middle East. During the convoluted course of Iran's Islamic Revolution, 52 American citizens were seized at the American embassy and held hostage for 444 days. President Carter pledged not to use military force that might endanger the lives of the hostages. This crisis was viewed by many Americans and others as proof of the ineffectiveness of President Jimmy Carter and the decline of the United States after the Vietnam War.

Stephen Douglas

The architect of the Compromise of 1850, from Illinois

Mayflower Compact

The basic political and legal system of the colonies, and asserted that power came from the governed

New Spain

The biggest empire of urban areas and trade/ good exchange - also most populous area

Social Gospel

The bringing of religion and Christ into a question of working, a religious revival

Compromise of 1877

The congressional setting of the 1876 election that installed Republican Rutherford B. Hayes in the White House & gave Democrats control of all state governments in the South

Which Chinese Dynasty did the Mongols finally succeeded to conquer?

The conquered the Song Dynasty

Vertical Integration

The consolidation of numerous production functions, from the extraction of the raw materials to the distribution and marketing of the finished products, under the direction of one firm

Erie Canal

The construction of the 363-mile long canal began the canal boom of the 1820s and 1830s. It was financed by the state of New York with public funds. Begun in 1817, it was completed in 1825 and was an immediate financial success. It was the first transportation route between the eastern seaboard (New York City) and the western interior (Great Lakes) of the United States faster than carts pulled by draft animals, and cut transport costs by about 95%.

Bank Holiday

The day after becoming president in 1933, Franklin Roosevelt called for this—a temporary closure of all banks while they were investigated by federal examiners. In this time, Congress passed the Emergency Banking Act of 1933. When banks reopened depositors stood in line to return their stashed cash to neighborhood banks. On March 15, 1933, the first day of trading after the extended closure, the New York Stock Exchange recorded the largest one-day percentage price increase ever. With the benefit of hindsight, this action ended the bank runs that had plagued the Great Depression and signaled the vigorous executive action associated with Roosevelt's New Deal.

What is the devshirme and how did it work?

The devshirme was a tax that christians had to pay to the ottomans. They had to give their sons away. They would be trained to either be a bureaucrat or a warrior depending on the boy's skills.

Who were the dhimmi?

The dhimmi were a group of people who were 'people of the book', or Christians and Jews. They were allowed to practice their own religions, but they had to pay a special tax called the jizya.

House of Burgesses

The first elected legislative assembly in the New World, formed in Virginia in 1619

Sherman Anti-Trust Act

The first federal antitrust measure, passed in 1890; sought to promote economic competition by prohibiting combinations in restraint of trade or commerce

abolitionism

The drive to end slavery in the United States during the antebellum years was known by this term. The movement included dedicated people like William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass. Some paid a price for their outspokenness. In 1837, for example, Elijah P. Lovejoy, editor of antislavery journal, was killed by a proslavery mob in Alton, Illinois.

Tobacco

The drug became the new gold, its mass popularity and economic reward caused for a tobacco industry explosion which then led to increased settler population

common schools

The early nineteenth-century movement was grounded in the belief that a successful republican government depended on an educated citizenry. This defined a need for free tax-supported public schools, which all children were expected to attend. Horace Mann was the recognized leader of this movement.

The First New Deal

The economic and political policies of the Roosevelt administration in the 1930's

"Revolution" of 1800

The election of 1800 was considered this by Democratic-Republicans. Jefferson's victory would lead to a government that would put greater emphasis on states' rights than the previous Federalist administrations. Jefferson also repudiated the hated Alien and Sedition Acts and he attempted to bring the chief executive into greater touch with the people.

Election of 1860

The election that was four-way and produced Lincoln as a winner. Sectionalism, though, was the true winner.

What were the encomendero's supposed to do for the Indian villagers?

The encomenderos were supposed to protect and care for the Indians.

What was the encomienda system?

The encomienda was a system where the Spanish forced the Native Americans to do work for them which including farming, mining, or ranching.

Chesapeake Colonies

The encompassing area which Jamestown was a part of; now, it is divided amongst Virginia and Maryland

Columbian Exchange

The exchange of plants, animals, foods, human populations, communicable diseases, and ideas between the Eastern and Western hemispheres after Columbus's voyage in 1492.

Battle of Yorktown

The final battle of the revolution where the British surrendered under Lord Cornwallis

Triangle Shirtwaist Fire

The fire on March 25, 1911 in New York City killed 146 garment workers, nearly all of them young women, and was the worst industrial fire in New York history. The disaster proved to be a seminal event in both the labor and progressive movements, as it galvanized support for government regulation of factory safety and working conditions.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

The first major instance of black activism during the Civil Rights Movement. It began after a black woman, Rosa Parks, was arrested for sitting in the white section of a bus. Mobilized by Martin Luther King, the black community boycotted the bus service in Montgomery, Alabama, for 381 days until the bus company was persuaded by a 65 per cent drop in revenue, and a Supreme Court decision that declared bus segregation unconstitutional. The event also marked the beginning of King's rise as a Civil Rights leader.

13th Amendment

The first of three Reconstruction Amendments enacted in the years immediately following the Civil War, this Amendment officially prohibited slavery in the United States and its territories. Ironically, by negating the Three-fifths Clause in the Constitution, it had the effect of increasing the representation of the southern states in Congress.

Plymouth

The first permanent English settlement in New England, established by a group of Puritan separatists known as the Pilgrims, who sailed on the Mayflower and landed near present day Cape Cod.

The Jazz Singer

The first synchronized motion and sound feature-length film, released by The Warner Brothers, released 1928

Forty-Niners

The first wave of people who went to mine for gold

Trail of Tears

The forced march in 1838 of the Cherokees from their homelands in Georgia to the Native Territory in the West

Roger Williams

The founder of secular Rhode Island with intentions of separation from the Puritan church

American Temperance Union

The founding of this organization in 1826 by evangelical Protestants signaled the start of a national crusade against drunkenness. Using a variety of techniques, the union set out to persuade people not to drink intoxicating beverages and was successful in sharply lowering per capita consumption of alcohol. It was an example of the spirit of reform that was so prevalent in the early 1800s.

Compromise of 1850

The four-step compromise which admitted California as a free state, allowed the residents of the New Mexico and Utah territories to decide the slavery issue for themselves, and established that slaves fleeing to a free state would be returned to the owner

James Madison

The fourth American President, a Democratic-Republican

What role did the Mongol invasion of Asia Minor in the 1200s play in the history of the Ottoman Empire?

The gained control over a strait that they could use for taxation and trading. Also they were infidels.

Ghazis

The ghazis were religious warriors who fought to spread Islam.

Why did the Ghazis' goal of fighting spread to Islam appeal to the men who followed Osman?

The ghazis' goal of fighting to spread Islam appealed to the men who followed Osman was that they did not have to give up their nomadic warrior lifestyle.

Argonne Forest

The greatest AEF engagement in World War I came here in September, 1918. 1.2 million doughboys fought for over a month through dense forest and formidable German defenses. When the AEF finally broke through, they broke the German center at the cost of 120,000 AEF casualties. The war ended weeks later.

Virginia Company

The group of 104 men who stayed in Virginia to settle

Iroquois Confederacy

The group of Iroquois that aided the British in the Seven Years' War, made treaties with Ben Franklin

What motivated Christopher Columbus's risky voyage?

The idea of god (spreading of Christianity), GOLD (and other riches), and glory (claiming land for Spain.)

Land-Bridge Theory

The idea that the first America inhabitants crossed the Bering Land Bridge

What is the Jizya?

The jizya was a special tax that the dhimmi had to pay.

Louisiana Purchase

The land (not just today's state) of Louisiana was purchased from Napoleonic France, where the entire land, as a bargain, was sold for $15,000,000 to Jefferson after purchasing it in April 1803.

Anaconda Copper Company

The largest (and most successful) western mining corporation, it owned the gold it found

Southern Farmer's Alliance

The largest of several organizations that formed in the post-Reconstruction South to advance the interests of beleaguered small farmers

Battle of Wounded Knee

The last Army-Native conflict, it put the US in charge of Native policy

Indian Organization Act

The law replaced the "Dawes Act" and reversed previous Indian policy by guaranteeing tribal self-government and providing economic assistance. It was intended to allow Native Americans to resurrect their culture and traditions lost to government expansion and encroachment years earlier. Part of Congress's intent was to help Native Americans achieve economic parity with white people, while not becoming dependent on state governments. The goal of the act, however, was to give greater independence to local tribes, not individual members.

Chief Joseph and the Nez Pierce

The leader of a tribe that had peace with the United States, but it was forced onto a reservation

Nikita Khrushchev

The leader of the USSR from '53-'64. Tried to improve relations with the USA but failed due to the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Space Race, and nuclear arms development. Also saw the Sino-Soviet Split.

Virginia House of Burgesses

The legislature which allowed for white-male property owners to vote, which in turn needed approval by the British Virginia Company

38th Parallel

The line of latitude which until 1953 divided the two Koreas. The DMZ, now occupied by the UN, took over this role afterwards.

Thomas Hooker

The man who found secular Connecticut as a proprietorship

Horizontal Combination

The merger of competitors in the same industry

Middle Passage

The middle leg of the Triangle route in North America where slaves were deposited

What were millets in the Ottoman Empire?

The millets were groups of religious people that had a lot of freedom. They controlled their own taxes, laws, and community affairs including, birth, death and marriage.

Spanish Mission System

The missions were used to protect territory through settlements

"City upon a hill"

The model city for other people to look at and emulate

Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)

The most radical union in U.S. history, it was dedicated to the overthrow of capitalism. It was formed in Chicago in 1905 and its members were nicknamed "Wobblies" It was active in mainstream politics (its Detroit Conference of 1909 agreed to support the presidential campaign of the Socialist Eugene Debs), but other sections of the movement indulged in sabotage and sought to foment strikes. Such actions resulted in prosecutions and alienation of many potential supporters, allowing the government to label the IWW as "red fanatics." Between 1912 and 1915, when its influence was strongest, the union had 100,000 members but it declined rapidly after the Red Scare.

Indentured Servitude

The opportunity provided to Englishmen to go to the New World through 7 years of labor

Gang System of Labor

The organization and supervision of slave field hands into working teams on southern plantations

Soviet Satellite States

The other members of the Warsaw Pact, those being Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, the GDR and Hungary. Albania and Yugoslavia were also satellites for short time.

Market Revolution

The outcome of rapid improvements in transportation, commercialization, and industrialization

Who were penisulares?

The peninsulares are the Spanish settlers that were in America to spread the culture of Spain to their new conquered land.

Non-Separatists

The people who did not want to separate from the British/English church

Promontory, Utah

The point where the Central Pacific and Union Pacific Railroads met, it was symbolically done with a golden spike

Comprehensive High School

The policy formed of making stronger education for children

Differentiated Instruction

The policy of catering to all styles of learning in the classroom (visual, hands-on, etc.)

The Reagan Revolution

The presidency of Ronald Reagan during 1981-1989 marked the first time since President Herbert Hoover's administration that a Republican president made an effort to implement genuinely conservative policies. President Reagan's successful rejection of liberal economic philosophies led to a major resurgence of conservatism in the United States, and his two terms in office are sometimes known by this term.

Recall

The process of removing an official from office by popular vote, usually after using petitions to call for such a vote

Camp David Accords

The product of negotiations held in September 1978 between Egyptian president Anwar Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin, these accords established an agreement by which the two countries could work to secure peace in the Middle East. The talks were hosted by President Jimmy Carter at his presidential retreat and are generally considered a high point of his administration.

The Chesapeake

The region of Virginia and Maryland. In contrast to New England, this region was distinguished by indentured servants, cash crops, and African slavery.

Ghost Town

The remains of boom towns, they were named because of their abandonment

Radio Mania

The response to the new possibilities offered by broadcasting

Bear Flag Revolt

The revolt of California's independence from Mexico

Gospel of Wealth

Theory that hard work and perseverance led to wealth, implying that poverty is a character flaw, came from the Protestant work ethic

Mercantilism

Theory where economic power was rooted in a favorable trade balance and control of specie as such

Populist Party

The rise of this political party was the culmination of two decades of agrarian distress among farmers of the South and West. This party advocated policies to relieve the hardships of farmers, including especially the unlimited coinage of silver to increase the money supply. In 1896, they struck an unofficial truce with the Democratic Party in support of William Jennings Bryan for president. Although the political movement lost momentum after the electoral loss in 1896, many ideas survived and were enacted into law over the span of the next 20 years. The graduated income tax, the direct election of senators, the secret ballot, and government subsidies to farmers all had origins with this party.

Roanoke

The second group was sent to this island but it was eventually abandoned, another group was sent there to colonize but it was abandoned again - the settlers moved with the Indians

Andrew Jackson

The seventh president, he won the Creek War, and was major commander of the Battle of New Orleans

Federalism

The sharing of powers between the national government and the states

John Quincy Adams

The sixth president of the United States; had a conflicting presidency

Iron Curtain

The term used when Stalin cut off Eastern Europe from the West. The countries affected became Soviet Satellite States/Warsaw Pact members.

Thomas Jefferson

The third president of the United States, previously Adams' vice president.

Northwest Indians

The tribes lived in independent villages, they survived through fishing, hunting and gathering (Chinook, Skagit, Nootkin)

King William's War

The war against the French and the Native Americans on the Canadian border

Indians are a vanished race

There is a population of 2.1 million United States Native Americans today

Pax Mongolia

The was the golden age of the Mongols. Trade bloomed, they conquered a lot, and agriculture grew.

Massachusetts Circular Letter

The work primarily of Boston radical Samuel Adams, this was a plea to all colonial assemblies to unite in their protests against the hated Townshend Acts (1767). The British government viewed the letter as a direct challenge to Parliament's authority to rule the colonies ended the legislative session. Patriots in ___ used the episode to heighten colonial fears over the British government's lack of respect for colonial rights.

In what ways did the Ottomans include aspects of their nomadic culture in how they ruled their empire?

Their ruler was picked off of how well they did in military conquest. Also, they did not care about the people's race, but how well they were as rulers.

Hail Mary Tanya L. Rathbun

Theme: Experience in Indian mission schools St. Boniface

Let's Spread the Fun Around Ward Churchill

Theme: Exploring the cultural, racial, aesthetic, historical, and political issues surrounding the Native American mascot issue

Historiography Philip J. Deloria

Theme: Grappling with the Western tradition of historical writing and raising the question of Native historiography 30,000 books written about Native Americans by 1997 - 90% by non-Native authors History is subjective

Institutional and Intellectual Histories of Native American Studies Russell Thornton:

Theme: History of forced education on Native Peoples Argument: Not much, pretty historical Early colleges Government schools Native American Studies

Speaking Writing Simon J. Ortiz

Theme: Indigenous peoples relationship with the written word Argument: Indigenous American people are among the world's foremost advocates of oral language; speaking-writing expressed continuing existence as Indigenous people

Native American Systems of Knowledge Clara Sue Kidwell

Theme: Native American epistemologies Argument: The Western popular re-imagination belies the sophisticated techniques that native peoples used to control their environments Purchase of Manhattan for $24 worth of beads and trinkets

Another America Mark Warhus

Theme: Native mapping/cartography/geography customs Argument: In order to appreciate it, one must suspend western preconceptions of what makes a map

Reflection and Revelation Vine Deloria

Theme: Reflective and Revelatory experiences - Indian relationships with the land

New Nationalism

Theodore Roosevelt formulated this platform in the election of 1912 when he ran as the Progressive "Bull Moose" candidate. Roosevelt argued that the federal government had an interventionist role to play in the advancement of progressive democracy. Roosevelt argued that corporations should not be dismantled but should be controlled and regulated in the public interest. Roosevelt also proposed a comprehensive program of labor and social legislation. Despite Roosevelt's loss to Woodrow Wilson, this was the most progressive platform proposed by the three presidents of the Progressive Era.

Rough Riders

Theodore Roosevelt's troops in the Spanish-American War.

What cultural obstacles did the Mongols face in trying to rule the khanates?

There was no furtile land to plant crops.

Hessians

These German troops were hired by the British in 1775 to help suppress rebellion in the colonies. Colonists took offense, and Britain's use of these mercenaries made reconciliation with the colonies seem out of the question.

Irreconcilables

These Republican members of the US Senate, led by Senator Borah of Idaho, opposed the Treaty of Versailles when it was submitted for ratification in 1919, largely on the grounds that the United States' membership of the League of Nations would have been unconstitutional. The treaty was never in fact ratified and the United States therefore did not become a member of the League, despite the idea of it having been one of President Wilson's Fourteen Points.

Townshend Acts

These acts of Parliament, passed in 1767, imposed duties on colonial tea, lead, paint, paper, and glass. Designed to take advantage of the supposed American distinction between internal and external taxes, these duties were to help support government in America. The act prompted a successful colonial nonimportation movement. Parliament gradually rescinded the tax on all of the items enumerated in the laws except tea. The episode served as another important step in the coming of the American Revolution.

Lexington and Concord

These battles, fought on April 19, 1775 were the opening engagements of the American Revolution. Though there had been increasing violence and unrest throughout New England for several years, the colonists killed 73 British soldiers and wounded 174 and therefore brought the American patriots into open rebellion.

freedom rides

These bus trips were taken by black and white civil-rights advocates in the 1960s to test the enforcement of federal regulations that prohibited segregation in interstate public transportation. In the wake of the Supreme Court decision that had rendered victorious the Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1956, CORE and SNCC decided that the time was right to force the Southern states to uphold the federal law. As the buses traveled farther south, the hostility and violence they met escalated. Beatings and further arrests greeted them in South Carolina and Alabama; local authorities did nothing to prevent or stop the rampaging violence perpetrated against the riders by the Ku Klux Klan.

sit-ins

These civil rights demonstrations began when four African-American college students asked for service at a Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro. After they were refused service, they stayed quietly in their seats. They were jeered at and insulted by groups of whites but did not leave until the restaurant closed. Word spread that night on the college campus; the next day, 27 students arrived at Woolworth's to sit at the counter, and by the end of the week, the protesters overflowed Woolworth's. These demonstrations were widely reported and led to similar protests against segregated facilities in 70 cities across the United States.

joint stock company

These companies, such as the Virginia Company, provided the financial means for English colonizing ventures in the New World in the early 1600s.

Lincoln Douglas Debates

These debates took place in Illinois during 1858 between the Republican Party candidate for the U.S. Senate, and the incumbent Democratic Party candidate. Because the primary topic of the debates was whether slavery could legally be extended into free territories, they were widely covered in the national press. Although the Republican ultimately lost the election, the publicity surrounding the debates gained him national attention and helped him to obtain the Republican Party's nomination for the presidency in 1860.

turnpikes

These early improvements in the nation's transportation system were somewhat improved roads built by private companies to replace old wagon trails. The companies then charged tolls to all who used the roads.

speakeasies

These establishments illegally sold alcoholic beverages in the United States during the period known as Prohibition. Some of them were operated by people who were part of organized crime. Although police and agents of the Bureau of Prohibition would often raid them and arrest their owners and patrons, they were so profitable that they continued to flourish. They became symbolic of the difficulty associated with enforcement of the 18th Amendment.

Navigation Acts

These laws were passed by Parliament to implement mercantilistic assumptions about trade. They were intended to regulate the flow of goods in imperial commerce to the greater benefit of the mother county. One of these laws, for example, called for imperial trade to be conducted using English or colonial ships with mainly English crews. Another law created vice-admiralty courts in the colonies.

Neutrality Acts

These laws were passed by the United States Congress in the 1930s, in response to the growing turmoil in Europe and Asia that eventually led to World War II. They were spurred by the growth in isolationism and non-interventionism in the US following its costly involvement in World War I, and sought to ensure US neutrality by forbidding arms trade and loans to belligerent countries.

Navajo Code Talkers

These marines developed and implemented one of the few unbroken codes in history. The language was largely unwritten and not a subject of linguistic study. They based the code on nature as a reference. Birds indicated planes, a buzzard was a bomber, and fish denoted types of ships. They worked with all six marine divisions in the Pacific and served with distinction on the islands of Iwo Jima, Saipan, and Guadalcanal. The code was finally declassified in 1968.

Shakers

These people established a religious commune founded by Ann Lee. Reflecting the utopian impulse, they practiced celibacy because they believed the millennium was imminent. But their emphasis on celibacy precluded their producing a new generation of believers, and their dedication to a life of simplicity and a severe work ethic discouraged new members. The communities steadily declined and disbanded.

Barbary Pirates

These pirates in North Africa habitually seized trading vessels in the Mediterranean Sea and held crews and passengers for ransom. For years the new US government was too weak to deal effectively with the threat. President Jefferson dispatched a naval squadron to deal with the pirates, but the venture failed and the United States paid a financial tribute to the pirates until 1815. That victory demonstrated the growing strength of the United States and its ability to deal effectively with foreign affairs.

Medicaid/Medicare

These programs are the hallmarks of Lyndon Johnson's Great Society program. Established in 1965, the former is a U.S. health insurance program that provides care for indigent Americans and is administered mainly by state governments. The latter provides elderly people with insurance against hospitalization and lets older citizens buy inexpensive insurance to cover doctor bills and other health-related costs.

Grimke Sisters

These sisters occupy a special place in the abolitionist and women's rights movements. Not only were the sisters the first Southern women to become antislavery activists, but they were also the first to advocate women's rights through their lectures and writings. Both sisters were frustrated by the limits of their education and by the role that they were expected to play as women in Charleston society. Both were also deeply religious and distressed by their firsthand experience of slavery.

Black Codes

These were highly restrictive laws that Southern states adopted after the Civil War to deny many rights of citizenship to free blacks. The laws regulated the freedom and movement of former slaves. The adoption of these laws convinced many Northerners that federal legislation and constitutional amendments (as well as federal military districts in the South) would be necessary to secure the rights of African Americans.

enumerated articles

These were specific goods, including sugar, cotton, and tobacco, that, under the Navigation Act of 1660, colonists could ship only to British ports.

Regulators

These were vigilante groups active in the 1760s and 1770s in the western parts of North and South Carolina. They violently protested high taxes and insufficient representation in the colonial legislature.

In what wat were their reasons for the Mongols and Ottoman Turks conquering similar?

They both were nomadic pastrolists with one religion. Also they united other clans. In was, they both paid soliders with booty at first.

What region were the Ottoman turks from?

They came from Central Asia.

What did the Portuguese do with the land they colonized in Brazil?

They found sugar in that area and wiped out a lot of forests and made sugar factories because it became really popular in Europe.

How did the Mongols retain their culture when they were ruling the Chinese?

They had a forbidden city where they would live life like they would if they still lived on the steppe. Also, they did not intermarry, farm, or convert.

How were their reason for the Mongols and the Ottoman Turks conquering differently?

They had different reasons for conquest. The Mongols fought because they needed resources. The ottomans fought so that they can spread Islam.

What role did missionaries play in the Spanish Empire?

They helped spread christianity when they tried to conquer different lands (GOD, gold, and glory) They would bring a priest along and he would try to convert people

To what degree did the Mongols assimilate to Persian culture?

They started to intermarry, became farmers, and even some became Muslims.

To what degree did the Mongols assimilated to Chinese culture?

They used the chinese bureaucracy for a way of ruling along with the chinese tax system. Also they changed their name to Yuan Dynasty.

Anti-Federalists

They were a loosely organized group that arose after the American Revolution to oppose the Constitution and the strong central government that it created. They feared the potential of strong governments to infringe on the liberties of the people and the rights of the states.

what made the Ottomans such successful conquerors?

They were cruel, vengeful, self sufficient warriors who fought for their love of Islam.

In what ways were the Ottoman Turks similar to the Mongols?

They were nomadic pastrolists who were cruel, religiously tolerant, and relied on trade.

What were the Mongols attitude towards the religion of their subjects?

They were religiously tolerant and they respected different religions.

Conquistadors

They were spanish explorers that helped conquer the americas

Dust Bowl

This 150,000-square-mile area in the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma and portions of Colorado, Kansas, and New Mexico, was struck by a severe drought and high winds in the summers from 1934 to 1937. Those conditions caused the topsoil to blow into great clouds of dust. The dust clouds obscured sunlight, piled up in drifts as high as snow, and devastated agriculture and livestock in the region. For many farmers who were already suffering the effects of the Great Depression, the dust clouds were the final blow. They sold or abandoned their land and migrated west to California to start over.

Bacon's Rebellion

This 1676 uprising in in the Virginia Colony was the first rebellion in the American colonies in which discontented frontiersmen violently protested against the governor of Virginia, William Berkeley, accusing him of levying unfair taxes, of appointing friends to high positions, and of failing to protect outlying farmers from Indian attack. After months of conflict, Jamestown was burned to the ground.

Zenger Trial

This 1735 trial of a New York newspaper editor resulted in a not guilty verdict, since his articles were based on fact. This acquittal was the first important victory for freedom of the press in the colonies and set an important precedent for the libel cases of the future.

Sugar Act

This 1764 Act initiated prime minister George Grenville's plan to place tariffs on some colonial imports as a means of raising revenue needed to finance England's expanded North American empire. It also called for more strict enforcement of the Navigation Acts. The end of "salutary neglect" and the effort to curb smuggling led to many of the early colonial protests against British interference in colonial affairs.

Stamp Act

This 1765 Act of Parliament was the first purely direct (revenue) tax Parliament imposed on the colonies. It was an excise tax on printed matter, including legal documents, publications, and playing cards, and the revenue produced was supposed to defray expenses for defending the colonies. Americans opposed it as "taxation without representation" and prevented its enforcement; Parliament repealed it a year after its enactment.

Non-Intercourse Act

This 1809 law replaced the unpopular and unsuccessful Embargo Act. It forbade U.S. trade only with Britain and France, and authorized the president to resume trade with either nation if it stopped violating U.S. neutral rights. It was one of several measures enacted by the U.S. government in the early 19th century in an attempt to preserve U.S. neutrality in the Napoleonic Wars then raging across Europe.

Dartmouth College v Woodward

This 1819 Marshall Court decision was one of the earliest and most important U.S. Supreme Court decisions to interpret the contracts clause in Article I, Section 10 of the Constitution. The case arose from a dispute in New Hampshire over the state's attempt to take over Dartmouth College. By construing the Contract Clause as a means of protecting corporate charters from state interventions, Marshall derived a significant constitutional limitation on state authority. As a result, various forms of private economic and social activity would enjoy security from state regulatory policy. Marshall thus encouraged the emergence of the relatively unregulated private economic actor as the major participant in a growing national economy.

Webster-Hayne Debates

This 1830 debate is generally regarded as one of the greatest congressional debates in history. During an ongoing argument about the constitutionality of nullification, Senator Daniel Webster eloquently defended the Constitution and the Union and closed his speech with a call for "Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable!" This debate stirred deep sentiments in both the North and the South, but only the Civil War could finally resolve the contested issues.

Pacific Railway Act

This 1862 act established the pattern for government land grants to railroads. It gave five square miles of public land to railroad construction companies for each mile of track laid. In all, the railroads received more than 175 million acres of public land - an area larger than Texas. Railroad expansion facilitated westward expansion and settlement of the frontier. The railroads sold portions of their land to arriving settlers at a handsome profit.

Pendleton Act

This 1883 act brought civil service reform to federal employment, thus limiting the spoils system. It classified many government jobs and required competitive examinations for these positions. It also outlawed forcing political contributions from appointed officials.

Dawes Severalty Act

This 1887 law revised official government policy with regard to Indian lands. The law terminated tribal ownership of land and alloted some parcels of land to individual Indians. By dividing reservation lands into privately-owned parcels, legislators hoped to complete the assimilation process by forcing the deterioration of the communal life-style of the Native societies; it was hoped that Natve Americans would learn the benefit of owning and cultivating property. Most allotment land, which could be sold after a statutory period of 25 years, was eventually sold to non-Native buyers at bargain prices.

A. Mitchell Palmer

This Attorney General, concerned that the United States was threatened by the spread of Communism, ordered a series of raids that led to mass arrests and deportation of those accused of being disloyal Americans. Although his authorization of raids, arrests, and deportations were deplored by defenders of civil liberties, they brought him popular acclaim. In historical perspective, his zeal appears excessive, though it must be understood as part of a wave of antiradical and anti-immigrant hysteria that swept through the nation during the Red Scare following World War I.

Anthracite Coal Strike

This 1902 strike was led by the United Mine Workers of America in the coal fields of eastern Pennsylvania. Miners worked in deplorable conditions and were poorly paid. When the owners rejected demands for higher wages, an eight-hour day and recognition of the union, the miners went on strike. The strike threatened to shut down the winter fuel supply to all major cities President Theodore Roosevelt called both sides together in Washington and urged a compromise. When no agreement was reached, Roosevet threatened to send federal troops to take over the mines. The miners went back to work in March 1903 and were awarded a 10% wage increase and a reduction in hours, though not an eight-hour day or recognition of the union. Previous presidents had intervened in labor disputes only to break strikes, as Cleveland had done in the Pullman Strike of 1894. Roosevelt had intervened to get a negotiated settlement and his prestige rose.

Hay Bunau-Varilly Treaty

This 1903 treaty established the terms for the United States to construct a trans-oceanic canal across the isthmus of Panama. According to the terms of the treaty, the United States was to receive rights to a canal zone which was to extend six miles on either side of the canal route in perpetuity; Panama was to receive a payment from US up to $10 million and an annual rental payments of $250,000.

Hepburn Act

This 1906 act put teeth in the regulator power of the Interstate Commerce Commission. It gave the Commission power to inspect railroad companies' records, set maximum rates, and outlaw free passes, which were often used to influence politicians. Scholars generally consider the Hepburn Act the most important piece of legislation regarding railroads in the first half of the 20th century. It illustrated the trend of the Progressive Era: reform through regulation.

Clayton Anti-trust Act

This 1914 Act strengthened the Sherman Anti-trust Act. In addition to imposing even more severe restrictions against monopolies, the law declared that labor unions were not combinations working in restraint of trade and therefore were exempt from much of the antitrust legislation that had previously kept them from effectively representing the concerns of laborers. Union organizer Samuel Gompers referred to this act as the "Magna Carta of American labor."

Scopes Monkey Trial

This 1925 trial was considered the "trial of the century." It represented the opening skirmish between fundamentalist Christians and modernists over the teaching of the theory of evolution in schools. In early 1925, the state of Tennessee made it illegal to "teach any theory that denies the Story of the Divine Creation of man." When a biology teacher violated this law and taught evolution, the case wen to court. William Jennings Bryan represented the prosecution and Clarence Darrow represented the teacher. The teacher was found guilty, but the trial presented a serious challenge to fundamentalist teachings.

Common Sense

This 50-page pamphlet, written by Thomas Paine, inspired the Declaration of Independence. Even after fighting broke out in April 1775, many Americans were reluctant to break their ties to England. Paine's publication in January 1776 helped remove that obstacle by convincing the colonists that further association with the English king was undesirable. It was highly influential and sold more than 120,000 copies in the first three months, making it the biggest best-seller of its time.

Lend-Lease Act

This Act (March, 1941) provided for the extension of credit, weapons, and supplies to the British government, as Great Britain struggled against the aggression of Nazi Germany in World War II. Technically, the law allowed the president to grant aid to any country whose defense the president believed to be vital to U.S. security. Over the course of the war and under the auspices of this bill, the United States granted more than $50 billion of aid to its allies.

Federal Reserve Act

This Act, passed in 1913 during Wilson's administration, established the Federal Reserve System, commonly known as the "Fed." The Federal Reserve System is still the central bank of the United States and is charged with the responsibility of developing and administering monetary and credit policies for the nation. The Fed provides the nation with central banking functions that include handling of government deposits, managing the federal debt, and supervising and regulating private banks. Its most important function in terms of the nation's economic well-being is that of determining the supply of money and credit in the system.

A. Philip Randolph

This African American leader met with President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940 to press for integration of the armed forces and the employment of black workers in the defense plants. To force an executive order to end discriminatory hiring practices in defense plants, he called for a show of strength: a massive march on Washington in July 1941. On July 1, six days before the march was to occur, Roosevelt signed an executive order barring discrimination in defense plants and in government service. Though integration of the armed forces was not achieved, thousands of jobs in defense industries were opened up for blacks.

National War Labor Board

This Agency was originally created during WWI by President Woodrow Wilson. In 1942, President Roosevelt reestablished the commission for WWII. It was charged with acting as an arbitration tribunal in labor-management dispute cases, thereby preventing work stoppages which might hinder the war effort.

21st Amendment

This Amendment to the United States Constitution repealed the Eighteenth Amendment which had mandated nationwide Prohibition. It was ratified on December 5, 1933.

Joseph Glidden

This American farmer patented barbed wire, a product that forever altered the development of the American West. Barbed wire made it affordable to fence much larger areas than before, so intensive animal husbandry was practical on a much larger scale. Within 25 years, nearly all of the open range had been fenced in under private ownership. For this reason, some historians have dated the end of the Old West era of American history to the invention and subsequent proliferation of barbed wire. The inventor gave 63 acres of his homestead as a site for a small school that would become Northern Illinois University.

Dr. Francis Townsend

This American physician was best known for his proposal for a revolving old-age pension plan during the Great Depression. This proposal is often considered an important influence on the establishment of the Social Security system during the Roosevelt Administration

Geronimo

This Apache chief was a skillful, fearless guerrilla warrior who thwarted thousands of American soldiers. His capture in 1886 helped bring a close to the late nineteenth-century suppression of Indian resistance to white migration into the Trans-Mississippi West.

General Charles Cornwallis

This British general was second in command to Henry Clinton. His 1781 defeat by a combined American-French force at the Siege of Yorktown is generally considered the de-facto end of the war, as the bulk of British troops surrendered with him.

Lusitania

This British steamship was sunk on 7 May 1915 off the Old Head of Kinsale, Ireland, after being torpedoed by a German U-boat. The ship had left New York on 1 May 1915 bound for Liverpool. Of the 785 passengers lost, 124 were American. The incident was a diplomatic disaster for the Germans, with the American government coming close to breaking off relations. It had a major influence on the eventual decision of the USA to enterWorld War I.

Antietam

This Civil War battle took place near Sharpsburg, Maryland in September, 1862. Gen. Robert E. Lee, commander of the Confederate Army, had led his troops into the North to forage for supplies and to rally Southern sympathizers in Maryland. This was the bloodiest battle of the entire Civil War. The Confederates' defeat was a serious blow to their morale and diminished the Confederacy's chances of securing international recognition. McClellan, despite winning the battle, was criticized for not inflicting a more resounding defeat on the Confederates with their vastly superior numbers.

USS Monitor vs. Merrimack

This Civil War naval battle took place on March 9, 1862, near Hampton Roads, Virginia. The significance of the battle is that it centered on a new class of warship, the ironclad. Although the two ironclads sparred for almost four hours, neither vessel was badly damaged. Neither the Union nor the Confederacy could claim outright victory, but both acknowledged that history had been made as the two ships revolutionized naval warfare.

Fidel Castro

This Communist leader of the Cuban Revolution successfully overthrew the US-backed dictatorship in 1959. He then led the transformation of Cuba into a one-party socialist republic. In 1960, he forged a relationship with the USSR which increased opposition to his government in the U.S. At various times, the US government attempted to assassinate him, overthrow his regime, and restrict trade and travel to Cuba. All of these efforts failed, and his regime continues to rule Cuba (under his brother's rule) to this day.

18th Amendment

This Constitutional Amendment (1919), along with the Volstead Act, legislatively banned "manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors." The era of Prohibition was underway. This Amendment was the culmination of efforts to ban alcohol that dated to the19th-century temperance movements. The Amendment was eventually repealed by the Twenty-first Amendment in 1933.

14th Amendment

This Constitutional amendment was one of three Reconstruction amendments enacted in the years immediately following the Civil War. Passed by Congress in April 1866, it expanded the definition of U.S. citizenship to include people of all races, specifically African Americans; and it commanded the federal government to ensure the protection of certain fundamental rights at the state level.

habeas corpus

This Constitutional right requires arresting authorities to explain the grounds for a person's imprisonment or detention before a court of law. Abraham Lincoln suspended this right in Maryland in order to "suppress the insurrection" and restrain "disloyal persons."

Andrew Johnson

This Democratic Senator from Tennessee was Lincoln's vice-presidential running mate in 1864. He succeeded to the presidency when Lincoln was assassinated in 1865. His Reconstruction policies infuriated Radical Republicans in Congress, and he was impeached and nearly removed from office in 1867. While he retained office, his power was reduced. None of his vetoes were upheld during his last year in office. One of his last acts as president was to grant amnesty "without limitation to all who had participated in the rebellion."

Eleanor Roosevelt

This First Lady (1933-1945) was the first wife of a president to use her unique position to fight for the rights of minorities, women, and the destitute. She worked in the slums, visited workers in mines and factories, held press conferences, and wrote a newspaper column. Strongly committed to civil equality for African Americans, she was often the only person close to the White House who was willing to speak up on the issue. After her husband's death in 1945, she continued her public life, serving as a delegate to the United Nations until 1952.

George Kennan

This Foreign Service officer was the key idea man behind the containment doctrine. His knowledge of Soviet history led him to conclude that the Soviets saw capitalist-communist conflict as inevitable. The only way to deal with that mentality was for the United States to contain communism by resisting Soviet aggression and expansion wherever it might occur. His recommendation provided the rationale for the Truman Doctrine, the Marshall Plan, and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

Battle of the Bulge

This German counter-offensive was launched in December, 1944 as a final effort to turn the tide of the war. A successful surprise attack on the thin Allied line would enable Germany to recapture the Allied supply port at Antwerp, and it would also separate the British forces from the American troops. The German ambush caught the Allies off guard and temporarily drove them back. However, Allied reinforcements and air superiority led to a major defeat for the German Army; it opened the door for Allied invasion of Germany itself.

Head Start

This Great Society Program was initiated in 1964 to prepare low-income children for school. It was the foundation of President Lyndon B. Johnson's War on Poverty, One reason for low-income children's educational disadvantage is that they have had less exposure than other children to such educational building blocks as numbers and the alphabet. This program furnishes that exposure and allows them to begin their formal school training on a more nearly equal footing with other students. Since its inception, nearly 18 million children have participated in the program.

Huey Long

This Louisiana Senator was a left-wing critic of the New Deal, contending it did too little to help the poor. He advocated a "Share Our Wealth" program to transfer wealth from the rich to the poor. He made it clear that he hoped to run for the presidency at the head of the Democratic Party in 1936 or 1940, but that if he could not secure the nomination he would run as an independent. He never had the chance. He was assassinated on September 8, 1935 by the son-in-law of a political opponent he was attempting to destroy. He died two days later.

Santa Anna

This Mexican leader supporrted the revolution that resulted in independence from Spain in 1821. By 1833, he was elected president of Mexico, but by 1834, he declared himself dictator. In 1836, with an army of 6,000 men, he defeated Texan rebels at the Alamo but was badly beaten by Sam Houston at the Battle of San Jacinto. He ultimately signed the Treaties of Velasco, which granted Texas its freedom from Mexico. Returning from exile in 1846, he commanded Mexican forces again--this time against United States troops in the Mexican war. But he was again unsuccessful; Mexico city fell to General Winfield Scott in 1847.

Guadalcanal

This Pacific Island became the focus of the first U.S. offensive of World War II. The battle here, which was waged from early August 1942 to mid-February 1943, was a decisive Allied victory over the Empire of Japan. The battle was also the first Japanese land defeat of the conflict. It also revealed the incredible resilience of the Japanese fighters and their unwillingness to surrender, which led many U.S. leaders to support the use of the atomic bomb to end the war.

Josiah Strong

This Protestant clergyman and author wrote "Our Country," a racist and religious justification for American expansion. He argued that the Anglo-Saxon people were divinely ordained to dominate mankind--a case of survival of the fittest. He intended to promote missionary activity and he encouraged support for imperialistic United States policy.

Halfway Covenant

This Puritan doctrine responded to the declining religious fervor of second and third generation Puritans by providing partial church membership for the children and grandchildren of church members. Puritan preachers hoped that this plan would maintain some of the church's influence in society.

Tecumseh

This Shawnee chief organized an Indian confederacy to try to defend Indian land and culture in the Ohio country. He combined military skill and oratory brilliance to fashion one of the biggest pan-Indian alliances. In 1811 his confederacy was shattered at the Battle of Tippecanoe. He was killed later at the Battle of the Thames during the War of 1812.

Lyndon B. Johnson

This Texas Senator was elected vice president in 1960 and became president when John F. Kennedy was assassinated in 1963. He was then elected president in 1964. His Great Society sought to use the nation's wealth to eradicate poverty and his civil-rights programs did more for African-American equality than any president since Abraham Lincoln. But these domestic accomplishments were overshadowed by his controversial decisions that mired the United States in the Vietnam War. He declined to run for re-election in 1968 after the TET Offensive in Vietnam.

Treaty of Alliance

This Treaty was a pact between France and the Second Continental Congress

Reuben James

This US Navy destroyer was the first United States Navy ship sunk by hostile action in World War II. The destroyer was part of the convoy escort force established to promote the safe arrival of materiel to the United Kingdom. On October 31st, 1941, while escorting a convoy, this ship was torpedoed by a German submarine. Of the 159-man crew, only 44 survived.

Jefferson Davis

This US Senator and Secretary of War from Mississippi vocally supported the rights of slaveholders. When southern states seceeded in early 1861, he was elected president of the Confederate States of America. Short-tempered and opinionated, he quickly amassed political enemies within the South and throughout the war, he attempted to maintain control over the unwieldy Confederate government, frequently quarreling with both the Confederate Congress and state governments throughout the South. After the Confederacy collapsed in April 1865, he was arrested by federal troops. He was released after serving two years in the federal prison at Fortress Monroe, without ever going to trial or being convicted on any charge.

NAACP/The Crisis

This US civil-rights organization was dedicated to ending inequality and segregation for blacks. Founded in 1909, it campaigned to end segregation and discrimination in education, public accommodations, voting, and employment, and to protect the constitutional rights of blacks. It has made the most significant gains for civil rights through groundbreaking judicial cases. In 1909 it merged with the Niagara Movement founded in 1905 by W E B Du Bois, who went on to edit the organization's journal The Crisis.

Bull Moose Party

This US political party was founded 1912 by supporters of the former president Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt's "New Nationalism" platform included legislation for workers' protection and strict regulation of corporations. The new progressive party and Roosevelt's candidacy split the Republican Party completely; as a consequence the Democratic candidate, Woodrow Wilson, won the 1912 presidential election by an overwhelming majority.

Barry Goldwater

This United States Senator from Arizona was the Republican Party's nominee for President in the 1964 election. An articulate and charismatic figure, he was known as "Mr. Conservative". He rejected the legacy of the New Deal and fought through the conservative coalition to defeat the New Deal coalition. His fiscally conservative and socially moderate campaign platform ultimately failed to gain the support of the electorate and he lost the 1964 presidential election to incumbent Democrat Lyndon B. Johnson by one of the largest landslides in history.

Election of 1912

This United States presidential election was fought among three major candidates. Incumbent President William Howard Taft was renominated by the Republican Party. Former President Theodore Roosevelt failed to receive the Republican nomination and called his own convention and created the Progressive Party (nicknamed the "Bull Moose Party"). Woodrow Wilson won the Democratic nomination. The split between Roosevelt and Taft helped Wilson win the election. Wilson was the second of only two Democrats to be elected President between 1860 and 1932. This was also the last election in which a candidate who was not a Republican or Democrat came second in either the popular vote or the Electoral College.

Battle of Coral Sea

This WWII battle occurred between U.S. and Japanese aircraft carriers in May 1942 and served to halt the Japanese advance toward Australia during World War II. The battle was the first major naval battle in which the opposing fleets did not sight each other; aircraft carried out all combat. This ushered in a new style of naval warfare: carrier-versus-carrier.

Half-Breeds

This a political faction of the United States Republican Party that existed in the late 19th century. These moderates were opponents of the Stalwarts, the other main faction of the Republican Party. The main issue that separated them from the Stalwarts was political patronage. The Stalwarts were in favor of political machines and spoils system-style patronage, while the this group, led by Maine senator James G. Blaine, were in favor of civil service reform and a merit system.

Land Ordinance of 1785

This act was adopted by the United States Congress (under the Articles of Confederation) on May 20, 1785. The act provided for the political organization of these territories and laid the foundations of land policy in the United States. Land was to be systematically surveyed into square "townships", six miles on a side and then be further subdivided for sale to settlers and land speculators. The law was also significant for establishing a mechanism for funding public education. Section 16 in each township was reserved for the maintenance of public schools.

National Banking Act

This act, passed in 1863 to help finance the Union war effort, gave the country a uniform currency. The federal currency soon drove state bank notes out of circulation.

Reconstruction Finance Corporation

This administration was established by President Herbert Hoover in 1932 to make emergency loans to banks and railroads in danger of defaulting as the Great Depression deepened. The agency dispensed $1.5 billion in its first year and was credited with contributing to the reduction in bank failures during the first half of 1932. As the financial situation worsened again Hoover's congressional opponents argued for direct federal grants to individuals, but Hoover opposed all such programs, convinced that direct relief was not the role of federal government.

Office of War Mobilization

This agency of the United States government coordinated all government agencies involved in the war effort during World War II. This office took over from the earlier War Production Board to shift the country from a peacetime to a wartime economy. The United States was soon outproducing the Axis powers. Unemployment, the scourge of ten years earlier, had all but vanished, as Americans went to work to fuel the war machine.

Gentlemen's Agreement

This agreement between the United States and Japan in 1907-1908 represented an effort by President Theodore Roosevelt to calm growing tension between the two countries over the immigration of Japanese workers. A treaty with Japan in 1894 had assured free immigration, but as the number of Japanese workers in California increased, they were met with growing nativist hostility. In the Agreement, Japan agreed not to issue passports for Japanese citizens wishing to work in the continental United States, thus effectively eliminating new Japanese immigration to America. In exchange, the United States agreed to accept the presence of Japanese immigrants already residing in America, and to permit the immigration of wives, children and parents, and to avoid legal discrimination against Japanese children in California schools.

Platt Amendment

This amendment to the Cuban Constitution barred Cuba from making a treaty that gave another nation power over its affairs. Also, the United States could intervene in Cuban affairs to keep order or maintain independence, and could buy or lease sites for naval and coaling stations (the main one was Guantánamo Bay). Later in 1901, under American pressure, Cuba included the amendment's provisions in its Constitution.

Horatio Alger

This author wrote books with rags-to-riches themes to reinforce the prevailing business philosophy of late-19th-century America. This philosophy held that any individual, however humble his or her beginnings, could become president or a millionaire by dint of hard work and good deeds. The legend embodied by his heroes became the basis of the "American Dream" of success through individual effort.

John Steinbeck

This author wrote the famous novel, The Grapes of Wrath in 1939, a book that captured the economic despair of the 1930s and spawned popular outrage against conditions faced by migrant farm workers. In the book, the Joad family characterized typical "Oakies" who moved from Oklahoma to California, like to escape the droughts and Dust Bowl conditions that ruined farmers in the Midwest. By 1950, four million people, or one quarter of all persons born in Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas, or Missouri, like Steinbeck's Joad family, lived outside the region. Most went to California.

Berlin Wall

This barrier was constructed by East Germany in 1961, to completely cut off West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and from East Berlin. The barrier included guard towers placed along large concrete walls. The purpose of the barrier was to prevent the massive emigration and defection (3.5 million people!) of East Germans who crossed the border from East Berlin into West Berlin. Between 1961 and 1989, this barrier prevented almost all such emigration. The fall of this barrier in 1989 paved the way for German reunification, and served as a symbol of the end of the Cold War.

Gettysburg

This battle is considered by many historians to be the turning point of the Civil War. General Lee planned a raid into Pennsylvania to relieve the strained Virginia countryside, disrupt Union economic security and bring foreign recognition to the Confederacy. US General George G. Meade ordered the entire army to concentrate on this battlefield against Lee's forces. After the Confederate loss there, Gen. Robert E. Lee never took the strategic offensive in battle again. Lee's army of 75,000 troops suffered 28,000 casualties. Though Meade had kept Lee out of the North, he was later criticized for not further pursuing and demolishing the Confederate Army.

Yorktown

This battle proved to be the decisive battle in the revolutionary defeat of Great Britain at the hands of American colonists. After the failure of his Carolinas campaign, British general Lord Charles Cornwallis withdrew his army into Virginia and hoped to receive reinforcements. Before that could occur, however, the Franco-American Army, commanded by Gen. George Washington arrived and laid siege to the city. British reinforcements were also cut off by the arrival of French admiral François de Grasse, who drove the British Navy out of Chesapeake Bay and ensured that it could not support Cornwallis. Giving up any hope of assistance, Cornwallis surrendered his troops on October 19, 1781.

Battle of New Orleans

This battle took place on January 8, 1815, weeks after the Treaty of Ghent had been signed. It was the final major battle of the War of 1812. American forces, with General Andrew Jackson in command, defeated an invading British Army. At the end of the day, the British had 2,037 casualties; the Americans had 71 casualties. Such a route of British forces stirred American nationalism and contributed to the heroic legacy of Andrew Jackson.

Battle of Tippecanoe

This battle took place on November 7, 1811 between Shawnee Indians and U.S. forces. In the years after 1805, the Shawnee Prophet and his brother Tecumseh encouraged Indian resistance to U.S. demands for land in the Old Northwest. William Henry Harrison, the governor of Indiana Territory, was greatly concerned and organized more than 1,000 troops. The Prophet had decided that he must attack to forestall Harrison. This battle was fiercely fought, and the Americans lost nearly 200 killed and wounded. It is likely that Indian casualties were about the same. Harrison, however, claimed a major victory because the Indians dispersed. The Indians, however, were now more determined than ever to resist the Americans, and many were ready to join the British in the event of war.

Chateau-Thierry

This battle was fought on July 18, 1918 and was one of the first actions the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) under General John J. "Black Jack" Pershing. The Germans were only 50 miles outside of Paris, but the AEF stopped the German offensive. For the first time in more than a year the Germans were on the defensive.

Midway

This battle, fought in June, 1942 is widely regarded as the most important naval battle of the Pacific Campaign of World War II. Japanese admiral Yamamoto anticipated that the attack would lure those American aircraft carriers that had escaped from the Pearl Harbor attack into open waters, where they could be sunk. However, this battle marked the first clear-cut Japanese defeat since the outbreak of World War II; it ended Japan's ability to expand its control in the Pacific, and forced the Japanese to be on the defensive for the remainder of the war. Japan was unable to recover from the loss of four aircraft carriers, the best in the navy's fleet, and the loss of so many skilled pilots.

GI Bill of Rights

This bill provided many benefits to veterans of World War II. From 1944 to 1949, nearly 9 million veterans received close to $4 billion from the bill's unemployment compensation program. The education and training provisions existed until 1956, providing benefits to nearly 10 million veterans. The Veterans' Administration offered insured loans until 1962, and they totaled more than $50 billion. The economic assistance provided by this bill accelerated the postwar demand for goods and services.

Henry Cabot Lodge

This chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee led a group of "reservationists" in the successful fight against American participation in the League of Nations. He maintained that membership in the world peacekeeping organization would threaten the political freedom of the United States by binding the nation to international commitments it would not or could not keep. His defeat of Wilson in the fight over the League humiliated the president and dealt a bitter blow to Wilson's pretensions as an international statesman.

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

This civil rights group was founded in 1960 to organize the protests of African-American college students against segregation in the Deep South. The group was inspired by the Greensboro sit-in and the protest technique became the main weapon of the group. In addition, the group coordinated voter registration drives for African Americans. In 1966, however, Stokely Carmichael assumed the leadership and helped to oversee its transition from a nonviolent organization to one that embraced a militant, separatist, and revolutionary program. The new leader advocated black power as a worthier goal than the integration of blacks into white society.

Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)

This civil rights organization was founded in 1942 by members who envisioned a nonviolent, interracial civil rights organization that emphasized integration with whites. Over the next several years, chapters of the group spread across the United States, applying the same techniques to knock down discriminatory barriers. It became famous in the 1960s, when it emerged as a leading force within the civil rights movement—particularly with its sponsorship of the Freedom Rides of 1961. In the mid-1960s, the group acquired a more militant, separatist stance and advocafed self-government by African Americans in black-majority areas.

elastic clause

This clause in the Constitution grants Congress the right to pass all laws "necessary and proper" to carry out the powers specifically granted to Congress by the Constitution. This clause was the source of Hamilton's implied powers doctrine and has been used by "loose constructionists" to increase the powers of the national government.

Kerner Commission

This commission was assembled by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1967 following racial riots in Newark and Detroit. The Commission's report, released in 1968, started with one dramatic conclusion: "Our nation is moving toward two separate societies, one black, one white—separate and unequal." Its finding was that the riots resulted from black frustration at lack of economic opportunity. Its results suggested that one main cause of urban violence was white racism and suggested that white America bore much of the responsibility for black rioting and rebellion.

Secession

This concept was based largely on the logic of John C. Calhoun. In his compact theory of government, states retained the essence of their sovereignty when they joined the Union, and they had constitutional authority to leave the Union when it served their interests to do so. South Carolina pursued this in 1860.

French and Indian War

This conflict had its focal point in North America and pitted the French and their Native American allies against the English and their Native American allies. Althought it lasted from 1754-1763, the event was known in Europe as the Seven Years' War. This struggle drove the French from North America.

rationing

This controlled distribution of scarce resources, goods, or services was implemented in the U.S. in 1942. Targeted items included food and other necessities in short supply, including materials needed for the war effort such as rubber tires, leather shoes, clothing and gasoline. Some items, such as sugar, were distributed evenly based on the number of people in a household. Other items, like gasoline or fuel oil, were rationed only to those who could justify a need.

James K. Polk

This dark horse candidate, was elected president in 1844 on a platform of territorial expansion. His election secured the annexation of Texas in 1845. The Mexican War, fought during his term, resulted in the United States' acquisition of New Mexico and California in 1848. During his administration, more than a million square miles of new territory were added to the United States. Exhausted and prematurely aged due to his overwork and poor health, he decided not to run for reelection in 1848. He died on June 15, 1849, only a few months after retiring from office, but today he is remembered as one of the most effective chief executives in American history.

October 29, 1929

This date is remembered as "Black Tuesday" when the stock market "crashed" and wiped out the fortunes and life savings of many investors. The event marked the end of the securities boom of the 1920s and the beginning of the Great Depression. Many investors lost their life savings, and many businesses and banks failed due to their losses. Ultimately, the crash triggered the reform of laws regulating the securities market and led to the establishment of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission which acted to enforce new reporting and listing requirements and other laws that aimed to end manipulative practices in securities trading.

town meeting

This democratic form of local government in colonial New England allowed adult males to select a representative to the assembly and decide issues related to land, taxes, and the minister's salary.

carpetbaggers

This disparaging term was applied to northerners who went to the South after the Civil War. They were a mixed lot of idealists and self-interested seekers of political and economic opportunity, many of whom became involved in Republican politics. According to the stereotype, this was a seeker of power and plunder whotook advantage of the Reconstruction Acts to sway the easily exploitable black voters and lowborn Southern white traitors known as scalawags.

Dorthea Lange

This documentary photographer is best known for her sensitive, impassioned images of depression-era poverty. Her achievements in photographic technique and her respect and compassion for the subjects of her portraits raised the level of art photography and the awareness of the plight of those most affected by the Great Depression.

Romanticism

This early nineteenth-century literary movement believed that change and growth were the essence of life, for individuals and for institutions. They valued feeling and intuition over reason and pure thought, and they stressed the differences between individuals, rather than their similarities.

mercantilism

This economic theory advocated a favorable balance of trade to guarantee the economic self-sufficiency of the British empire and the growth of its wealth and power. Supporters of this theory advocated possession of colonies as places where the mother country could acquire raw materials not available at home.

Election of 1828

This election is often identified as one of the most important presidential elections in American history. After losing the controversial previous election, Andrew Jackson spent the next four years organizing his campaign and publicly discrediting President Adams. His new Democratic Party mastered the art of political organization and campaigned heartily at the state and local levels. Jackson was the first presidential candidate to have a nickname, "Old Hickory," and used the theme at campaign rallies. By rallying the votes of the "common man," Jackson and his presidency forever changed American government.

Election of 1800

This election was particularly important because it was the first election in which power was peacefully transferred from one national political party to another. All 73 electors who cast votes for Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson over Adams also voted for Aaron Burr, whom they expected to serve as vice president. When Jefferson and Burr tied, the election went to the House of Representatives, where it took 36 ballots and Hamilton's eventual support of Jefferson to break the tie. As a consequence, the Twelfth Amendment was adopted in 1804. Jefferson believed that his election had brought about a "revolution" in law and politics.

Treaty of Portsmouth

This ended the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 and was signed in New Hampshire, owing to the mediation of the President of the USA, Theodore Roosevelt. President Roosevelt earned a Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts.

Spanish Influenza

This epidemic of 1918 was the most serious epidemic in U.S. history; it infected 20 million Americans, causing more than half a million deaths in the United States and an estimated 30 million fatalities around the world. World War I ended on November 11, 1918; returning troops brought home a resurgence of virus, and the many public victory celebrations helped the disease spread once more. More American civilians were killed by the disease than all the U.S. combat deaths during the 20th century combined. Ultimately, the death rate shortened the average life span in the United States by 10 years before the illness mysteriously disappeared.

Haymarket Riot

This event ocurred on May 4, 1886 in Chicago. A bomb exploded among a group of policemen as they attempted to disperse a giant labor rally. The explosion killed seven policemen and injured 70 people. The incident received considerable nationwide publicity and seriously damaged the image of the growing labor movement--especially the Knights of Labor which was branded as a breeding ground for political dissidents rather than an organization of workers trying to secure better conditions.

Alice Paul

This feminist and suffragist devoted her life to fighting for women's rights. In 1912, she led the congressional committee of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). Her preference for militant tactics made her break with that organization the following year, forming the Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage, which she chaired. Disagreeing with NAWSA's state-by-state approach, the new organization pushed for a woman suffrage amendment to the Constitution and singled out the party in power—in this case, the Democrats—as the culprit for failing to endorse such an amendment. The nineteenth Amendment was ratified in 1920.

Bunker Hill

This first formal battle of the American Revolution took place on hills overlooking the Bitish forces concentrated in Boston. The British attack was eventually successful, but British casualties totaled 1,054, including 226 killed. Although an American loss, this battle showed that Americans could stand up to the British in a formal battle

Good Neighbor Policy

This foreign policy stance was adopted by President Franklin Roosevelt to promote better diplomatic relations, especially with South America. The policy called for non-intervention in Latin America. As the Great Depression gripped the United States in the 1930s, this policy redirected U.S. funds from Latin American aid toward domestic programs. Roosevelt's policy helped the United States maintain good relations with Latin America and contributed to Latin America's support of the United States during WWII

Booker T. Washington

This former slave became a major spokesperson for his race in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1881, he became principal of a new school for African Americans at Tuskegee, Alabama. Tuskegee offered training in a variety of skilled trades and emphasized the practical applications of learning rather than learning for its own sake. He delivered his most famous speech at the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta in 1895. He believed that African Americans should advance through education and effort instead of seeking social and political equality with whites. Critics called this "Atlanta Compromise" a policy of submission.

NSC-68

This formerly classified report was issued by the United States National Security Council in1950, during the presidency of Harry S. Truman. It shaped U.S. foreign policy in the Cold War for the next 20 years. It recommended policies that emphasized military over diplomatic action and it called for significant peacetime military spending, in which the U.S. possessed "superior overall power."

Committee of Public Information

This government agency was a propaganda body whose purpose was to mobilize public support for U.S. participation in World War I. The goal was to make sure citizens' loyalty to the United States stayed strong. The agency was in charge of staging a national campaign to encourage service in the military and the purchase of war bonds to fuel the massive military effort. 75,000 speakers and100 million copies of pamphlets outlined the U.S. stance on the war. George Creel, a progressive journalist and publicist, led the agency and was instrumental in engineering the image the American public came to have of Kaiser Wilhelm III and his countrymen as "barbaric Huns.

War Labor Board

This government agency was created to make sure industrial disputes ended through voluntary, peaceful arbitration. Its main purpose was to keep labor disputes from disrupting the country's many large contracts for war supplies. The board's actions when confronted with a labor crisis were to abandon lockouts and strikes, preserve the right of collective bargaining, determine hours and wages according to prevailing local standards, perform adjustment through mediation and conciliation, maintain maximum production, and uphold the right of workers to make a living wage. The board was abolished in 1919, by which time it had successfully disposed of all but 33 of its 1,244 cases.

Federal Trade Commission

This government agency was established in 1914 as part of President Woodrow Wilson's progressive effort to ensure free and fair competition among the nation's businesses. It is an independent regulatory agency formed to combat trusts and protect the public against false advertising. Its functions were initially similar to those of the earlier Bureau of Corporations, which it absorbed, but the it was given considerably more power than the bureau to do its work, including unprecedented access to corporate records and the right to issue cease-and-desist orders.

War Industries Board

This government agency was established in1917, during World War I to coordinate the purchase of war supplies, to encourage the use mass-production techniques, to increase efficiency, and to eliminate waste by standardizing products. The board set production quotas and allocated raw materials. Under this government board, industrial production in the U.S. increased 20 percent.

Henry Clay

This great American statesman and orator represented Kentucky in both the House of Representatives and Senate. He was a leading war hawk advocating war with Great Britain in 1812. After the war, he advocated his "American System" for modernizing the economy, especially tariffs to protect industry, a national bank, and internal improvements to promote canals, ports and railroads. He was a founder and leader of the Whig Party that Challenged Jaksonian Democrats in the 1830s and 1840s. Although his multiple attempts to become president were unsuccessful, he secured a reputation as the "Great Compromiser" for his role in drafting the Missouri Compromise of 1820, the compromise tariff of 1833 (that relieved the nullification crisis) and the Compromise of 1850.

Radical Republicans

This group in Congress, headed by Thaddeus Stevens and Benjamin Wade, insisted on black suffrage, equal rights for Freedmen, and federal protection of the civil rights of blacks. They gained control of Reconstruction in 1867 and demanded harsh, punitive policies toward the Confederate State and ex-Confederates.

Iroquois Confederacy

This group was the dominant Native American military power in North America during the 18th century. The five separate nations composing this group were the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. Their peaceful coexistence allowed the their to benefit economically from trade with both the English and the French. They worked with colonial leaders like Ben Franklin in the mid-18th century exchanging political and social ideas. But the American Revolution itself was a catastrophe for this group. The dispute separated the Mohawks, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas, who sided with the British, from the Oneidas and Tuscaroras who fought with the patriots.

Louisiana Purchase

This has been called the greatest real estate deal in U.S. history, and it remains one of the largest peaceful annexations of land in world history. Stretching from British Columbia to New Orleans, from the Ohio River to the eastern border of New Spain. Although he did wonder whether he could constitutionally buy the land with the U.S. government's money, Jefferson pushed the deal forward. It soon became clear to American citizens that the new land would provide more opportunity for them.

Central High School

This high school was the scene of a civil rights showdown. After the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the school board announced its intention to comply with federal constitutional requirements. When nine African American students arrived on the first day of school, the Arkansas National Guard blocked their entrance, thus directly challenging the federal government. On September 24, 1957, President Eisenhower ordered 1,000 federal troops to Little Rock.. Troops continued to patrol the school for the rest of the school year. The press coverage focused national attention on enforcement of the Brown decision and also added fuel to the fire of the growing civil rights movement.

Salem Witch Trials

This hysteria was precipitated when a nine-year-old girl attempted to divine the future in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. When she and other girls subsequently began acting in peculiar ways, they were diagnosed as being under Satan's influence. The governor set up a Court of Oyer and Terminer (meaning "to hear and to determine") to examine the cases. Twenty-seven individuals were tried for witchcraft in1692; the 19 who refused to confess were executed.

Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars)

This idea was proposed by President Ronald Reagan in 1983 as a space-based defensive umbrella against incoming intercontinental ballistic missiles. Scientists developed the program throughout the 1980s, to provide the United States with a protective shield from nuclear attack as part of the largest peacetime military buildup in U.S. history. The initiative focused on strategic defense rather than the prior strategic offense doctrine of mutual assured destruction (MAD). The ambitious initiative was widely criticized as being unrealistic.

Dwight D. Eisenhower

This immensely popular WWII hero and commander of NATO was elected president in 1952 on the promise to end the war in Korea. His administration is remembered chiefly for its lack of legislative initiatives and calm style of consensus management during a period of national prosperity. He had campaigned on the promise of cutting back on government—on the size of the budget, on taxes, and on regulation of the nation's business. But he also recognized how popular the New Deal programs were and instead of ending them actually expanded some, such as Social Security benefits. In foreign policy he managed Cold War crises while avoiding stark confrontation with the Soviet Union.

Ballinger-Pinchot Controversy

This incident during the administration of President William Howard Taft, was a public dispute between the secretary of the interior (appointed by Taft) and the chief of the U.S. Forestry Service (appointed by Roosevelt). The issue involved the use of public lands, and Taft sided with his secretary of the interior who favored greater use over conservation. The affair led to a split in the Republican Party between Taft's conservative faction and Roosevelt's progressive faction and gave rise to Roosevelt's Bull Moose presidential run in 1912.

U-2 Incident

This incident occurred during the Cold War on May 1, 1960, during the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower when an American spy plane was shot down over Soviet Union airspace. The United States government at first denied the plane's purpose and mission, but then was forced to admit its role when the Soviet government produced the surviving pilot, Francis Gary Powers. Coming just over two weeks before the scheduled opening of an East-West summit in Paris, the incident was a great embarrassment to the United States and prompted a marked deterioration in its relations with the Soviet Union.

Pontiac's Rebellion

This indian uprising began in 1763 when a grand council of Potawatomis, Hurons Ottawas was called to rise up against the British and American colonials and drive them back across the mountains. The British sent 15 regiments to restore order, but the war had been costly for the white settlements that were affected: an estimated 2,000 civilians and some 400 soldiers died during the conflict. To prevent future conflict with the indians, the British restricted American settlement west of the Appalachian mountains.

Rosa Parks

This individual has been called the mother of the U.S. civil rights movement because of her courage when she refused to give up her bus seat to a white man. That act of resistance set off a boycott of the Montgomery, Alabama bus system, which in turn activated the larger movement against segregation throughout the country.

Joseph Galloway

This influential politician in colonial Pennsylvania served in the First Continental Congress in 1774. In an effort to defuse the growing political crisis, he proposed a plan of imperial union with Great Britain in which the British Parliament and a Colonial Congress would both have to approve colonial legislation. But as Americans grew more radical and pushed for independence, the congress as a whole rejected his compromise proposal by a vote of six colonies to five.

Underground Railroad

This informal network of abolitionists (mostly free African Americans in the North) guided fugitive slaves across the Canadian border to safety during the years prior to the Civil War. Conductors like Harriet Tubman helped slaves to elude capture by hiding them at safe houses and other secret places, known as stations.

League of Nations

This international organization was established as part of the Treaty of Versailles to preserve the peace and settle disputes through negotiation. Although President Woodrow Wilson strongly advocated for this organization, the United States refused to participate. It was virtually powerless to stop renewed aggression in the 1930s. The organization was extremely important, however, as a forerunner of the United Nations, developing ideas and procedures that have aided the UN.

Roosevelt Corollary

This interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine was proclaimed by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904. Roosevelt asserted that the United States would exercise an "international police power" to intervene in the Western Hemisphere in an effort to protect the nations of Latin America from European aggression.

Détente

This is a French term meaning the relaxation of tensions. The word was used to identify U.S.-Soviet and U.S.-Chinese relations in the 1970s, as the superpowers pursued friendlier relations with each other to ease Cold War threats of nuclear war. This resulted in increased contact between East and West in the form of trade agreements and cultural exchanges.

pet banks

This is a degrading term for state banks selected by the U.S. Department of Treasury to receive government deposits in 1833, when President Andrew Jackson "killed" the Second Bank of the United States. The term gained currency because most of the banks were chosen not because of monetary fitness but on the basis of the spoils system, which rewarded political allies of Andrew Jackson. Most of these banks flooded the country with paper currency. Because this money became so unreliable, Jackson issued the Specie Circular, which required all public lands to be purchased with metallic money. This contributed to the Panic of 1837.

Transcendentalism

This is a philosophy that asserts the primacy of the spiritual over the material and empirical. It was a mystical, intuitive way of looking at life that subordinated facts to feelings. They argued that humans could move reason and intellectual capacities by having faith in themselves; they were complete individualists. Ralph Waldo Emerson was the principal spokesperson of this American philosophical movement of that began in New England during the 1830s and sparked the American Renaissance in literature in the mid-19th century.

No Taxation without Representation

This is a principle dating back to the Magna Carta that means if citizens are not represented in the government, then the government should not have the authority to tax them. The American colonists cited this principle when they opposed the authority of the British Parliament to tax them.

NOW

This is a special-interest organization promotes the rights and interests of women. Its founder, Betty Friedan, scribbled the organization's statement of purpose on a napkin: "To take action to bring women into the full participation in the mainstream of American society now, exercising all privileges and responsibilities thereof in truly equal partnership with men." Its official priorities include the passing of an equal rights amendment to the U.S. Constitution, advocating for abortion and reproductive rights, supporting lesbian and gay rights, and ending violence against women.

Leyte Gulf

This is generally considered to be the largest naval battle of World War II and, by some criteria, possibly the largest naval battle in history. Fought between 23-26 October 1944, the Imperial Japanese Navy had suffered its greatest loss of ships and crew ever. Japan's failure to repulse the Allied invaders meant the inevitable loss of the Philippines to the Allies, which in turn meant that Japan would be all but cut off from its occupied territories in Southeast Asia.

Roe v. Wade

This is one of the most controversial and far-reaching decisions of the 20th century, striking down state laws that restricted abortion with a seven to two majority. The Supreme Court based its decision on the constitutional right of privacy, which it had recognized in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) and other cases.

Wagner Act

This is the more common name for the National Labor Relations Act (1935) which created the National Labor Relations Board to aid unions by prohibiting employers from engaging in unfair labor practices. The law set the stage for the development of collective bargaining for labor organizations during the 1930s. One of the key pieces of legislation during the New Deal, this act, among other things, created the National Labor Relations Board, which heard thousands of cases of alleged unfair labor practices. The passage of this law elevated the standing of labor unions across the country.

Log Cabin Campaign

This is the name given to the 1840 Presidential campaign of William Henry Harrison. Harrison was the first president to campaign actively for office. Whigs, eager to deliver what the public wanted, declared that Harrison was "the ___ ___ and hard cider candidate," a man of the common people from the rough-and-tumble West. They depicted Harrison's opponent, President Martin Van Buren, as a wealthy snob who was out of touch with the people. In fact, it was Harrison who came from a wealthy, prominent family while Van Buren was from a poor, working family. But the election was during the worst economic depression to date, and voters blamed Van Buren. Harrison served only one month as president before dying of pneumonia on April 4, 1841.

Anaconda Plan

This is the name widely applied to an outline strategy for subduing the seceding states in the American Civil War. Proposed by General-in-Chief Winfield Scott, the plan emphasized the blockade of the Southern ports, and called for an advance down the Mississippi River to cut the South in two.

Jeffersonian Democracy

This is the phrase used to describe the general political principles embraced by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson favored reducing the size and scope of the national government. Once in office, he announced conservative fiscal policies that reduced the public debt also supported simplicity, disliking especially the ceremonial aspects of the Federalist administrations. Jefferson articulated a clear vision of what type of society and citizenry he thought was best suited for protecting American virtue: an agrarian society in which all men were honest, hardworking, and responsible—promoted independence derived from self-sufficiency.

"Great Migration"

This is the term given to the large-scale relocation of African Americans from the southern United States to the industrial states of the north and the mid-west in the early 20th century. Events such as the First World War caused a massive growth in American war industries which contributed to an increased demand for industrial workers in the northern states that was filled by African Americans who were trying to escape the memories of slavery and servitude. The northern states offered greater opportunities for education as well as increased wages and better standards of living in general. In all, approximately 4.1 million African Americans moved out of the Southern United States to the North, Midwest and West from 1910 to 1930.

Dollar Diplomacy

This is the term used to describe America's efforts--particularly under President William Howard Taft--to further its foreign policy aims in Latin America and the Far East through the use of economic power. In Nicaragua, for example, American intervention included funding the country's debts to European bankers. As another example, the State Department persuaded four American banks to refinance Haiti's national debt, setting the stage for further intervention in the future. This approach to foreign policy was repudiated by President Woodrow Wilson within a few weeks of his inauguration in 1913.

African Slavery

This is when they took african slaves from the are around the golden coast and would bring them to south america.

AFL

This labor organization was an association of trade unions representing skilled workers in many industries. By the end of the 19th century, it was the dominant organization representing the interests of skilled labor in the United States. Under the leadership of Samuel Gompers, the union focused on improving the day-to-day conditions for workers and bargained for higher wages and shorter hours, rather than on social or political issues.

CIO

This labor union was formed in 1938 as an organization of semi-or unskilled labor from mass-production industries that was composed of industrial unions rather than craft unions like the AFL. This meant that labor recruiters would organize all of the workers in one industry or plant into a single union, rather than organizing them on the basis of their industrial craft skills.

Gadsden Purchase

This land acquisition transferred ownership of a small strip of land covering approximately 30,000 square miles in the Southwest (part of present-day New Mexico and Arizona) from Mexico to the United States for the sum of $10 million. The United States wanted the land for the southern route of the transcontinental railroad. This was the final acquisition in the continental expansion of the United States. It also served as one more inflammatory issue in the ongoing sectional controversy, as Northerners objected to the transcontinental railroad being constructed on a southern route.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

This landmark in American legal history, provided much of the legal basis for the modern civil rights movement. It outlawed discrimination in employment and public accommodations on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It strengthened the federal government's ability to guarantee voting rights and end school segregation.

Smith Connally Act

This law was passed on June 25, 1943, over President Franklin D. Roosevelt's veto. The Act allowed the federal government to seize and operate industries threatened by or under strikes that would interfere with war production.

Louis Brandeis

This lawyer was passionately committed to Progressive social reform. Nicknamed the People's Attorney, he frequently donated his legal services on behalf of a great variety of worthy causes. He insisted on breaking with tradition and introducing statistical and sociological information into his legal briefs. This evidence was used to demonstrate the need for legislation to protect women and children in the workplace.

Emilio Aguinaldo

This leader of the Filipino rebels fought for Philippine Independece. He was a close ally with the United States when the Spanish American War began and he helped Commodore Dewey defeat the Spanish at Manila. After the Spanish American War, he still fought for independence, this time against the United States in the "Philippine Insurrection."

DeLome Letter

This letter was written by the Spanish Minister in Washington, D.C. The letter, which was intended to be private, was sent to a Spanish official in Havana and was stolen and released by Cuban revolutionists to Hearst's newspaper. In it, the minister wrote disparagingly of US President William McKinley. In1898, the letter was published in the New York Journal, headlining it "THE WORST INSULT TO THE UNITED STATES IN ITS HISTORY". The Yellow Press helped foment public sentiment in favor of the Cuban revolution against the Spanish, and is seen as one of the principal causes of the Spanish-American War of 1898.

Father Charles Coughlin

This magnetic radio personality quickly won enormous popularity, and by 1930 his broadcasts attracted as many as 40 million listeners. His attention soon turned from religious to political issues. Initially a supporter of FDR, by 1934, he launched his own political organization--the National Union for Social Justice--and gradually turned it into a vehicle for challenging the president. His radio sermons attacked the New Deal as a communist conspiracy and an incipient dictatorship. In 1938, he added a harsh anti-Semitism to his broadcasts. Although he retained a devoted following, his new extremism drove away most of his traditional supporters; in 1940, no longer able to afford radio time, he ceased his broadcasts.

Brigham Young

This man led the remarkable exodus of the Mormons to Utah, where in one of the most successful colonizing efforts in U.S. history, he established a strong religious, social, and economic base. Convinced that they could not live peacefully within the boundaries of the United States, Mormons, led by this man, headed west. At the time, the area around the Great Salt Lake belonged to Mexico and was thus beyond the jurisdiction of the U.S. government. The California gold rush of 1849 and the completion of the transcontinental railroad 20 years later, however, ended Mormon hopes that the they could live for very long in isolation, but by then he Mormons had established a solid economic, political, religious, and social organization in Utah.

Second Continental Congress

This meeting gathered in May 1775 in Philadelphia. It was immediately faced with the pressure of rapidly unfolding military events. It served as the colonial government during the American Revolution. It issued paper money, made decisions that controlled the Continental Army, established committees to acquire war supplies, and investigated the possibilities of foreign assistance. This became the crucial governmental body of revolutionary America.

Stamp Act Congress

This meeting took place in New York City in 1765 to formulate a response to the ___ Act. The delegates composed a list of grievances, and they petitioned King George III and Parliament to repeal the hated act. This meeting marked the beginnings of cooperation between the 13 colonies that ultimately led to a full movement for independence.

Clark Memorandum

This memorandum was written in 1928 by Calvin Coolidge's undersecretary of state. It rejected the view that the Roosevelt Corollary was based on the Monroe Doctrine and stated that the Monroe Doctrine was based on conflicts of interest between the United States and European nations, rather than between the United States and Latin American nations.

Social Security Act

This monumental piece of New Deal legislation (1935) established a system of old-age, unemployment, and survivors insurance funded by wage and payroll taxes. At age sixty-five workers could retire with a modest benefit. Because agricultural laborers and domestic servants were excluded from coverage, three-fifths of African American workers were ineligible for these benefits, as were most Native Americans. Also excluded were teachers, nurses, hospital employees, librarians, and social workers--all predominantly female occupations.

The Granger Movement

This movement began in 1867 to improve the status of farmers. Also known as The Patrons of Husbandry, the primary concerns of the movement were declining crop prices, an increase in indebtedness among farmers, and the sporadic rate system for freight imposed by the railroads. Gradually, other organizations like the Farmers' Alliances and the Populist Party emerged to support agricultural concerns, and by 1880, the membership declined.

lyceum movement

This movement in the United States flourished in the mid-19th century, particularly in the northeast and middle west. Hundreds of informal associations were established for the purpose of improving the social, intellectual, and moral fabric of society. Noted lecturers, entertainers and readers would travel the "circuit," going from town to town or state to state to entertain, speak, or debate. Transcendentalists such as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau gave speeches at many local events. As a young man, Abraham Lincoln gave a speech at one of these gatherings in Springfield, Illinois. This movement — with its lectures, dramatic performances, class instructions, and debates — contributed significantly to the education of the adult American in the nineteenth century.

Niagra Movement

This movement was a black civil rights organization founded in 1905 by a group led by W. E. B. Du Bois and William Monroe Trotter. It was named for the "mighty current" of change the group wanted to effect (and the location of the first meeting in July 1905). The movement was a call for opposition to racial segregation and disenfranchisement as well as policies of accommodation and conciliation promoted by African American leaders such as Booker T. Washington. The movement led to the founding of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).

New Frontier

This name was given to the domestic agenda of President John F. Kennedy. He called for: expansion of unemployment benefits, federal aid to cities to improve housing and transportation, a water pollution control act, and an agricultural act to raise farmers' incomes. Major expansions and improvements were also made in Social Security , hospital construction, library services, family farm assistance and reclamation. By some estimates, more new legislation was actually approved and passed into law than at any other time since the New Deal in the Thirties.

Free Soil Party

This national political party was launched in 1848. It was comprised of anti-slavery Democrats (Barnburners) and andi-slavery Whigs (Conscience Whigs). The party's fundamental issue was the restriction of slavery. For president in 1848, the party nominated former president Martin Van Buren. Although Van Buren lost, the party won nine House seats and two Senate seats. After the political upheavals associated with the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854, most of this party's adherents joined the newly formed Republican Party.

American System

This nationalistic program was the brainchild of Kentucky Congressman Henry Clay. It envisioned an active role for the federal government in fostering the U.S. economy through a national bank, a protective tariff, and such internal improvements as canals and roads.

"In God We Trust"

This official motto of the United States was adopted by Congress in 1956, just one year after the phrase "under God" was incorporated into the Pledge of Allegiance. The motto has appeared on U.S. coins since 1864 and on paper currency since 1957. These developments represent the great growth in religion after WWII as new churches were built and services were attended by baby boomers and their parents in the ever-burgeoning suburbs. Church attendance increased from 64.5 million in 1940 to 110 million by 1958.

Massachusetts Bay Company

This organization of influential Puritan investors in England sponsored and organized a large expedition to North America in 1629 for the express purpose of establishing an independent Puritan community, free of what they saw as the corrupting influences of the Church of England. Centered in Boston, this company administered the ___ ___ Colony during the region's early settlement.

Grand Army of the Republic

This organization was founded by former Union soldiers after the Civil War. It lobbied Congress for aid and pensions for former Union soldiers. It was also a powerful lobbying influence within the Republican party.

National Women's Suffrage Association

This organization was founded in May 1869 by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. The organization advocated the adoption of a national amendment granting women's suffrage, as well as embracing many other social reforms. The association saw to it that a women's suffrage amendment was introduced into Congress every year from 1878 forward. It set a precedent for women interested in organizing independently of male-dominated politics.

Ku Klux Klan

This organization was reborn in the 1910s and 1920s, after fictionalized version of an earlier version of the group was presented in The Birth of a Nation. In the 1920s they added foreigners, Jews, Catholics, and organized labor to their lists of enemies. In this era, the great stronghold of this group was the Midwest, and the organization enjoyed a wider membership base and great political power. They advocated extremist reactionary currents such as white supremacy, white nationalism, and anti-immigration, historically expressed through terrorism.

"Missile Gap"

This term describes the alleged strategic superiority of the Soviet Union, created by the Soviet development of intercontinental missiles and rockets in the late 1950s and the launching of Sputnik in October 1957. President Eisenhower tried to downscale the meaning and implication of the Soviet success, but the public reacted with fear. Furthermore, the issue became partisan, with the Democrats seizing upon it as a subject with which they could attack the president and campaign for the election of 1960.

SDS: Port Huron Statement

This organization, founded in 1960 by Tom Hayden and others, represented the "New Left." In 1962, they drafted a sixty-three-page political platform called the Port Huron Statement that presented a critique of the cold war and the materialistic complacency of postwar American life. The Port Huron Statement proposed that universities should be the locus of a new movement for "participatory democracy." The group then turned to antiwar activism. On April 17, 1965 they held the first of several mass demonstrations against the Vietnam War. By 1968, the group achieved a level of power and prominence unprecedented for a student organization, but in 1969, it collapsed. What remained became a small revolutionary sect known as the Weathermen.

Federalist Party

This party was formed during Washington's first administration in the heat of conflict over Hamilton's proposals to salvage the finances of the new republic. Under the leadership of George Washington and the intellectual guidance of Alexander Hamilton, this political party envisioned policies that would promote a thriving union based on a mixed economy of agriculture and manufacturing, a strong central banking system, opposition to widespread suffrage, and alliance with Britain—all to be directed by a strong national government. But opposition to the War of 1812 and the Hartford Convention of 1814 ensured a dive in the party's popularity. In the election of 1816, the party fielded a candidate for president for the last time.

pragmatism

This philosophy, closely identified with William James, held that in a world of constant change (evolution), absolutes were difficult to justify, and that abstract concepts were useful only in terms of their practical effects. This inspired much of the reform movement of late nineteenth century America.

"city beautiful" movement

This phrase first entered popular use in the United States in 1899 among New York City reformers who wanted to adorn their city with civic sculpture, public fountains, waterfront parks, indoor murals and statuary, artistic street fixtures, and much more. It quickly became a catch-phrase used throughout the nation for all manner of efforts to upgrade the appearance of towns and cities. The cultural movement reflected Progressive Era reform impulses to revitalize public life and instill civic awareness.

Lincoln's 10% Plan

This plan devised by President Lincoln in 1863 promised a quick and moderate method for readmitting the seceding states to the Union; it required just 10 percent of a state's prewar voters to swear allegiance to the Union and a new state constitution that banned slavery. Many congressional Republicans considered this standard too thin to support a general reconstruction of the Union and responded with the Wade-Davis Bill.

Virginia Plan

This plan set the agenda for much of the Constitutional Convention. The plan was believed to have been written chiefly by James Madison. It was devised as a means to correct and enlarge the Articles of Confederation. Although the plan underwent many modifications, key principles like the separation of powers and bicameralism, and key institutions like the executive and judicial branches, clearly originated in this plan. It is most remembered now for its rejected proposal that representation within the national legislature be based solely on population.

Dawes Plan

This plan was presented by an American banker in 1924 to help Germany to meet the harsh financial terms imposed by the Allies at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919-1920. The plan included a graduated schedule of reparation payments and a huge foreign loan for Germany. In 1924, the architect of the plan was nominated by the Republican Party to be President Coolidge's vice president and he won the Nobel Prize the next year.

The Great Compromise

This plan was proposed by Roger Sherman of Connecticut at the 1787 Constitutional Convention to resolve differences between the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan. It called for creating a national bicameral legislature: in the House of Representatives places were to be assigned according to a state's population (proportional representation) and filled by popular vote; in the Senate, each state was to have two members (equal representation) elected by its state legislature.

Truman Doctrine

This policy set the course for U.S. foreign policy throughout the Cold War. It committed the United States to containing the spread of communism around the world. President Truman believed that the Soviet Union was directly funding communist forces within Greece and Turkey and felt the United States should support the anticommunists. The aid Truman envisaged was primarily financial, which Congress granted by appropriating $400 million to the two countries.

Democratic Party

This political party evolved out of the Democratic-Republican Party of the early 19th century. Calling upon the political heritage of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, Andrew Jackson became the first leader of the this party following his election to presidency in 1828. The core of its membership was composed of farmers, immigrants, and white Southerners. Jackson's presidency has traditionally been called the "Era of the Common Man," an era that reflected two decades of expanding the suffrage, economic change, and Western expansion. Jackson and the newly constituted party embraced this rough and tumble democratic culture. This party controlled the presidency for much of the 1840s and 1850s, with James K. Polk serving a single term from 1844 to 1848, Franklin Pierce serving a single term from 1852 to 1856, and James Buchanan serving a single term from 1856 to 1860.

Democratic-Republican Party

This political party was organized in the 1790s and became the first opposition party in US history. Following the ideas of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, this party was opposed to a strong central government and a central bank and supported strict construction of the Constitution and the predominance of agriculture in the economy. In 1800, Jefferson was elected president after a bitter political campaign against Adams. For the first time, power was transferred peacefully from one faction to another.

Know Nothing Party

This political party, formally named the American Party, was a short-lived third political party in the 1850s that was based on the growing tide of anti-immigrant feeling of the 1840s. The party derived its famous name from the determination of its members to remain mysterious about their activities. This party reached the height of their power in the mid-1850s. In the 1856 presidential election, they nominated former president Millard Fillmore as their candidate. Fillmore tried to downplay the party's nativist tendencies but ran a disappointing third. The party dissolved shortly after its poor showing in the 1856 election, and many members joined the Republican Party.

Whigs

This political party, formed in 1834 and lasting until 1854, was the major political party opposing Andrew Jackson, who they called, "King Andrew," and his Democratic Party in the antebellum era. The party inherited the Federalist belief in a strong federal government and adopted many Federalist and National Republican policy ideas, including federal funding for internal improvements (building roads, canals, bridges; improving harbors), a central bank, and high tariffs to protect the growth of manufacturing enterprises. Famous members of this party included President William Henry Harrison, President Zachary Taylor, and Henry Clay.

Election of 1860

This presidential contest was a four-way race with two dominant issues: the Dred Scott decision of 1857 and slavery. Although Lincoln, with strong support in the North and Midwest, won a clear majority of the electoral college, he garnered only 40% of the overall vote. Seven Southern states (later joined by four others) seceded from the Union even before Lincoln's inauguration. Determined to uphold his oath to support the Constitution and preserve the Union, Lincoln stood firm against the secessionists, and the Civil War began.

Election of 1876

This presidential election was a close contest between Rutherford B. Hayes adn Samuel Tilden. This election is an example of the winner of the popular vote not winning the electoral college. The compromise that settled the election brought Hayes to the White House and brought military Reconstruction to an end.

Bessemer Process

This process, named after its inventor in the 1850s, was the first method by which steel could be mass produced. The process involved injecting air into molten pig iron to remove impurities. The resulting steel, relatively easy and inexpensive to produce, was also lighter and stronger than iron. This process revolutionized steel manufacture by decreasing its cost; the availability of cheap steel allowed large bridges to be built and enabled the construction of railroads, skyscrapers, and large ships.

Massachusetts 54th

This regiment was one of the first official black units in the United States armed forces. The regiment gained recognition on July 18, 1863, when it spearheaded an assault on Fort Wagner near Charleston, South Carolina. Although the Union was not able to take and hold the fort, the unit was widely acclaimed for its valor, and the event helped encourage the further enlistment and mobilization of African-American troops, a key development that President Abraham Lincoln once noted as helping to secure the final victory.

Mormons

This religion was founded by Joseph Smith in western New York in the 1820s. They were resented because of their unorthodox religious views and exclusivism. Smith was forced to move the church several times to escape persecution. In 1844, Smith and his brother were killed by a mob in Carthage, Illinois, and the leadership of the church fell upon Smith's disciple, Brigham Young. Young determined that the church should move to a place where they could practice their beliefs without interference. In 1846, church members began one of the great migrations in American history. They finally located near Great Salt Lake (Utah) in the 1840s where they have flourished ever since.

Second Great Awakening

This religious revival swept across the western frontier and northeastern United States from the 1790s through the 1830s. Led by leading revivalist minister Charles Grandison Finney, this period vastly increased the membership in Protestant churches. It also thrust many Americans into a search for social reform. This new energy—manifest in the rapid rise of the Methodist Church and the Baptist Church—represented in part the influx of democratic ideas, or a reworking of traditional religious institutions to better match the average American's sensibilities and frontier lifestyles. In fact, the revivals in some ways "democratized" the churches and mirrored the political democratization underway during the Jacksonian era.

Iran-Contra Arms Deal

This scandal broke in the fall of 1986 when members of President Ronald Reagan's administration had secretly sold military parts and ammunition to Iran. In exchange, the Iranian government was to help free several U.S. citizens who were being held hostage by pro-Iranian groups. The money raised from the sale of the military supplies was passed to the Nicaraguan contras, a rebel group fighting against the government of Nicaragua. This complex arrangement violated several U.S. laws that banned both the sale of military supplies to Iran and the provision of funds to the contra rebels. The incident damaged the reputation and legacy of President Reagan.

Ashcan art

This school of art evolved during the early years of the twentieth century in New York City and was the first important American art movement of the twentieth century. Departing from the staid portraiture and genteel landscapes of the nineteenth century, these artists focused on urban scenes, particularly those exposing the shabbier aspects of city life. Their intent, however, was not muckraking social commentary but the portrayal of urban vitality. Reviled by critics as the "apostles of ugliness," they are also described by this term.

Reconstruction Acts

This series of acts was passed by Congress over the veto of President Johnson in 1867. This legislation established the guidelines for Reconstruction in the South after the Civil War. The South was divided into five military districts, each governed by a general. It required southern states to guarantee black suffrage, and it disfranchised many former Confederates. Southern states were required to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment as a condition of their readmission to the Union.

Eli Whitney

This skilled and prolific inventor invented the cotton gin in 1793. It almost immediately transformed southern agriculture and revitalized slavery. He also was successful in manufacturing rifles for the government by employing the idea of interchangeable parts.

Social Gospel

This social reform movement combined the social welfare agenda of the Progressive Era with Christian charity. Founded by Washington Gladden, a Congregationalist minister in Ohio, the movement rejected the older idea that the poor were responsible for their poverty. Among its social aims were an end to child labor, a weekly day off, a living wage, improved working conditions for women, and religious and moral education for the poor.

scalawags

This term was given to southern whites--mainly small landowning farmers and well-off merchants and planters--who supported northern policies of reconstruction and cooperated with the congressionally imposed Reconstruction governments set up under the Reconstruction Acts for diverse reasons.

Pullman Strike

This strike began in 1894 when workers walked out on a Chicago manufacturer of passenger railway cars. The American Railway Union, headed by Eugene V. Debs, was in sympathy with the striking workers, and led 125,000 workers in a nationwide boycott. Interference with the delivery of the U.S. mail gave the federal government cause to enter the dispute. President Grover Cleveland sent federal troops, who opened fire on a crowd of strikers, killing some 30 people. The federal courts then granted an injunction against the strike and the activities of the leaders of the American Railway Union. Debs went to jail for violating the injunction, and the American Railway Union called off the failed boycott two month later.

Homestead Strike

This strike started on June 29, 1892 when the entire workforce of the Carnegie steel manufacturing plant stopped working. Fearful of losing their jobs and angry over pay cuts, they seized the steel plant. Management hired Pinkerton detectives and later gained the assistance of the state militia to put down the strike. Within days many were dead or injured. Within weeks, the strike was broken, and the union demolished. In many ways, the union's debacle at Homestead revealed the limited ability of organized labor to improve the conditions for America's workers during the Industrial Revolution.

Marbury v. Madison

This supreme court case was pivotal in establishing the doctrine of judicial review of laws made in Congress and thus helped to shape the government of the United States. Chief Justice John Marshall effectively strengthened the judiciary as a co-equal branch of the federal government

factory system

This system brought the means of production together in buildings where water power (later steam and electricity) supplied the energy to run the machinery that increased productivity and reduced labor costs. It was introduced to the United States in textile manufacturing in 1790.

household system

This system of manufacturing predated the factory system. In it, local artisans produced goods to supply local needs. Central shops supplied materials to houses and small shops on a piecework basis, then marketed the finished goods to the regional market. When Samuel Slater and Francis Cabot Lowell introduced the factory system to the Untied States, this system of manufacturing became increasingly obsolete.

Federalists

This term applied to those who advocated ratification of the Constitution; they were centralizing nationalists who were convinced that America's survival required the new, stronger government outlined in the Constitution.

Gilded Age

This term applies to the period in American history from 1865 to 1900. The period includes depictions of weak and forgettable presidents, corrupt politicians, and corporate magnates, or "robber barons." The name itself indicates a time in which greed and corruption ran rampant, while displays of respectability, generosity, and reform provided a distracting overlay to that decadence. In fact, Mark Twain's first novel lent its name to the era.

New Lights

This term applies to those who embraced the revivals that spread through the colonies during the Great Awakening as opposd who supported more traditional services and congregations.

Dynamic Conservatism

This term characterized President Eisenhower's domestic program. "IKE" claimed he was liberal toward people, but conservative about spending public money. He sought to balance the federal budget and lower taxes without destroying existing social programs or hurting military spending.

Trail of Tears

This term defined the route of the tragic removal of the Cherokee Indians from Georgia to Indian Territory under severe conditions in 1838. The relocation resulted from the government's removal policy, which sought to open eastern lands for white settlement and provide a permanent home for Native peoples in the West. Approximately 16,000 Cherokees relocated to the West and an estimated 4,000 died. Despite this tragedy, the federal government remained committed to the removal policy.

Fireside Chats

This term described the national radio addresses delivered by President Franklin Roosevelt that were intended to reassure the public and inform them of any national issues or crises. After the success of the first radio address on March 12, 1933, Roosevelt went on to give 28 more over the next 10 years. Not only did these speeches garner him wide support as an understanding president, but they also promoted New Deal programs.

Lost Generation

This term described the young generation of artists and writers, disillusioned by the brutality of World War I and alienated by the materialism and conformity of the new mass culture, who became critics of modern society's manners, morals, and materialism. Many Americans among them became expatriates, leaving the United States to live in Europe.

Great Society

This term describes President Johnson's ambitious, multifaceted program of social and economic reforms designed to promote social equality and economic fairness for all Americans. His central goal was bold: he declared "unconditional war on poverty" and committed himself to eliminating poverty as it then existed. These programs expanded the role of the federal government in the nation's domestic policies. Whereas Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal was a response to the deepest economic crisis in U.S. history, President Johnson planned to extend the affluence that the country was enjoying in the 1960s to those citizens who traditionally had been left behind. The president's antipoverty initiative included significant programs such as Head Start, Medicare, Medicaid.

Kitchen Debate

This term describes a series of impromptu exchanges (through interpreters) between then U.S. Vice President Richard Nixon and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev at the opening of the American National Exhibition in Moscow in 1959. For the exhibition, an entire house was built that the American exhibitors claimed anyone in America could afford. It was filled with labor-saving and recreational devices meant to represent the fruits of the capitalist American consumer market. Nixon and Khrushchev debated the merits of their respective countries at this location.

federal system

This term describes a system of the government in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units (like states or provinces). The Constitution embodies this principle, as opposed to the confederation established under the Articles.

Paxton Boys

This uprising was a revolt by western Pennsylvania farmers in 1763. It was triggered by eastern indifference to Indian attacks on the frontier and by the western district's underrepresentation in the Pennsylvania assembly.

Bleeding Kansas

This term describes the civil disorders that occurred in Kansas after the U.S. Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854. The act allowed the residents of the territory of Kansas to vote on whether slavery would be allowed (popular sovereignty). Both proslavery and antislavery factions promoted the emigration of settlers to Kansas in an attempt to swing the territory's balance of political power to slaveholders or nonslaveholders. There were even rival state legislatures and state constitutions. A steady stream of killings, robberies, and other forms of violence between the two factions continued right up to the outbreak of the Civil War.

Great Awakening

This term describes the widespread evangelical revival movement of the 1740s and 1750s. Sparked by the tour of the English evangelical minister George Whitefield, revival divided congregations and weakened the authority of established churches in the colonies.

D-Day

This term designates June 6, 1944, the day Allied troops launched Operation Overlord and crossed the English Channel and opened a second front in Western Europe. The operation was the largest amphibious invasion in world history, with nearly 200,000 troops and 5,000 ships involved. The landings took place along a 50-mile (80 km) stretch of the Normandy coast . The success of this invasion led to the liberation of France in late August 1944 and to the end of World War II in Europe in May 1945.

Kitchen Cabinet

This term originated during the presidency of Andrew Jackson, and refers to the informal advisors and close friends who consulted with Jackson. President Jackson often relied on this unelected, unconfirmed group, rather than consult his official Cabinet, to discuss governmental affairs.

Sand Creek Massacre

This term refers to the 1865 massacre of more than 200 Cheyenne Indians, many of them women and children. The attack was led by U.S. Army Colonel John M. Chivington, who ordered his troops to slaughter every Indian in the village and to accept no prisoners. Chivington's order was even more diabolical as the Indians had previously surrendered to the U.S. government and were ostensibly under U.S. protection at the time. The massacre compelled the Cheyenne to break off peace talks with the Americans and led to a vicious war during 1867-1869.

Marshall Court

This term refers to the Supreme Court under the 35-year tenure of Chief Justice John Marshall. Firmly committed to the need to create a strong and effective national government, Marshall's historic effect on the Court began with his decision in Marbury v. Madison (1803) that established the Supreme Court as the final arbiter on the constitutionality of laws. Marshall combined his belief in the need for a strong central government with a deep appreciation for the rights of individuals and the sanctity of private property. His decisions guided the United States through a period of rapid physical and economic growth.

Hundred Days

This term refers to the early part of the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, when he initiated legislation to relieve economic pressures during the Great Depression. In this time, Roosevelt called Congress into a special session and he proposed more legislative programs than any previous president had done in a comparable time period. The New Deal significantly reoriented America's understanding of the responsibility of the national government for social welfare. This period remains an example of unparalleled exercise of presidential powers in a time of peace and has served as inspiration for later presidents.

Bill of Rights

This term refers to the first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution. James Madison, considered the "father of the Constitution," guided the amendments through the new Congress. The amendments were ratified by the requisite number of states on December 15, 1791 and went into effect on March 1, 1792. The amendments protect individual liberties and states' rights against the power of the national government.

Copperheads

This term refers to the northern Democrats who opposed all measures in support of war against the Confederacy. These "Peace Democrats" were convinced that the war was centralizing national power and that such developments ultimately posed greater dangers to the nation than the military challenge of Southern Rebels. Many Northerners strongly suspected unpatriotic motives lay behind the scathing attacks leveled by these Democrats against the war and the administration. Republicans branded them as disloyal. Indeed, the activities of some seemed to border on the treasonable, causing Lincoln such concern that he once expressed his fear of a "fire in the rear."

greenbacks

This term refers to the paper currency issued by the Union government during the Civil War. The original note was printed in black and green on the back side. Whether to continue the printing of this paper money and inflate the currency, or withdraw them from circulation remained an unresolved political issue in the 1870s and 1880s. The term is still used today to refer to the U.S. dollar.

Jacksonian Democracy

This term reflects the widespread movement for egalitarianism in the 1820s and 1830s and was named after President Andrew Jackson, who served in office between 1829 and 1837. Jackson symbolized the new Democratic party's general abhorrence of privilege and elitism. At this time, a general widening of political participation for white males across the country occurred. This resulted in the election of leaders like Jackson and growing interest in a series of reform movements, many of which championed greater egalitarianism in American society.

spoils system

This term usually used derisively, identifies the practice of elected officials who reward loyal members of their own party with jobs in public office. Jackson was accused of initiating this (which he called rotation-in-office) when he was elected to the presidency in 1828.

hippies

This term was applied to young people in the 1960s who chose to drop out and alienate themselves from mainstream culture in America. They generally retreated to communes, drugs, and mystic religions--forming what was known as the "counterculture." They rejected materialism, political activism, and conventional authority and behavior. Depending on whom you talked to at the time, young people in the 1960s were seen as passionate idealists seeking to establish a more equitable and loving world, as dangerous radicals fomenting revolution, or as bizarre nonconformists refusing to live by society's rules

Warhawks

This term was given to members of the U.S. Congress who strongly supported American participation in the War of 1812. The most adamant were Western and Southern members, including Speaker of the House Henry Clay, and John C. Calhoun. By 1811, these young Congressmen called for war against Great Britain as the only way to defend the national honor and force the British to respect America's neutral rights.

Coxey's Army

This term was given to supporters of Jacob Coxey. Coxey vividly dramatized the plight of the unemployed in the United States by leading a march on Washington to demand relief during the depression of the mid-1890s. His march may well have contributed to the groundswell of support for the Populist Party that enabled it to elect six senators and seven congressmen in 1894.

"New Negro"

This term was popularized during the Harlem Renaissance. It referred to a more outspoken advocacy of dignity and a refusal to submit quietly to the practices and laws of Jim Crow racial segregation. Those described by this term were seen invariably as men and women (but mostly men) of middle-class orientation who often demanded their legal rights as citizens, but almost always wanted to craft new images that would subvert and challenge old stereotypes. Above all, they sought a "spiritual emancipation" in the 1910s and 1920s.

Atlanta Compromise

This term was used by cirtics to refer to a speech given by black leader Booker T. Washington in 1895. He urged blacks to concentrate on learning useful skills. He viewed black self-help and self-improvement, not agitation over segregation, disfranchisement, and racial discrimination, as the surest way to social and economic advancement for blacks.

Cult of Domesticity

This term, also known as the cult of true womanhood, reflected the early 19th century middle-class ideal about the role of women in society. In an increasingly industrial society, husbands began to work away from the home in factories or offices, and their wives stayed at home and engaged in domestic pursuits. This helped create a view that men should support their families while women stayed at home where they were sheltered from the cold realities of politics and capitalism. Work became increasingly associated with men, and the home became female identified.

Critical Period

This term, coined by John Quincy Adams, refers to the 1780's, a time right after the American Revolution where the future of the newly formed nation was in the balance. Large amounts of debt, high taxes, foreign affairs, domestic issues, and military concerns were some of the problems Americans faced shortly after the Revolution. These concerns prompted calls for a more vigorous national government that eventually resulted in the Constitution in 1787.

"Jazz Age"

This term, first penned by novelist F. Scott Fitzgerald, was just one of many names used to describe the popular culture and newfound prosperity of the United States after World War I. Some have referred to it as the Roaring Twenties, while others have named it the Ballyhoo Years. Charleston dance and jazz bands; female flappers and loose morals; bathtub gin and speakeasies, all combined and intertwined into the decade of the 1920s, also known by this name.

Jonathan Edwards

This theologian was an American revivalist of the Great Awakening. He was both deeply pious and passionately devoted to intellectual pursuits. His most popular sermon titled, "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God," appealed to thousands of re-awakened Christians.

Virtual Representation

This theory, used by Prime Minister Grenville to rebut colonial cries of "taxation without representation" stated that every member of Parliament stood for the interests of every British subject in the empire.

Oregon Trail

This trail played a significant role in the westward expansion of the United States in the 19th century. The trail, which extended from Independence, Missouri, to the Columbia River and the Oregon Territory, originated with fur traders but soon became a main route for settlers migrating west. The 2,000-mile route usually took settlers about six months to complete by wagon train. All told, in the mid-19th century, more than a half million settlers used the trail in search of farmland or gold and helped settle the West. The heyday of the trail rail finally came to an end in 1869, with the completion of the transcontinental railroad.

Treaty of Paris (1763)

This treaty ended the French and Indian War (Great War for the Empire) in 1763. France abandoned nearly all its territorial claims in North America to Great Britain.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

This treaty ended the Mexican-American War. Mexico had suffered badly in the war and was compelled to relinquish vast amounts of land as well as abandoning all claims on Texas. In exchange, the United States paid Mexico $15 million. In the United States, the additional territory secured by the treaty reunited the fires of sectional controversy by raising questions regarding the expansion of slavery.

Treaty of Paris (1783)

This treaty officially brought a close to the American Revolution, with Great Britain recognizing the colonies' independence. Negotiated in Paris by Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, John Jay, the treaty granted to the fledgling United States nearly everything it wanted, including territroy extending to the Mississippi River. The document was formally signed on September 3, 1783.

Burlingame Treaty

This treaty with China was ratified in 1868. It encouraged Chinese immigration to the United States at a time when cheap labor was in demand for U.S. railroad construction. It doubled the annual influx of Chinese immigrants between 1868 and 1882. The treaty was reversed in 1882 by the Chinese Exclusion Act.

Sit-Down Strikes

This type of strike by General Motors workers in Flint, Michigan energized the new CIO and labor union movement during the Roosevelt administration. GM was the largest and most profitable U.S. corporation, the very epitome of twentieth-century corporate power. From December 29, 1936, until February 11, 1937, GM workers occupied several key GM plants. The strike was widely supported and skillfully publicized. The auto workers' stunning victory came to symbolize CIO solidarity and militancy, galvanizing not only auto workers but all labor.

Schecter v United States

This unanimous Supreme Court decision declared the National Industrial Recovery Act, a main component of President Roosevelt's New Deal, was unconstitutional. Speaking to aides of Roosevelt, Justice Louis Brandeis remarked that, "This is the end of this business of centralization, and I want you to go back and tell the president that we're not going to let this government centralize everything."

Schenck v United States

This unanimous U.S. Supreme Court decision, written by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, upheld the Espionage Act of June 15, 1917. The plaintiff had mailed revolutionary pamphlets to potential draftees during World War I urging them to resist the draft. Acknowledging that this act would be protected in ordinary times and places, Holmes argued that the limits of free speech were exceeded in this case, when a "clear and present danger" was apparent.

My Lai Massacre

This village in Vietnam was the site of the most notorious U.S. military atrocity of the War. American soldiers massacred between 300-450 unarmed Vietnamese villagers (including women and children) at the village. Equally infamous was the cover-up of the incident perpetrated by the brigade and division staffs. The incident raised further questions about the morality of U.S. involvement in Vietnam.

Boston Massacre

This violent confrontation between British troops and a Boston mob occurred on March 5, 1770. Five citizens were killed when the troops fired on the crowd that had been harassing them. The incident inflamed anti-British sentiment in the colony.

Korean War

This war began when North Korean communists—supported with Soviet supplies--invaded South Korea in June 1950. The United Nations condemned the attack and U.S. troops and appointed Gen. Douglas MacArthur to lead them and multinational troops in defending South Korea. Heavy fighting continued for about a year, when the Chinese joined the North Korean side. Battle lines once again took shape around the 38th parallel, where they stagnated as truce talks began in July 1951. It took two years to hammer out an armistice to end the war in July 1953, during which fighting erupted periodically.

Emancipation Proclamation

This war measure was signed by President Abraham Lincoln on September 22, 1862 to take effect on January 1, 1863. It freed the slaves in all areas rebelling against the Union at that point. Slaves in areas still within the control of the Confederacy were obviously not affected by this order, nor were slaves residing in the border states that had remained loyal to the Union. Despite the limited practical impact, however, it had an enormous psychological impact, elevating the abolition of slavery to one of the North's stated war aims and leading the way for the adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment after the war ended in Union victory in 1865.

Compromise of 1850

This was Congress's attempt to settle several outstanding issues involving slavery. It banned the slave trade in Washington, D.C.; admitted California as a free state; applied popular sovereignty to the remaining Mexican Cession territory; and passed a more stringent Fugitive Slave Act. Although many other men played important roles in hammering out the compromise, this controversy is remembered as the last crisis in which the three congressional titans of the day—Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun—all played a part.

New Deal

This was President Franklin D. Roosevelt's plan for, and active government response to, the Great Depression. It called for experimentation in providing relief for individuals, recovery of the economy, and reform of the American system. Numerous federal programs, such as the CCC, CWA, and TVA, illustrate this proactive, pragmatic legislative agenda.

Waving the Bloody Shirt

This was a campaign tactic used by post-Civil War Republicans to remind northern voters that the Confederates were Democrats. The device was used to divert attention away from the competence of candidates and from serious issues. It was also used to appeal to black voters in the South.

Ostend Manifesto

This was a confidential dispatch sent in 1854 to the U.S. State Department from U.S. ambassadors in Europe. It suggested that if Spain refused to sell Cuba to the United States, the United States would be justified in seizing the island. Northerners claimed it was a plot to expand slavery and the proposal was disavowed.

Freedman's Bureau

This was a federal agency set up to aid former slaves after the Civil War. It provided them food, clothing, and other necessities as well as helping them find work and set up schools. Initiated by President Lincoln in 1865, Congress extended the bill by overriding President Johnson's veto of a renewal bill in 1866.

Essex Junto

This was a group of die-hard Federalists who in 1804 organized a scheme to lead the northeastern states out of the Union. When Alexander Hamilton was offered a place in the plot to secede New England from the Union, he denied the offer. Consequently, the group turned to support from Aaron Burr, who also rejected the offer. Thus, the first attempt to break off New England from the Union failed since it was unable to gain support from the major power brokers in the state of New York.

realism

This was a literary genre that emerged in the late nineteenth century. It was the product of industrialism, Darwinian evolution, and scientific empiricism. Novelists undertook the examination of everyday and banal activities and experiences, instead of a romanticized or similarly stylized presentation.

Panic of 1837

This was a nationwide, financial depression that gripped the country between 1837 and 1843. The United States had experienced unprecedented growth during the early part of the 19th century, but speculation had soared as investors financed new ventures. In an effort to slow down excessive financial speculation, President Andrew Jackson issued the Specie Circular. As a result, many banks halted gold payments to the public, which caused a panic and a general loss of confidence in the banking system.

progressive movement

This was a period of widespread political reform that lasted from the 1890s through the first two decades of the 20th century. The movement actually comprised a number of efforts on the local, state, and national levels, and included both Democrats and Republicans who championed such causes as tax reform, woman suffrage, political reform, industrial regulation, the minimum wage, the eight-hour work day, and workers' compensation. The reform-minded enthusiasm of this era came to an end as the United States entered World War I in 1917, and energies were redirected into the war effort.

King Cotton

This was a phrase used mainly by Southern politicians and authors who wanted to illustrate the importance of the cotton crop to the southern economy. By the time of the Civil War, cotton accounted for almost 60% of American exports, representing a total value of nearly $300 million a year. Southern plantations generated three-fourths of the world's cotton supply. However, the attempt to use this trade as a diplomatic weapon to force Europe's hand in the American Civil War failed.

communitarianism

This was a point of view aimed at reforming society by first establishing and demonstrating its principles on a small scale. Supporters were motivated either by religious beliefs or secular ideologies, but, while briefly popular, examples like the Socialist utopian experiment in New Harmony, Indiana and the Oneida Community in New York were ineffective and did not last.

Cash and Carry

This was a policy requested by U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt in 1939, as World War II was spreading throughout Europe. It replaced the Neutrality Acts of 1936. The revision allowed the sale of material to belligerents, as long as the recipients arranged for the transport using their own ships and paid immediately in cash, assuming all risk in transportation.

blacklists

This was a tactic used by management to circulate names of troublesome workers-often labor organizers-to prevent or deny their future employment. These lists were used to discorage labor challenges to management.

Harlem Renaissance

This was a time of cultural renewal among African Americans, concurrent with the Jazz Age during the 1920s. Centered on the activities of African-American writers, artists, and musicians in the Harlem district of New York City, the new appreciation for and celebration of black culture spread throughout the United States. The movement was fuelled by the Great Migration, when African Americans left the south seeking jobs and a better way of life in northern cities. Names like Langston Hughes, Duke Ellington, and Louis Armstrong are all associated with this term.

yellow-dog contracts

This was a type of labor contract stating that an employee would not join a labor union; many employers forced employees to sign such contracts as a condition of employment.

Ex Parte Merryman

This was a well-known US federal court case which arose out of the Civil War. Chief Justice Roger Taney held that President Abraham Lincoln could not suspend the writ of habeas corpus and thus defending the rights of the individual against arbitrary martial law. Lincoln nevertheless continued making unauthorized suspensions for another two years until the Habeas Corpus Act of March 3, 1863 formally suspended the writ for him.

The Alamo

This was an 18th-century Spanish colonial mission located in San Antonio, Texas. It was the site of one of the most dramatic battles of the Texas Revolution, which involved Texans fighting for independence from Mexico. All 187 Texan defenders, including Bowie and Crockett, were killed by Mexican General Santa Anna's army; but estimates put the number of Mexican Army casualties at anywhere from 600 to 2,000. The fall of this mission became a rallying cry for those fighting to secure Texas' independence and the 13-day siege quickly became enshrined in the public's mind as one of America's most heroic moments.

Washington Naval Conference

This was an International diplomatic meeting 1921 to avert a naval arms race between the principal maritime powers: Britain, the USA, Japan, France, and Italy. The resultant treaty 1922 put a stop to naval competition by limiting the battleship strength of the five powers.

Teller Amendment

This was an amendment to a joint resolution of the United States Congress, enacted on April 19, 1898, in reply to President William McKinley's War Message. It placed a condition of the United States participation in the Spanish American War. According to the clause, the U.S. could not annex Cuba but only leave "control of the island to its people."

Shay's Rebellion

This was an armed rebellion of western Massachusetts farmers to prevent state courts from foreclosing on debtors unable to pay their taxes in1786-7. Fears generated by this rebellion helped to convince states to send delegates to the Constitutional Convention that met in Philadelphia in 1787.

Enlightenment

This was an intellectual movement of the eighteenth century that celebrated human reasoning powers. Prominent thinkers of this time emphasized the role of human reason in understanding the world and directing its events. Their ideas placed less emphasis on God's role in ordering worldly affairs. This rationalism had a major impact on American political thought.

Why was the Jizya significant?

This was significant because the 'people of the book' can stay their own religion, but they did need to pay a tax for it.

King Philip's War

This was the 1675-6 conflict between New England colonists and Native American Groups allied under Wampanoag chief Metacom. This war was the costliest in New England history and it largely crushed the Indian capacity for resistance

island hopping

This was the American strategy in the Pacific during World War II. It involved a leapfrogging movement of American forces from one strategic island to the next until American forces were in control of the Pacific and prepared to invade Japan.

Vietnamization

This was the Richard M. Nixon administration strategy to pursue "peace with honor" in Vietnam. After the TET offensive, Nixon planned to "expand, equip, and train South Vietnam's forces and assign to them an ever-increasing combat role, at the same time steadily reducing the number of U.S. combat troops." He began to withdraw American troops in his first year as president.

Pearl Harbor

This was the U.S. naval base in Hawaii that was attacked by Japanese forces on December 7, 1941. It was the worst naval disaster in U.S. history, with more than 2,000 casualties, dozens of aircraft destroyed, and 16 ships damaged or destroyed. While Americans had previously been divided over whether to enter World War II or maintain a policy of isolationism, Japan's surprise attack effectively ended the debate. On December 8, President Franklin D. Roosevelt appeared before Congress, where he called December 7 "a date which will live in infamy" and asked for a declaration of war against Japan.

Manifest Destiny

This was the belief of nineteenth-century Americans that their nation's territorial expansion was inevitable and ultimately a good thing, even for those being conquered. Some proponents of the idea even suggested that the country should absorb Canada, Mexico, and the nations of Central America and the Caribbean. This conviction helped Americans justify the aggressive acquisition of new territories in the 1840s.

Manhattan Project

This was the code name for the American effort to develop the atomic bomb. Under the auspices of Gen. Leslie Groves of the U.S. Army, the project involved roughly 125,000 people and cost more than $2 billion, yet it remained top secret throughout the course of World War II. The project culminated in the detonation of the first atomic weapon near Alamogordo, New Mexico (16 July 1945).

Boxer Rebellion

Took place in the Qing Empire (mostly modern China), the said nation fought eight others (including the USA) due to intense nationalism; the "Boxers" rioted and surrounded embassies leading to foreign nations crushing the revolt

Lewis and Clark

This was the commander and co-captain of the Corps of Discovery--a group of 33 men who set out from St. Louis, Missouri on May 14, 1804 to explore the Louisiana Territory. Throughout the trip, the explorers kept multiple copies of maps and notes of observations of the climate, vegetation, and people. Both also kept diaries with complex scientific observations of the animal and plant life encountered by the expedition.

Comstock Lode

This was the first major U.S. deposit of silver ore, discovered under what is now Virginia City, Nevada. After the discovery was made public in 1859, prospectors rushed to the area to stake their claims. Excavations yielded about $400 million in silver and gold.

Report on Public Credit

This was the first of three major reports on economic policy issued by Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton on the request of Congress. The report analyzed the financial standing of the United States. Hamilton proposed a remarkable set of policies for handling the debt problem. All debts were to be paid at face value. The Federal government would assume all of the debts owed by the states, and it would be financed with new U.S. government bonds paying about 4% interest.

Railway Strike of 1877

This was the first rail strike and general labor strike in U.S. history. In response to wage cuts, railroad workers went on strike in West Virginia in 1877. The strikers blocked freight trains from moving and threatened to continue until pay cuts were reversed. The strikes spread wherever there were railroads and in many areas, evolved into a general labor strike. After over a month of constant rioting and bloodshed, President Rutherford B. Hayes sent in federal troops to end the strikes. The strike led to increased regulation of the railroad industry and better organization of the labor movement.

Hudson River School

This was the first real landscape painting movement in the United States. It was a uniquely American movement that hoped to separate American artists and painting styles from those in Europe. From the 1830s-1860s, the movement celebrated the wildness of the American frontier and led the way toward a more realistic portrayal of nature. The founder and most influential artist was Thomas Cole. He sensed both the power and fragility of nature before man. After the Civil War, the movement went into decline. By the 1870s, it was considered old fashioned and provincial by artists and critics. It is now regarded as an artistic movement that reflects the optimism and sensibilities of its time.

Jamestown

This was the first successful English colony in the Americas--settled in 1607. However, it faced great hardships due to disease and interference from surrounding Indian tribes.

Fundamental Orders of Connecticut

This was the first written constitution in the American colonies. It was prepared as the covenant for the new Puritan community in ___, established in the 1630s. This document described a system of government for the new community.

Knights of Labor

This was the largest and most powerful labor union in America during the last half of the 19th century. It represented all workers—men and women, white and black, citizen and immigrant, and skilled and unskilled—in all industries. It was founded by Uriah Stephens, and under the leaderhsip of Terence Powderly, the union reached its peak strength of 750,000 members. The union's image was hurt when union members were blamed for the violence at Chicago's Haymarket Square riot in May 1886.

Chesapeake Incident

This was the most important naval confrontation between the United States and Great Britain before the War of 1812 and in itself a cause of the conflict. The U.S. naval vessel was fired upon and boarded by British officers in 1807, and four sailors were impressed. The incident provoked a clamor for war in the United States, but President Jefferson asked Congress for the Embargo Act instead.

Rough Riders

This was the name given to The First U.S. Volunteer Cavalry, formed in 1898 on the eve of the Spanish-American War by Assistant Secretary to the Navy Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt recruited 1,250 cowboys, Native Americans, Eastern aristocrats, and Ivy League athletes, among others. On June 30, Roosevelt was promoted to the rank of colonel and the following day, led the charge on Kettle Hill to help drive the Spanish from their fortifications on San Juan Hill. On September 16, 1898, the men were shipped home after 137 days of service. In the end, one out of three Rough Riders was either killed, wounded, or afflicted by disease, the highest casualty rate among troops who served in the Spanish-American War.

Brain Trust

This was the name given to a diverse group of academics who served as advisers to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. These men played a key role in shaping the New Deal. Although this group represented a variety of ideologies, they shared a basic, somewhat self-justifying belief that organized intelligence could restore the political, economic, and social health of society.

Hoovervilles

This was the name given to shantytowns that were occupied by those most severely hurt by the economic calamity. Poverty-stricken men and women were forced into tin shantytowns where they ate out of garbage cans and cooked on discarded scrap metal. These towns were nicknamed after the Herbert Hoover administration, which was blamed for failing to notice or remedy any underlying weaknesses in the apparently booming U.S. economy.

midnight appointments

This was the name given to the 16 Federalists granted judgeships by the Judiciary Act of 1801. Hoping to keep the judiciary branch of the federal government under the Federalists' control for many years, outgoing President John Adams made the final appointments on his last night in office.

William Levitt; Levittown

This was the name given to three suburban developments constructed in the post-World War II decades by the most important private builder of this period. Using mass production techniques, this builder turned home building from a cottage industry into a major manufacturing process, and his low-cost, mass-production methods were copied by builders nationwide. These subdivisions had planted trees on each plot, community pools, parks, and playgrounds. In the post-war economy, thousands of middle-class families bought in quickly and eagerly. Some observers criticized the monotonous uniformity of the these subdivisions, charging that they promoted listless personalities, conformity, and escapism.

American Expeditionary Force

This was the name of the American army sent to France to fight in World War I. Beginning in June 1917, under Gen. John J. Pershing, 2 million American men traveled to France to support the Allied troops on the western front. Under the direct and independent command of Pershing throughout the war, the American Army played a vital role in Allied victory. The American Army remained in France until November 1918, and by the end of the war had lost nearly 120,000 men.

Red Scare

This was the period of popular fear of a communist or socialist uprising in the United States in 1919. Following the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia and World War I, there was a fierce swing in public opinion against foreigners, trades unionists and the political parties of the left. Industrial strikes were violently suppressed and Congress and state legislatures passed laws banning many socialist and syndicalist organizations.

Tammany Hall

This was the popular name for the Democratic Party political machine that dominated much of New York City's political life until 1933. Under the leadership of corrupt political manipulators like "Boss" Tweed and Richard Croker, it evolved into a powerful political machine after 1860 and used patronage and bribes to control the city administration for decades.

Impressment

This was the practice of forcing unwilling men to serve in the military by often brutal and violent means. Between 1790 and 1814, the British, while searching U.S. vessels to seize deserters from the Royal Navy, frequently impressed naturalized U.S. citizens that were on board. America's sense of national honor was outraged and this became a cause of war in 1812.

Yalta

This was the site of a wartime conference in February 1945, where U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin met. The Allies agreed to final plans for the defeat of Germany and its subsequent division into zones of occupation. The Soviets agreed to allow free elections in Poland, but the elections were never held. The Soviet Union promised to enter the war against Japan three months after the war with Germany ended.

doughboys

This was the slang term for a United States Army infantryman, best known from its use in World War I, although it dates back to the Mexican-American War of 1846-48. The origin of the term is unclear. The most often cited explanation is that it arose during the Mexican-American War, after observers noticed U.S. infantry forces were constantly covered with chalky dust from marching through the dry terrain of northern Mexico, giving the men the appearance of unbaked dough. The AEF frequently referred to themselves by the name, and the term was widely used in contemporary media, both in the United States and in Europe.

popular sovereignty

This was the term applied to the principle of allowing the people of a territory to decide for themselves whether to ban or to permit slavery in their territory. The idea originated with Michigan Senator Lewis Cass in 1848. He urged it as a solution to the question of slavery in the territories. It called for Congress to organize territories without mention of slavery, thus leaving it to settlers within the territories to determine the status of slavery among them. Later, Senator Stephen Douglas also embraced this concept in the Kansas-Nebraska Act.

Trent Affair

This was was the most serious diplomatic crisis associated with the Civil War. In 1861, a U.S. naval vessel intercepted this British ship and removed two Confederate envoys. This was a clear violation of international law. The British objected and threatened war, but Lincoln realized the North could not fight both the Confederacy and Britain at once. The crisis passed when Lincoln released the two Confederates. By preventing British involvement, the North avoided what would have been a grievous blow to the Union war effort.

"New" Immigration

This wave of immigration lasted from 1866-1915 and brought 25 million to the United States, mostly from southern and eastern Europe. "Pushed" out of Europe by economic hardship and political persecution and "pulled" to the United States by the availability of jobs, these immigrants entered the country through gateways like Ellis Island and settled in America's teeming cities to take jobs made available by the Second Industrial Revolution.

Marcus Hanna

This wealthy businessman and political leader was a master political organizer and financier who introduced modern campaign techniques to the American political system. With the help of his financial backing and organizational management skills, William McKinley was elected governor of Ohio in 1891 and reelected in 1893. He then supported McKinley for president in 1896. As chairman of the Republican National Committee, he managed McKinley's "front porch" campaign and raised several million dollars that helped to ensure McKinley's election over Democratic candidate William Jennings Bryan.

Fundamental Orders of Conn.

Thomas Hooker formed a similar government to Mass. without the religious ties - this took place in the Hartford colony

Cattle Barons

Those with heavy influence on farms and ranches, they were rich and controlled the small farmers

Francis Cabot Lowell

Through his founding of textile mills in the early 19th century, this man changed the character of textile manufacturing and contributed significantly to America's early industrialization. He opened his first factory at Waltham, Massachusetts in 1814. It was the first mill in the world that converted raw cotton into finished cloth at a single location. For laborers he hired mainly young single women who lived in company housing under strict supervision.

Era of Good Feelings

Time of expansion and national development; from 1817 to 1823 in which the disappearance of the Federalists enabled the Democratic-Republicans to govern in a spirit of seemingly nonpartisan harmony

crop-lien system

To finance the sharecropping system, southerners turned to this system of borrowing and debt. Landowners and sharecroppers borrowed (at high interest rates) against the future harvest. Lenders insisted that they produce cash crops like cotton. The system made landowners and sharecroppers dependent on local merchants, and it prevented the development of diversified farming in the South.

Chain of Friendship: Significance for Indian-European encounters? Colony?

To make peace with the surrounding Indian tribes as the Quakers were pacifists; Quakers

Explain West African beliefs about social organization.

Top to bottom: Nobles and priests (usually elderly men) The masses (farmers, artisans, artists, traders, teachers) Slaves (war captives, criminals, or sold into servitude to satisfy a debt; they were protected by the law and allowed education, marriage, and parenthood, and servile condition was neither permanent nor inherited by children as it was in the Americas)

triangular trade

Trade from North America (sugar, tobacco, cotton) to Europe (rum, textiles, manufactured goods) to Africa (slaves).

Transcontinental Treaty of 1819

Treaty between the US and Spain where Spain ceded Florida to the US, surrendered the Pacific Northwest and agreed to a boundary between the Louisiana Purchase territory and Spanish Southwest

Rush-Bagot Treaty of 1817

Treaty between the US and UK that demilitarized the Great Lakes by sharply limiting the number of ships each power could station on them

Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo

Treaty of Mexican secession, it ended the war

Treaty of Ghent

Treaty signed in December 1814 between the US and UK that ended the war of 1812

Treaty of Versailles

Treaty signed in Versailles, France, officially declared WWI over. Devised by France and the United Kingdom, not ratified by the United States senate.

Treaty of Fort Wayne

Treaty which allowed the USA to gain 3 million acres of Delaware and Potawatomi land in Indiana

Jay's Treaty

Treaty with the Kingdom of Great Britain negotiated in 1794 where the US made major concessions to avert a war over the British seizure of US ships

Pinckney's Treaty

Treaty with the Kingdom of Spain, boundary at 31st parallel was established so Mississippi river was opened to US for trade

Various Kinds of Two-Spirit People Sabine Lang

Two-Spirit people

Oliphant vs. Suquamish Indian Tribe 1978

US Supreme Court case which ruled that tribal courts do not have criminal jurisdiction over non-Indians

Sand Creek Massacre

US soldiers killed 133 Native civilians of multiple tribes

Fort Robinson Agreement

US take Black Hills after killing many who refused to relocate

Plessy v. Ferguson

USSC decision holding that Louisiana's railroad segregation law didn't violate the Constitution as long as the railroads or the state provided equal accommodations

US vs. Reynolds

USSC decision to completely ban polygamy regardless of religion

US v. Cruikshank

USSC restricted Congressional power to enforce the Ku Klux Klan act; affected Bill of Rights application in the states

Dartmouth College vs. Woodward

USSC ruled that states must abide to contracts and cannot interfere in them

Dred Scott decision

USSC ruling; in a lawsuit brought by Dred Scott, a slave demanding his freedom based on his residence in a free state, but it was determined that slaves could not be US citizens and that Congress had no jurisdiction over slavery in the territories

Bonus Army

Unemployed veterans of WWI gathering in Washington demanding payment of service bonuses not due until 1945

American Federation of Labor

Union formed in 1886 that organized skilled workers along craft lines and emphasized a few workplace issues rather than a broad social program

Peninsular Campaign

Union offensive led by General McClellan with an objective of capturing Richmond, it ultimately was abandoned and US troops retreated

Nat Turner's revolt:

Uprising of slaves in Southampton County, Virginia, in the summer of 1831 led by Nat Turner

Pueblo Revolt

Uprising that lasted from August 10th-21st, 1680 by Pueblo people against New Spain; also known as Popé's Rebellion

Iroquois Origins

Upstate New York all the way to Ontario (concentrated between ADK and Niagara Falls)

Immigration Act of 1917

Used a literacy test and $8 head tax for immigrants, which halved Mexican immigration. Eventually, the act was suspended

Gunpowder

Used for cannons and guns by both the Ottomans and the Mughals.

Cold War Liberalism

Used to describe Truman's presidency where foreign and domestic policies were after entangled. Fierce anti-communism for foreign and welfare for domestic.

Good Neighbor Policy

Using a neighboring country's market to benefit one's own

Indian New Deal

Valued cultural relativism ;Cultivated belief that Indians can be both members of tribes and citizens of US ; Partially restored tribal land bases; Created awkward tribal governments that did not emerge from the culture within; Gave BIA even more to do; decreasing federal control of American Indian affairs and increasing Indian self-government and responsibility.

Civilized Tribes

Viewed by European settlers; consists of Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole. They adopted colonial culture (names, clothes, etc.)

NYC Draft Riots

Violent revolts against the draft in NYC, resulted in heavy lynching

Secret Ballot

Voters' choices are made anonymous

F. Scott Fitzgerald

WWI soldier and novelist who wrote novels celebrating youthful vitality but was also deeply distrustful of the promises of American prosperity and politics

Sons of Liberty

Wealthy merchants John Hancock and Samuel Adams formed this radical patriot organization in Boston in 1765. This group engaged in direct action against British rule, more or less covertly. In 1773, for example, they organized and executed the Boston Tea Party. Throughout the revolutionary period, they continued to fight, eventually disbanding in 1783 with the end of the war.

Where were the majority of the Slaves sent to?

West Indies

How did Catholicism further the fur trade and in what region was it prominent among Indian women? (Sleeper-Smith)

Western Great Lakes. Catholicism aquired increased centrality in the fur trade because of its social ramifications. Female converts used their "frontier" Catholicism to construct kin networks, both real as well as fictive.

The Great Desert

Western part of the Great Plains to the Rockies, it was named so because of its desert region

Stock Market Crash

What resulted in the economy's minimal resistance to existing sources of infection

Second New Deal

What was established after the Second Hundred Days, an extension of the first

Buying on Margin

What would allow investors to purchase stocks with small payments, borrowing the remainder from a broker, and using shares as collateral on the loan

Freeport Doctrine

When Douglas believed that slavery could be prevented in any territory

New Jersey Plan

When James Madison offered the Virginia plan at the Constitutional Convention, calling for proportional representation in Congress, James Paterson responded with this plan, hoping to protect the less populous states. This plan called for equal representation for each state in a unicameral legislature. The controversy was resolved in the Great Compromise.

Pottawatomie Massacre

When John Brown and sons attacked and killed five unarmed people in a pro-slavery settlement

Roger Taney

When John Marshall died on July 6, 1835, Jackson nominated this man as chief justice of the Supreme Court. He was a less fierce nationalist than Marshall had been, and his Court would tend to back Jackson's ideas of "democratizing" the country's economic and political life. Until the Dred Scott case, he was a proponent of the idea of judicial restraint. Scott v. Sandford (1857), however, brought politics and the issue of slavery directly to the court. Personally, he was opposed to slavery, but he believed that the Constitution recognized and protected slavery. The infamous Dred Scott decision declared that territorial governments could not be granted the power to prohibit slavery. The nation took one step closer toward Civil War.

Bleeding Kansas

When both pro and anti-slavery people from other states battled in violent means in Kansas

Lowell Mills

Where power looms were used, they also introduced textile mills

"missionary diplomacy"

While President Wilson pursued his "New Freedom" for domestic policy, this term describes his approach to foreign policy. To Wilson, nations, like individuals, should adhere to high ethical and moral standards. Democracy, Wilson thought, was the most Christian of governmental systems, suitable for all peoples. The democratic United States thus had a moral mandate for world leadership.

Ku Klux Klan

White-supremacist organization that grew at this time, it also targeted immigrants from Eastern and Southern Europe

All Our Relations

Winona LaDuke

Secession Winter

Winter of 1860-1861 where many states seceded from the Union

Teapot Dome Scandal

With the possible exception of the Watergate scandal, few political scandals in American history have stirred as much controversy as this scandal that took place during the presidency of Warren Harding. President Harding transferred control of naval oil reserves held at in Wyoming from the Navy to his friend Albert Fall, Secretary of the Interior, who subsequently leased them to oil companies in return for a bribe. Fall was eventually imprisoned in 1929, following a Senate investigation, the first Cabinet minster to be criminally convicted.

Santa Fe Witchcraze (Gutierrez): Social anxieties and fears that led to this? Gender and race/ethnicity of the main accusers of witches? Gender and group most likely accused of practicing love magic and dark arts?

Wives feared that husbands were cheating on them with Indian females. Female Spanish wives. Female Indian healers.

Conditions/factors that contributed to Indian conversions to Christianity or Catholicism? (Black Robe film; Knaut, Sleeper-Smith, Koppedrayer, Thomas)

Women were more willing to convert; gained power. Older stayed with Indian traditions. Younger; more willing and malleable.

New Freedom

Woodrow Wilson advocated this domestic platform in the election of 1912. Wilson called for freedom from raw capitalism, in which so much wealth was concentrated in the hands of so few. He also focused on breaking up monopolies, limiting corporate campaign contributions, and establishing a federal income tax. In the campaign, Wilson denounced Roosevelt's "New Nationalism" as paternalistic; it would sap entrepreneurial initiative and that it was potentially despotic. Untrammeled free enterprise had to remain the basis of American freedom, and that principle became the basis for his campaign platform.

Articles of Confederation

Written Document setting up the loose confederation of states that comprised the 1st national government

Declaration of Independence

Written by Thomas Jefferson and adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, this justified the American Revolution by reference to republican theory and to the many injustices of King George III toward the colonies. The indictment of the king provides a remarkably full catalog of the colonists' grievances, and Jefferson's eloquent and inspiring statement of the contract theory of government makes the document one of the world's great state papers.

Five Power Treaty

Written in Washington in 1922, it was meant to scale down navies

The Third Gender Will Roscoe

Zunis distinguished between biological sex and gender identity

ethnocentrism

a "culture of prejudice" i.e., believing one culture is superior to all others

St. Marie among the Hurons

a French Jesuit settlement in Ontario, first European settlement in modern day Ontario

Wavoka

a Northern Paiute shaman who founded the Ghost Dance movement

Indian Relocation Act 1956

a US law intended to encourage Native Americans in the US to leave indian reservations, acquire vocational skills, and stimulate into the general population

race

a group of people classified and characterized by skin color

Complex Chiefdoms

a group of simple chiefdoms controlled by one supreme chief

Indian Relocation Act of 1956

a law intended to encourage Native Americans in the United States to leave Indian reservations, acquire vocational skills, and assimilate into the general population. Part of the Indian termination policy, which terminated the tribal status of numerous groups, it played a significant role in increasing the population of urban Indians in succeeding decades

The line of Demarcation

a line that seperated the land of spain and portugal

Kivas

a room used by Pueblo Indians for religious purposes, associated with Kachina beliefs; square walled and found underground

Kachina

a spirit in Western Pueblo religious beliefs

Pinyon nut

a staple in the diet of people of The Great Basin

Kivas

a subterranean place; also a place where unmarried adolescent males reside

social safety net

a system in which everyone's basic needs are met

Which one of the following is true of agriculture in Spanish America?

a. African-American slaves performed most of the labor. b. The main crops were vastly different than they had been before Spain's arrival. c. Spain introduced wheat as a crop. d. Indian slaves did the work on small-scale farms. e. Catholic priests were forbidden to be involved in farming. answer-c

What was the foundation for the prosperous Native American societies in Mexico, Peru, and the Mississippi River Valley?

a. Bison hunting b. Gold and silver mining c.Slave trade d. Maize, beans, squash answer-d

Which one of the following is true about Native Americans and material wealth?

a. Chiefs were expected to share some of their goods rather than hoard them. b. Eastern Native Americans were more materialistic than those who lived west of the Mississippi. c. Wealth mattered less to them than to Europeans, but inherited social status was equally important to both peoples. d. Native Americans actually suffered more social inequality than Europeans did. e. Native Americans had no material wealth. answer-e

The "Five Nations" of the colonial period were

a. England, Spain, France, Holland, and Sweden. b. a European mutual defense league dedicated to reducing the power of Spain. c. the first South American countries to win independence from European colonial powers. d. the lost tribes of Israel. e. an Iroquois confederation that usually maintained friendly relations with the English. answer-e

Why did European exploration of the New World proceed so rapidly after Columbus's discoveries?

a. Gutenberg's invention of the printing press enabled the rapid dissemination of information. b. England, France, and Spain united to fund exploration, eliminating one of the problems that Columbus had faced. c. Spain was determined to protect the Native Americans against Protestant missionaries from rival European states, inspiring the government to fund numerous expeditions. d. The amount of gold that Columbus brought back to Spain was so inspiring that other countries inevitably followed suit. e. The Dutch became involved and had more money than other countries to finance expeditions, so those other countries worked together and raced against the Dutch for control. answer-a

Which of the following was true of Christopher Columbus?

a. He accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth to be 26,000 miles. b. He was an Italian navigator whose four voyages to the West were financed by the Spanish. c. He was the first person to believe that the Earth is round. d. He rejected offers from England and Portugal to finance his voyages. e. He received land, titles, and wealth from his discoveries and died the richest commoner in Europe. answer-b

Which of the following is true of Spain's explorations of the New World?

a. Individual conquistadores always traveled alone. b. Members of the Spanish parties suffered greatly from disease. c. Florida was the first region in the present-day United States that Spain colonized. d. Spain sought to forestall Portuguese incursions into the New World. e. Spain's explorations had no impact on the size of the Native American population. answer=c

How did French involvement in the fur trade change life for Native Americans?

a. It didn't; Native Americans were already hunting beaver and buffalo for their skins. b. Native Americans benefited economically but were able to avoid getting caught in European conflicts and rivalries. c. The French were willing to accept Native Americans into colonial society. d. The English and French quests for beaver pelts virtually destroyed theNative American population. e. It forced Native Americans to learn new trapping techniques that were far superior to their old ways. answer-c

Which of the following was NOT a technique that Spanish conquistadores used to conquer Native American empires?

a. Kidnapping a leader and holding him for ransom b. Dividing and conquering them by taking advantage of old rivalries c. Relying upon the spread of diseases, even though they may not have been introduced intentionally d. Negotiating treaties e. Using their superior military technology answer-d

What role did religion play in the Columbus's explorations?

a. None whatsoever b. Columbus was determined to convert Native Americans to Christianity. c. Catholics in Spain and Italy supported his expeditions because they wanted to end Muslim control of the eastern trade. d. Columbus benefited from Ferdinand and Isabella's efforts to promote tolerance in Spain. e. Spain wanted Columbus to find a refuge for the Jews the king was driving out of the country. answer-c

The city situated along the Mississippi River with between 10,000 and 30,000 residents in the year 1200 is today known as:

a. Poverty Point. b. Cahokia. c. Pueblo Bonita. d. Iroquois. e. Tenochtitlan. answer-b

According to Bartolomé de Las Casas:

a. Spain needed to institute a more humane system of Native American slavery in order to avoid offending Pope Paul III. b. Spain had caused the deaths of millions of innocent people in the New World. c. despite his opposition to slavery, he needed to keep his slaves so that he would have time to devote to working for abolition and emancipation. d. slavery needed to be eliminated entirely from the earth. e. converting Native Americans to anything but Catholicism would lead to their death. answer- not a

The Spanish set up outposts from Florida to South Carolina in part because:

a. Spanish missionaries hoped to convert local Native Americans to Christianity. b. English colonists from Virginia were attacking Spanish settlements. c. they sought to prevent the escape of African slaves to English colonies located north and east of the Savannah River. d. the discovery of gold mines in central Florida meant that other powers were likely to encroach on Spanish territories. e. they needed to protect St. Augustine, which became capital of New Spain in 1542. answer-a

Both the Aztec and Inca empires were:

a. rural and poor. b. small in population, but sophisticated in infrastructure. c. large, wealthy, and sophisticated. d. large in geographic size, but sparsely populated. e. rural, with few impressive buildings. answer-c

Which one of the following was true of French relations with Native Americans?

a. The French appropriated significant amounts of land for fur trading. b. The French were proud that they were considered tougher on Indians than their English and Spanish counterparts. c. The French sent nuns to try to Christianize the natives, because they understood that gender relations were different among Native Americans than they were among whites. d. Native Americans resented that the French had no need for their help in the fur trade. e. Jesuit missionaries tried to convert Native Americans, but gave them far more independence than did Spanish missionaries. answer-e

How did Spain justify enslaving Native Americans?

a. The Spanish believed that enslavement could liberate Native Americans from their backwardness and savagery and introduce them to Christian civilization. b. Pope Alexander VI had approved Spanish slavery but banned slavery in Portuguese holdings in the New World. c. The writings of Bartolomé de Las Casas explained that the Bible approved slavery and that therefore it was acceptable. d. If England and France were to be defeated in the quest for empire, Spain needed to take a step they had avoided, imposing slavery upon the native population. e. The Spanish actually never enslaved Native Americans; the charge that they did was simply part of the "Black Legend" spread by the English and other enemies. answer-a

Which of the following is not true of the Spanish conquistadores?

a. They conquered two major empires in the Americas and greatly increased the wealth and power of Spain. b. They succeeded in part because smallpox decimated the Indian population. c. They led huge armies of 50,000 to 100,000 well-trained Europeans. d. They destroyed religious items of the native people. e. They searched unsuccessfully for fabulous golden cities in North America. answer-c

In 1519, who became the first European explorer to encounter the Aztec empire?

a. Vasco da Gama b.Ferdinand Magellan c. John Cabot d. Hernán Cortés e. Francisco Pizzaro answer-d

All except which of the following were negative results of the exploration and discovery era?

a. Warfare, slavery, and disease killed millions of Indians. b. Many plants native to the Americas were displaced by European imports. c. Millions of Africans were enslaved and transported to other parts of the world. d. The Asian nations of China, India, and Japan became the wealthiest and most powerful countries in the world. e. European animals overran American rivals. answer- d

Spanish Florida:

a. attracted large numbers of settlers. b. became a British colony in 1607. c. was little more than an isolated military settlement. d. was the site of Juan Oñate's attack on the inhabitants of Acoma. e. attracted mostly elderly Spaniards. answer- c

The Spanish system of labor control that allowed a person to exploit the native labor force for a certain period of time was called

a. bandeirante. b. encomienda. c. casa grande d. hacienda. e. requerimiento. answer-b

The Spanish justified their claim to land in the New World through all of the following EXCEPT:

a. believing that their culture was superior to that of the Indians. b. violence. c. a missionary zeal. d. a decree from the Pope. e. defeating the English fleet in 1588. answer-e

The early civilizations of America were basically _______ age cultures.

a. bronze b. stone c. wood d. iron e. agricultural answer- b

Bartolomé de Las Casas argued that Indians:

a. could be enslaved because they lacked true religion. b. were more akin to beasts than humans. c. should overthrow their cruel Spanish masters and reestablish the Inca and Aztec empires. d. were treated well by the Spanish. e. should enjoy "all guarantees of liberty and justice" as subjects of Spain. answer-e

The transatlantic flow of people and goods such as corn, potatoes, horses, and sugar cane is called:

a. globalization. b. the Columbian Exchange. c. the Great Circuit. d. the Atlantic system. e. trade. answer-b

Before the arrival of Columbus, Native North Americans:

a. had elaborate trade networks. b. were entirely agricultural and rural. c. from all regions of the continent were very similar in their political and religious beliefs. d. always lived in small family units. e. lived only in coastal areas. answer=c

The Pueblo Indians encountered by the Spanish in the sixteenth century:

a. had engaged in settled village life only briefly before the Spanish arrived. b. had been almost completely isolated from any other people before the Spanish arrived. c. used irrigation systems to aid their agricultural production. d. were called mound builders for the burial mounds they created. e. created a vast empire that included control of the Incas. answer-c

The Spanish empire in America:

a. included most of the populated part of the New World but few of its natural resources, making the empire rich in people but poor economically. b. paled in comparison with the ancient Roman Empire. c. was, unlike the French and English New World empires, a mostly urban civilization. d. was centered in Lima, Peru. e. allowed religious freedom and therefore attracted colonists from throughout Europe answer-c

Alarmed by the destructiveness of the conquistadores, the Spanish crown replaced them with a more stable system of government headed by:

a. lawyers and bureaucrats. b. bishops of the Catholic Church. c. landed wealthy elite. d. elected local officials. e. entrepreneurs. answer=a

Indian societies in North America:

a. made little distinction between gender roles b. tended to divide tasks according to gender. c. put women in important political positions d. did not allow women to exercise any control over social or economic matters answer-b

Amerigo Vespucci:

a. named the New World after himself. b. helped to correct Columbus's theory that he had found a route to Asia. c. agreed with Columbus that Native Americans were East Indians. d. was funded by the English. e. actually named the continent Vespucci, but it was changed. answer-b

The era of exploration contributed to world progress by

a. promoting peaceful and friendly relations between different ethnic groups. b. spreading technology. c. bringing previously isolated societies into contact with other nations and cultures. d. promoting religious toleration and ending the persecution of non-Christians around the globe. e. all of the above. answer-c

New France was characterized by:

a. severe conflict between French settlers and the Indians. b. a well-defined line between Indian society and French society. c. more peaceful European-Indian relations than existed in New Spain. d. a Protestant missionary zeal to convert the Indians. e. its lack of devastating epidemics. answer-c

The Hopewell, Mississippian, and Pueblo peoples were similar in their creation of

a. small-scale communities of hunters and farmers. b. pyramids. c. hieroglyphic writing. d. elaborate ceremonial and urban sites. answer-d

Most European Christians viewed the Indians as

a. subhuman, soulless devil worshippers. b. innocent, childlike people who should be treated kindly. c. sophisticated people who were morally and ethically superior to the inhabitants of Asia and Europe. d. descendants of the ancient survivors of the lost continent of Atlantis. e. one of the lost tribes of Israel. answer-a

The Black Legend described:

a. the Aztecs' view of Cortés. b. English pirates along the African coast. c. Spain as a uniquely brutal colonizer. d. Portugal as a vast trading empire. e. Indians as savages. answer-c

The Columbian Exchange was:

a. the agreement that documented what Christopher Columbus would give to Spanish leaders in return for their sponsorship of his travel to the New World. b. the transatlantic flow of plants, animals, and germs that began after Christopher Columbus reached the New World. c. John Cabot's exploration of the New World, which brought more of the goods that Columbus had found back to the Old World. d. responsible for introducing corn, tomatoes and potatoes to the Americas. e. the first store in the New World, named for the man who founded it. answer-b

The major reason that western Europe engaged in explorations in the fifteenth century was

a. the desire to spread Christianity. b. to export domestic products. c. to control the oceans. d. to expand trade with the non-Christian world. e. to escape the Black Death answer=d

Pueblo Indians lived in what is now:

a. the eastern United States. b. the southwestern United States. c. Mexico. d. the northeastern United States. e. Central America. answer-d

In the New World, the Columbian Exchange generally resulted in

a. the introduction of infectious diseases. b. the staggering loss of indigenous populations. the introduction of domesticated animals such as cattle and horses. c. the introduction of food crops such as wheat. d. all of these answer-d

The most likely reason for European success in conquering the American Indian population is

a. the prolonged isolation of the Americas from the rest of the world. b. the superiority of European civilizations. c. the warlike savagery of the Europeans. d. the passivity of Native Americans. e. the success of the priests in converting them to Christianity. answer-a

When Europeans arrived, many Native Americans:

a. tried to use them to enhance their standing with other Native Americans. b. immediately opened treaty negotiations. c. learned their languages. d. hid in nearby cave dwellings. e. simply attacked them. answer-a

Before the arrival of the Europeans, the Indian societies of the Americas

a. used bronze and iron for tools and weapons. b. were Stone Age cultures c.were democratic cultures in which all members, including women, could vote. d. had all developed a written language. e. were all primitive, nomadic hunters and gatherers. answer-b

The first center of the Spanish empire in America:

a. was a prosperous settlement that Columbus created. b. was the island of Hispaniola c. fell to Dutch raiders in 1506. d. resulted from Columbus's last voyage to the New World in 1502. e. was Cuba. answer=b

Before the arrival of the Europeans, the Indian societies of the Americas

a. were all primitive, nomadic hunters and gatherers. b. were democratic cultures in which all members, including women, could vote. c. used bronze and iron for tools and weapons. d. had all developed a written language. e. were Stone Age cultures answer-e

The mound builders and the Anasazi were similar in that both

a. were primarily hunter-warrior societies. b. depended on the horse as the major beast of burden. c. were complex societies that developed north of Mexico. d. had developed a written language. e. were the ancestors of the Mayans and the Aztecs. answer-a

"functionally literate"

able to read and write well enough to participate in certain basic activities

Holocene Epoch

after Pleistocene, around 9,700 BC

the pueblo revolt was against who and do what

against the spanish and kill 400 spaniards all together and 35 priests.

impact of VSEs

all native people affected eventually 90% mortality in new world

Columbian exchange

an exchange of goods, ideas, and disease between the old and new worlds

Potlach

an opulent ceremonial feast to celebrate an important event held by tribes of Northwest Indians of North America including the Tlingit, Tsimishian, Haida, Coast Salish and the Chinook people. characterized by a ceremony in which possessions are given away, or destroyed, to display wealth, generosity and enhance prestige

Thule

ancestors of modern inuits, developed in Alaska in year 1000 and expanded across Canada into Greenland

Great House

ancient pueblo houses

Danger Cave

archeological site located in Western Utah, suggests evidence of life starting around 8,000 BC

fields of anthropology

archeology, linguistic, cultural, and biological

food sovereignty

asserts that the people who produce, distribute, and consume food should control the mechanisms and policies of food production and distribution

forced colonization in context of the Spanish and Pueblo

because they follow the assimilation model the Spanish forcefully made Pueblo convert to Christianity, either through torture or coersion

reconquest of New Mexico occur according to the Spanish

because they needed to protect their converted Christian subjects; also to create buffer zone between themselves and the French and English; also because the Pueblo can't really stop it

King Phillip's War

began in 1675 in New England after English killed 3 Metacom associates thinking that they were going to attack, both sides armed with flintlocks, Metacom/King Philip killed in 1676, Indians expelled and sold into slavery

Henry Hudson

came into contact with natives most likely in present day Staten Island. traded steel knives, hatchets, and beads with natives in return for corn, bread, and oysters. understood the natives to be "nice" but thieves

who are the Carib?

caribbean people, bloodthirsty savage, warlike, cannibals, resist Europeans, "uncivilized"

theocracy

centers around religion, led by religious elites

language revitalization

change existing norms and trends in language use and transmission; reverse and undo endangerment

John Ridge

cherokee-- believed relocation was inevitable

sex

chromosomal, chemical, anatomical

Paleoindian tools

clovis points longer than folsom and dalton points

three sisters

corn, beans, and squash

William Berkeley

corrupt governor, created tension between rich whites poor whites, landowners and new colonist, and all the races. Wanted native allies and didn't support Bacon's militia, arrested Bacon, ended the rebellion

Charles II

created Carolina, Charleston became capitol, after civil wars in England, he took throne in 1660, gave out colonial charters for more colonies

Trail of Broken Treaties

cross-country protest that was staged in the autumn of 1972 in the United States by American Indian and First Nations organizations. Designed to bring national attention to American Indian issues, such as treaty rights, living standards, and inadequate housing, it brought to the national capital the largest gathering ever of American Indians presenting their hopes.

written tradition

cultural material and tradition is transmitted at least in part through a written code (body language, pictures, maps, videos)

oral tradition

cultural material and tradition is transmitted orally from one generation to another

Andrew Jackson

enforced trail of tears in 1830s against Supreme Court decision

Pleistocene

epoch lasting from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago

Juan de Onate

established first permanent colony in New Mexico, was first governor, fought in the Acoma war

Moundbuilding

date back 5,000 years ago. Mounds built for religious, ceremonial, burial reasons, as well as elite residents (archaic and woodland periods)

governor

dealt with outsiders; this position was created by the Spanish

Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851

defined proper territories for Great Plain tribes

Puritans

disliked Catholic teachings, Massachusetts Bay Company for colony in Salem, opposed Charles I, majority in Parliament in late 1620s

Navajo and Hopi reservations

divided unequally, Hopi a smaller reservation inside Navajo, longterm turmoil and controversy

igloo

dome shaped ice hut that retains heat

Dogs

domesticated companions, primarily in Iroquois culture

Great Migration

during the 1630s, religious persecution and economic hard times in England drove more than 15,000 Puritans to journey to Massachusetts.

Spanish colonial policy after Columbus

emphasizes assimilation through Christianity, through Indians could never be equal to the Spanish

primary mode of kinship among the Amishinaabeg

the clan or doodem

William Penn: Who was he? What he established? When? Where? How he treated Indians? The ethnicity and religion of immigrants that he recruited to settle his North American colony? (Woweck)

founder of Pennsylvania, founded Quakers, New England, he treated Indians kindly and fairly, persecuted minorities like Jews, Catholics, Lutherans/ English, French, German

Paisley Cave

four caves in desolate region of Oregon: proves oldest humane evidence in North America (14,300 years ago)

Samuel de Champlain

french explorer, founded New France and Quebec City on July 3, 1608

Native American Casinos

gambling enterprises that are owned by federally recognized Native American tribal governments and that operate on reservation or other tribal lands. includes a range of business operations, from full casino facilities with slot machines and Las Vegas-style high-stakes gambling to smaller facilities offering games such as bingo, lotteries, and video poker. Because U.S. laws recognize certain forms of tribal sovereignty and self-government, native-owned casinos enjoy some immunity from direct regulation by individual states. However, tribal gaming operations must comply with the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988 and other federal laws

John Winthrop

governor of colony in Salem, led Puritans

Indian Self Determination and Education Assistance Act

grants given to tribes to improve general welfare and stimulate economy

Powhatan Confederacy

group of native tribes settled in Virginia during 17th century. eventually fought with colonists in Jamestown

clan

group of related extended families, creates social safety net

Seminole Tribe of Florida v. Butterworth

helped allow for casinos on reservations on the basis of tribal sovereignty

astrolabe

here were rings on it that marked degreases. The Muslims made this

Counting Coup

highest honor given to warrior after victory in the Plains culture

What was significant about Ferdinand Magellan's voyage?

his crew were the first people to circumnavigate the world

kinship

how family is organized i.e., lineage, important because it determines social organization

Paleoindian period

ice bridge crossed between 45,000-12,000, period ensues from 10,500-9,500. big game hunters on great plains

cacique

in charge of ritual and planting cycle

war chief

in charge of social control inside the Pueblo

Eskimo (Inuit)

indigenous people who inhabited Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. Dates back to 5,000 years ago

Innu

indigenous to Canada, most of Northeast population of Quebec; 2003 population of about 18,000 people

Alcohol

introduced through cultural responses to European arrival, prominent in frontier society, and colonial and postcolonial policies. Native American's were heavily influenced by the example of White frontiersmen, who drank immoderately and engaged in otherwise unacceptable behavior while drunk. Whites also deliberately pressed alcohol upon the natives because it was an immensely profitable trade good; in addition, alcohol was used as a tool of "diplomacy" in official dealings between authorities and natives.

Guns

introduced to natives by Europeans, muskets or rifles

subjugate the pueblos

iron fist in velvet glove strategy; they used might and intimidation to scare the Pueblo, then preists came in as compassionate humanitarians

Trade and Intercourse Act

is the collective name given to six statutes passed by the Congress in the late 18th century by which Native people are only allowed to have correspondence with the federal government, nullifying their bonds with local government

magnetic compass

it helped people find their directions. The Chinese created this idea.

Treaty of Tordesillas

it was a peace treaty between spain and portugal to tell them to respect the line of demarcation

Triangle trade

it was a trade system in the west indes where they traded slaves in exchange for riches

Great Basin bow manufacture

juniper trees used to make bows

Megafauna

large or giant animals which are bigger than modern animals (mastodon, mammoth)

Pueblo Bonito

largest and most famous great house in Chaco Canyon

Cahokia

largest city in North America until 1780: 6,000-40,000 residents (1,050 AD-1,250 AD)

Cieneguitas

last Chumash village in Santa Barbara 1870s → Hope Ranch

Blood Quantum

laws enacted in the United States and the former colonies to define qualification by ancestry as Native American, sometimes in relation to tribal membership. It ignored the Native American practices of absorbing other peoples by adoption, beginning with other Native Americans, and extending to children and young adults of European and African ancestry. It also ignored tribal cultural continuity after tribes had absorbed such adoptees and mixed-race children

Hiawatha

leader of Onondaga and Mohawk. co-founder of Iroquois Nation

Massasoit

leader of Wampanoag, made alliances with pilgrims

Po'pay

leader of the Pueblo revolt

patrilineal

lineage traced through the father

bilateral

lineage traced through the father and mother

matrilineal

lineage traced through the mother

Wounded Knee

military sent to dispatch the Ghost Dance. Spotted Elk took a group to leave strict sioux reservation for more freedom. They got caught at wounded knee and lined up. Story goes that a deaf NA didn't drop his rifle fast enough and Americans opened fire slaughtering the whole group, they were left there for 4 days. Black Elk the medicine man was the sole survivor, said "this marked the end of the ghost dance"

Hopi

modern day reservation: Northeast of Arizona, believe they came from "atkyaqu" (down below). Religion connected to growing corn

Southwest US

more than 20 percent of Natives in the United States inhabit, mostly in the present-day states of Arizona and New Mexico

Slavery

mostly occurred in Southeast US, 1620-1715: more natives sold into slavery than Africans (about 2-4 million)

tribe

multiple bands, 100-500 people range, most egalitarian some stratification

cheifdom

multiple bands, more than 500 people, definite stratification and leadership hierarchy; one supreme chief over lesser village chiefs

band

multiple families, 100 people range, most egalitarian and least stratified

Shoshone

native american tribe with four cultural distinctions: East (Wyoming), North (Idaho), West (Nevada and Northern Utah), Gosiute (Western Utah and Eastern Nevada), from The Great Basin

Trail of Tears

native relocation in 1830s, included Cherokee, Muscogee, Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw. Cherokee removed 1838-1839

disease and epidemics

natives had different immune systems than Europeans, couldn't combat the diseases brought from Europe (small pox, measles, scarlet fever, influenza)

Paiute

nomadic hunter-gatherers who inhabited The Great Basin

new world

north, south, and central America

Occupation of Alcatraz

occupation by 89 American Indians who called themselves Indians of All Tribes (IOAT). Lasted for nineteen months, from November 20, 1969, to June 11, 1971, and was forcibly ended by the U.S. government.

disease swap

one aspect of Columbian exchange, not equal, leads to massive loss of native life

Eastern Agricultural Complex

one of 10 early complexes of plant domestication

Nathaniel Bacon

organized militia to attack Indians, set Jamestown on fire, 1676 he died

Tadoussac

original French trading post set up by Champlain, north of Quebec City, center of fur trade

Iroquois Agriculture

overseen by women (corn, beans, squash)

specialization

social/gender division; i.e. men don't process meat, women don't hunt

Beaver Wars

series of conflicts involving Iroquois and French colonial forces. Many first nations dispersed. Iroquois gained territory before agreeing on peace with colonials. Breaks up every single group surrounding Iroquois, who eventually agree to stay out of French/English relations

Flintknapping

shaping rocks (flint or obsidian)

Monte Verde

site in Chile, 14,000 years old: evidence predates clovis human settlement period

Plymouth landing

site of settlement by Mayflower settlers

Kennewick Man

skeletal remains of a man dating back 9,000 years, found in Columbia River, Washington

Mound 72

small ridgetop located near monks mound at Cahokia mounds in Illinois; was a burial site of the "beaded burial" who was an elite person

Calumet: Purpose? Significance for interethnic relations? Colonial power it involved?

smoking pipe, ceremony. Used to seal a deal between the French and Indians.

pigmentocracy

social stratification determined by race

John Smith

taken prisoner by Algonquins, Pocahontas saved him, governor of Jamestown in 1608, forced people to work

irrigation

the Hohokam dug irrigation ditches for farming; had simple temple mound and ball courts

Misused Land

the Indians hadn't used their land properly; the US could take it

three fires

the Potawatomi, Odawa, and Ojibwe

Right by Purchase

the US could take lands from the Indians if they compensated them with wmoney

Native Boarding Schools

the United States and Canada promoted Indian assimilation, a policy that attempted to replace indigenous life with those of the dominant culture. Both countries used mechanisms such as compulsory education at boarding schools and the elimination of separate legal status for aboriginal peoples to implement their assimilationist goals

Beothuk

the aboriginal people of the island of Newfoundland. They were Algonkian-speaking hunter-gatherers who probably numbered less than a thousand people at the time of European contact. also the descendants of a Recent Indian culture called the Little Passage Complex.

The Great Basin

the area comprising almost all of the present-day states of Utah and Nevada as well as substantial portions of Oregon, Idaho, Wyoming, and Colorado and smaller portions of Arizona, Montana, and California

Indians get a free ride from the government

the benefits Native Americans receive from the government derive from treaty agreements, which purport to compensate them for the surrender of some or all of their invaluable land

syncretism

the blending of two or more belief systems, i.e., mix of Pueblo and Spanish religion

AIM takeover of Wounded Knee

the occupation called global attention to unsafe living conditions and generations of mistreatment from federal and local agencies. The occupation, which began during the evening of February 27

food security

the ongoing availability of food

Indian Termination Policy

the policy of the United States from the mid-1940s to the mid-1960s. It was shaped by a series of laws and policies with the intent of assimilating Native Americans into mainstream American society

Assimilation

the process of blending in with another culture.

the spanish arrest who and some are what

the pueblo holy men and some are put to death

where do the pueblo revolt occur

the pueblo región- present day New Mexico

what happens as revenge

the pueblo revolt is led by pope ( a pueblo man)

Chaco Canyon

the site of the Pueblo II period, otherwise known as the Bonito Phase, around 860 AD-1140 AD; ancient Puebloan society blossomed

What happens when the spanish come in

they try to force the pueblo people to convert to christianity

Colonies

they are lands that are controlled by another nation. the spanish transformed the americas into colonies after they conquered them.

native people believe

they have always been around

what happens upon the spanish return

they realize they cannot force the pueblo to christianity

What was the pirmary purpose of the mission?

to convert native americans to catholic christianity and to teach them how to live out of their new faith.

Fort Orange (Dutch)

trade center for Iroquois furs

culture

traditions and customs of people transmitted through learning that guide their beliefs and behaviors

Wounded Knee Massacre

treaty promises to protect reservation lands from encroachment by settlers and gold miners were not implemented as agreed.

Northwest coast woodworking

trees were in abundance and could be split into planks or hollowed out into canoes, containers, and other useful objects.

Lateen Sail

triangular sail and the idea was taken from the Arabs as well.

caravel

triangular sail. The ideas were taken from the Arabs. It helped with sailing against the winds, maybe when the monsoon winds were going in the opposite direction that the Europeans were traveling to.

Seminole

tribe from Florida comprised of 3 smaller tribes

Wampanoag

tribe from Massachusetts and Rhode Island: meet pilgrims in early 17th century

Narragansett

tribe from Rhode Island at time of pilgrims; disease heavily affected population

Cherokee

tribe indigenous to Southeast US

California V. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians

tribes can conduct gaming on Native American lands unhindered by state regulations in states that allow gaming

The Indians of North America believed that land was a common resource and the basis of economic life.

true or false answer-true

longhouse

up to 75-100 meters long, not wider than 5-7 meters. Iroquois house to hold up to 20 matrilineally related families

Costal Migration hypothesis

use of watercraft to sail around ice sheets in North America, explains how places like Monte Verde were established prior to the creation of the Ice Free Corridor used by the Bering Strait hypothesis

Spanish mindset in New Mexico

very ethnocentric and forceful; they attempted to insert themselves into the governance of the Pueblo as they did with the aztecs

Society of American Indians

was the first national American Indian rights organization run by and for American Indians. Pan-Indian ism, the movement promoting unity; Red Progressives, Progressive Era; progress through education and governmental action.

fluted spear points (clovis points)

weapon to kill mammoths, sloths, bison, and horses

Termination Act

with or without consent, tribes must be terminated and begin to live "as Americans";

How did attitudes about Catholicism among Indians in the western Great Lakes differ by gender or age group? (Sleeper-Smith)

women were attracted to it .. allowed them to keep social status served as translateors. when jesuits leave catholism stands because women kept it going

Totem Poles

works of art carved by tribes of the Northwest (Pacific, British Columbia, Alaska), shows the ancestry and the social rank of the family. The figures carved could be humans, animals, or other creatures.

Reconquest of 1692

• 12 years after Pueblo revolt • led by Governor de Vargas, met with little resistance from Pueblo peoples → Spain once again ruled the Pueblo Indian country

Camp Grant Massacre 1871

• 140 armed residents of Tuscon opened fire on peaceful Apaches → Indian village near camp grant • a public safety committee claiming crimes of raiding were committed by them, village was 50 miles from Tuscon • 144 killed as a result (mostly women and children) → all were peaceful and did no harm • upon trial all were declared innocent and let go

Missions

• 1500s-1600s followed presidios • Spanish schools and churches built to teach Native Americans/children the language and to educate/convert them to the Spanish culture and way of life

Encomiendas

• 1512 → reason for Pueblo Revolt 1680 • a Spanish term for an estate granted by Spanish kings → a royal land grant to conquistadores and officials • collected tribute and forced labor through a feudalistic system → native peoples were provided as laborers along with granted lands • this system pleased the clerical element of Spanish Christian society, who believed it would accomplish the desired conversion and cultural obliteration • 1542 → repartimiento replaced this system

Cabeza de Vaca

• 1528-1536 • after shipwreck in Florida and disappearance of Spanish explorer Narvarez, 4 survivors including Cabeza de Vaca → wander through Southeast into Southwest, eventually reaching northern Mexico and having contact with numerous tribes • lied about cities of gold, which sparks Coronado's venture into Americas

Coronado

• 1540-1542 → from Mexico to New Mexico • one of the first encounters of Spanish with Pueblo Indians, always ended in violence and failure for Spanish who violated Pueblo norms → against vows to proceed peacefully • insisted excessive tribute or outright submission of the native Pueblos Indians • discovers Hopi, attack Zuni, destroy village and murder inhabitants at pueblos

Cabrillo

• 1542 • from Mexico to Oregon-California border → contact with various coastal tribes • claims California coast for Spain • Indian population 350,00 and 15 tribes

Acoma Resistance

• 1598 attacked by Spanish • Juan de Onate → leader of the first Spanish colonizing expedition into New Mexico sent squads of soldiers to various pueblos with news that Indian peoples were now subjects of Spanish monarch and must abide by laws of new Spain • Acoma Pueblo rose up and killed 13 Spanish soldiers (3 officers) • Spanish army returned in January of following year → fighting lasted three days. Spanish overtook Acoma people/pueblos and massacred hundreds of its inhabitants (800 Indians) • 80 men and 500 women/children taken prisoner → tortured and sold as slaves • Pueblo Indians accepted Spanish intrusion and exploitation for 80 years until Pueblo Rebellion in 1680

Governor de Vargas

• 1692 an expedition marched northward out of El Paso under Don Diego de Vargas appointed as the new governor → his force met little resistance and he reoccupied Santa Fe the following month

Portola

• 1769 → to Alta, California (on extra credit) • coastal California → San Diego Bay, Monterey Bay, and San Francisco Bay • colonize California to secure territory against Russian expansion

De Anza

• 1776 • leads first overland expedition to California

Missionization

• 1780-1822 major missionization period of California Indians → Spanish rounded up Indians of different tribes and settled them at different missions • captives were forced to work (building churches and other buildings, tending crops, making soap, etc.) • forced to speak Spanish and reject their own religions in favor of Catholicism → lost Native languages and religions (tribal identities) • churches of varying Catholic and Protestant beliefs sent out missionaries to seek converts • 21 missions

russian American Company

• 1790s the merger of many Russian Fur Companies into one → trading furs up and down the west coast to eventually trade with China to get their rich spices and silk

Mission Dolores (San Francisco)

• 1795 • 200 Costanoans fled Mission Dolores and were pursued by Spanish troops

Cochise

• 1815-1874 chief of Chiricahua Apaches • 1861 is accused of leading raids and his people (cousins) are hanged → was leader of an uprising and fought against U.S. army • Cochise wanted peace and his request for a reservation in the Chiricahua homeland was granted on the Apache Pass

Mexican Independence

• 1822 → secularization policy enacted and brought change of government • new government confiscated missions and sold them to the highest bidder

Chumash Revolt

• 1824 aren't actually revolting? • Chumash Indian Pacomio was dissatisfied with the treatment of his people by the Mexicans, planned a general uprising of Mission Indians • rallied other missions and tribes - Santa Barbara and Santa Ynez • Pacomio proclaimed himself general-in-chief and led 2,000 Indians on La Purisma, capturing it and placing the soldier in jail • Santa Ynez and Barbara Indians also rebelled • Pacomio's rebellion came to a end → with Spanish counter attacks and the failure of other Mission Indians to participate • he surrendered and was allowed to live in peace at Monterey

Gold Rush

• 1848 brings large non-native populations to the interior inland tribal areas of California → has nothing to do with Indians, missions, presidios, etc. to begin with • results in attacks on Native Americans who are forcibly removed from their lands • census counts 100,000 Indians in California in 1850, by 1860 census shows 30,000 Indians → 70% loss in one decade • majority slaughtered, some disease, some re-identification

Manuelito

• 1860 led the Navajos to live in mountains (Canyon de Chelly?) while General James Carleton and Kit Carson tried to relocate them and drive them out • resisted for a very long time, didn't surrender "not doing harm" wanted to die on his own country→ 1866 finally when 100 people left of his band were starving and hungry did he surrender

Canyon de Chelly

• 1863-1864 → center of Navajos, stronghold to retreat from troops • offered excellent defensive positions against invaders • grazed sheep and goats on pasturage, grew corn, wheat, fruit, and melon on cultivated soil • soldiers penetrated heart of Navajo country, invading Canyon de Chelly where they destroyed cornfields and peach trees upon which the families depended (sacred)

Dawes Severalty Act → allotment act

• 1887 divides land into farms • authorized the President of the U.S. to survey Indian tribal land and divide it into allotments for individual Indians

Mary Yee

• 1897-1965 mother to Ernestine DeSoto • last fluent speaker of the Chumash language → in her fifties began to take part in analysis, descriptions, and documentation of her language • worked with linguist Harrington everyday who also worked with her mother and grandmother → illustrated and stories and wrote them which were later published by her daughter

Ernestine DeSoto

• 1938-present → ancestors have been here for at least 20,000 years in North America • preservation of Chumash culture • born with heart defect

Martine and Kayitah

• Apache Indians that were paid by U.S. to find Geranimo • imprisoned along with Geranimo, they were U.S. scouts working for the U.S. army • found Geranimo for General Miles → entrapped them and ships them to Florida to sicken and die

1850 California Legislature

• California enters the Union • passed anti-Indians laws • first California Constitution that gave the governor the power "to call for the militia, to execute the laws of the State, to suppress insurrections, and repel invasions" • used the aid of the militia to resist and punish the attacks of the Indians upon the frontier

Kakunupmawa, Winter Solstice

• Chumash leaders beg the sun to come back ceremony on the shortest day of the year → marks the end of the year and the birth of the New Year • last sun of the year → sunstick, dance, paying of all debts, ceremonies and festivities, etc.

Tomel

• Chumash seagoing canoes

7 Cities of Cibola

• Coronado explores Southwest in search of gold and other riches → Zuni Indians trick him and lead him to false city of gold • led him all the way to Kansas and Nebraska

Pueblo Revolt of 1680 (all pueblos revolting against Spanish) successful revolt

• Indians were serfs to exploit and souls to convert → were essential to Spanish economy so were not driven from ancestral lands as the tribes living near British colonies • issue of religion, exploitation, cruelty, and slave labor (encomiendas) as reason for revolting • started on August 11th, (used runners with sticks of beads keeping track of the days) by August 15th 500 Pueblo Indians reached Santa Fe →3rd day of fighting was the fiercest, attacking chapels and Spanish water supply • end of uprising 400 Spanish killed and 2,500 settlers driven out of Santa Fe back to Laredo, Texas by holing them up in New Mexico and saying "we won't kill if you just leave" • Pope and followers had repelled a colonial power → occupied Santa Fe • disappeared for 12 years

Captain Jack (Kintpuash)

• Modoc Indian chief during the 1860s and early 1870s • desperate attempt to maintain his people's independence → leads several Modoc bands in unsuccessful war of resistance known to the white as the Modoc War • was against killing and just wanted peace → talked into killing General Canby • was surprised Hooker Jim betrayed him, when he stuck by him and didn't turn him in for war crimes → was hung when Hooker Jim turned on him and turned him in to U.S. officials

Bosque Redondo (same as Fort Sumner)

• New Mexico • "round grove of trees" and referring to a stand of cottonwoods on an otherwise barren flat of the Pecos River valley, was chosen as the site of relocation for both Apache and Navajo • from Canyon de Chelly (Arizona) to Fort Sumner for Navajos → treated badly, bad soil and disease

Navajos

• Northern Arizona • originally nomadic with a hunting and gathering lifestyle but within coming into contact with Pueblo Indians and Spanish revolutionized lifestyle and economy • were rugged peoples and fought back fiercely to removal and relocation attempts • wars were over raids of livestock • resisted General James Carleton's attempts to drive them out of their land and to Bosque Redondo

Hopi Pueblos

• Northern Arizona → not reconquered, practice Native religions • Spanish not powerful enough to conquer and leave New Mexico (not worthwhile) • left alone until American government period • 1880's & 90's managed to avoid government control, did not fight U.S. government • forced to cut hair, change religion, children had to attend school → resistance led to arrests and being sent to Alcatraz

Apaches

• Southern Arizona → fought well and tried to resist relocation but were outnumbered • 1875 most Apache bands confined to reservations or fled to Mexico → forced out of their reservation land by military

Rancheros (rancheria)

• Spanish called the riverine settlements this • a small reservation → Native American land holdings in the state of California • Spanish originally applied the term to non-Christianized Indian villages

Mestizo

• Spanish conquest • European males and Native American women produced a genetically mixed new American race that decreased number of Native American births • "mixed blood" → part- European and part-Indian ancestry

Pueblo Culture

• Taos, Acoma, Zuni, and Hopi are best known villages → called pueblos by Spanish settlers • made from adobe brick → apartment like levels connect by ladders and located on mesa tops, were often only accessible through rope of rock climbing • ate corn, beans, and squash • pueblo socities were characterized by cohesive groups organized into clans

Zuni

• Zuni Indians lead Coronado in search of gold (7 Cities of Cibola) → once he discovers it's not real, angry and destroys villages • led him to Kansas and Nebraska

Hawikuh

• Zuni village destroyed by Coronado

Presidios

• a Spanish word for "fort" • in the Americas, the Spanish typically built presidios near missions to the Indians

Pictograph

• a picture or sign representing a word or idea • polychrome → multi-color (blue, yellow, red, black, white)

Kachinas

• a spiritual being in the religion of the Hopi → many different kachinas with distinct identities, representing different forces (some considered ancestral) • believed to live in mountains, lakes and springs, and represent animals, plants, and other natural phenomena • stay in the other world for half the year and move invisibly among human beings the other half • Hopi language → "spirit-father" or " those from over the horizon"

Kivas

• an underground ceremonial house, a kind of pithouse, serving as a sacred chamber, council house, and clubhouse → typical of Pueblo Indians • Spanish ban ceremonies → steal precious goods from kivas

Ft. Marion, Florida

• ancient city of St. Augustine → oldest place of European settlement • Ft. Marion is situated at the northern end of St. Augustine where Geronimo and the Chiricahua Apaches served as prisoners of war

Hooker Jim

• another Modoc leader • shot white settlers in revenge → Captain Jack refused to hand Hooker Jim and others over for the killing of the settlers • convinced Captain Jack into killer General Canby at a peace council • abandoned Captain Jack when U.S. army raided lava beds where they had take refuge → helped find Captain Jack in exchange for amnesty • Hooker Jim followed the Modoc tribe in exile to Oklahoma and died there in 1879

Chupu

• creator of Chumash people from seeds (mother earth) • created rainbow bridge for people on Santa Cruz Island → when people looked down and feel through bridge they were turned into dolphins to live forever

General Canby

• during Modoc War assigned General Canby as a member of the peace commission • peace talk and scheduled meetings were faulty → finally Canby holds a peace talk midway, but brings concealed weapons/Modoc warriors also armed • Captain Jack kills Canby → only general to be killed during the Indian Wars

Taos Revolt of 1847

• during the U.S.- Mexican War of 1846-1848 → Taos Pueblo (Northern most of all pueblos along the Rio Grande in New Mexico) were the major participants • revolted against the new U.S. government control → had gotten used to the Spanish government, then the Mexican, and were fed up with new government regulations • killed the first territorial governor in New Mexico → new American governor • leaders of revolt were executed in Albuquerque at end of Mexican War • Taos pueblo lost this war against the Americans → only upside was they weren't being raided by nomadic Indians

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

• ended Mexican War (1846-1848) and made California a U.S. state → Mexican reigned from 1822-1848 • signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo → a city north of the capital where the Mexican government had fled with the advance of U.S. forces • also grants Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, Nevada, and southern Colorado

Kit Carson

• first considered to be friends with Indians • U.S. hires frontiersman → pay him to round up renegade Navajo tribe who are raiding American wagon trains, shipments, villages, etc. • burn the Navajos out (peach trees and cornfields) → scorch tactics on Canyon de Chelly

General George Crook

• first known for chasing after Cochise and the Chiricahuas as Grey Wolf • charged with bringing in Geranimo → Geranimo and last band of Apaches escaped • General Crook took them under flag of truce and had a disagreement about whether to lock them up → resigned because he was too nice to Indians and respected them • replaced by General Miles

Long Walk

• forced removal of the Navajo → "Long Walk" • 6,000 Navajo surrendered → soldiers escorted 2,400 Navajo in the first trek across 300 miles of New Mexico (200 died en route) → 2,000 more surrendered making 8,000 in all (surrendered from Canyon de Chelly) • east to a confinement on a reservation on the Pecos River (Fort Sumner) • largest tribal surrender in all Indian wars

Genizaros

• genetically Native American, became culturally Hispanic and socially lower class • Native Americans that were captured in "just wars" and sold them as profit → detribalized Natives

Geronimo

• holy Apache man with special access to the land • could outfox anyone and blessed the weapons of war → Apaches had to resort to warfare to hold on to their land

Governor Onate

• leader of the first Spanish colonizing expedition into New Mexico (succeeds) • brutal suppression of the uprising at the Acoma Pueblo in 1598-1599 • after Acoma Pueblo revolt, his own Hispanic settlers were horrified by his actions and removed him from office → wrote letters to the Viceroy in Mexico was have him removed

Vagabound Law → slave law

• legalized shooting Indians and disallowed court testimony by Indians against non-Indians • loss of Indians occurring → 1850: 100,000 Indians in Califonia, by 1880: 16,000 Indians counted

Measles Epidemic of 1806

• major epidemics of measles, pneumonia, and diphtheria • kills most children under 10 in Indian communities • 2/3 of Indian population dies under Spanish rule (1769-1822) did not necessarily mistreat Indians → large part due to epidemic • came on ship to Monterey

Pope (Pueblo Indian)

• medicine man, a Tewa Indian from the pueblo of San Juan along the Rio Grande • strong militant, refused to convert to Christianity • summer of 1680 → Pope to Tewa, Tiwa, Towa, and Keres Indian pueblos along and west of the Rio Grande to Hopi, Zuni, and Apache camps to spread the word of rebellion • each runner had carried cord of maguey fibers with specific knots for number of days until uprising (August 11th), for people Pope didn't trust he sent knotted cords indicating later date (August 13th) → Spanish killed in surprise raid • end of raid Pope had dissatisfaction from followers, punishing those who wavered from Indian ways, adopting trappings and pretenses of colonials before him, and using governor's carriage as a symbol of power • died in 1688 his alliance had dissolved by then

Neophyte

• newly baptized Indian to the religion of Christianity • google → new convert to the religion of Christianity

Secularization

• normal progression of colonial activities for Spanish colonies → allowed missionary fathers ten years to colonize an area and convert/educate the natives • after that period the mission as secularized and turned into a pueblo → church was allowed to retain priest's quarters but had to be operated by a parish priest instead of the missionary order, all other buildings were turned over to the government of the new pueblo • mission lands were divided to be used for agriculture, growing city, and housing for natives and new residents • padres opposed it in California

Rock Art

• pictographs on rocks → found on boulders and on cliffs and cave walls and includes rock painting as well as carvings

General Sherman

• put in charge of Southwest at the end of the Civil War → deems living situations and land at Bosque Redondo unbearable and decides it costs too to feed and imprison Navajos if they are dying • 1869 walk home back to Navajo Reservation (Arizona) → was kind and compassionate towards Indians

General Miles

• replaces General George Crook → feared Indian killing general

San Carlos Agency

• reservation which held 7 bands of Apaches including the Chiricahuas • military forces and treaties pushed various Apache tribes into this dreadful land → described as undesirable and hot • conflicts arose because of Native Americans dislike and unwillingness to make a new life in such a dreadful place → full of other tribes that did not acknowledge their presence

Santa Ynez Reservation

• residents are members of the Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Indians → only federally recognized Chumash tribe in the nation

Modoc War

• roots of war 1852 when Indians slaughtered 65 whites in a wagon and 41 Modoc were murdered by whites → hostility continues until peace treaty • Captain Jack signs treaty between Modoc and U.S. 1864 → later repudiated • Modoc Indians agreed to relocate to Klamath reservation in Oregon where they were met/treated as intruders → Klamath stole supplies and government never sent ones that were promised • Modoc relocate under Captain Jack to where they previously resided demanded to be put back on a reservation along the Lost River • five month stand-off in the lava beds around Tule Lake used to retreat and fight • Captain Jack against killing of General Canby → Hooker Jim and others encourages • Captain Jack hung and Hooker Jim with rest of Modoc exiled to Indian territory

Blue Lake

• sacred place (land) to the Taos Pueblo Indians that was taken from them → during WWI (needed the land) • government offered to pay for it, Indians didn't want money → 1971 regained 48,000 acres back including the Blue Lake in New Mexico

Fort Ross

• southern most outpost of Russian Nation in Bodega Bay of California

Yahi

• southern portion of the Yana speaking people → hunters and gatherers who lived in small egalitarians bands without centralized political authority • after Gold Rush tens of thousands of miners and ranchers flocked into Yana territory → food supply dropped, gold mining damaged streams and fish, and deer fled crowded area • tribe suffered great population losses and fought with settlers over territory • lacking firearms, destroyed by raids of armed white settlers

Taglito-Tom Jeffords

• trusted Indian agent by Chiricahua Apaches • had personal treaty with Cochise to let him ride his mail route unbothered → good friends with Cochise, visits with talk and drink • appointed agent for new Chiricahua reservation after requests from Cochise

Chiricahua Apaches