Anth. 161 Exam #1

What was the Buck vs. Bell decision in 1927?

-upheld the right of state of Virginia to sterilize a woman against her will, because she, her mother, and her daughter were all judged to be feebleminded -court ruled that "three generations of imbeciles is enough"

After Industrial Revolution (IR)

-urban trees soot-covered, lichens dead -selection favored melanic form (dark one) over non-melanic one (peppered)

What is the important quality that allows the animal to survive and reproduce in the face of competition?

-variation

Natural Selection (NS) -Darwin

-variation already exists and nature selects those individuals with variation best adapted to current environmental conditions

Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics (IAC) -Lamarck

-variation arises when needed

Catastrophism

-violent and sudden natural catastrophes caused the sudden extinction of organisms in catastrophe zones -relying on catastrophic explanations especially biblical (floods, etc.) -explained the patterns of extinction and faunal succession that were observed in the fossil record

Archbishop James Ussher (1581-1656)

-wanted to know the age of the earth -counted the generations of the genealogical lineages of the Old Testament and assessed that the earth was created "upon the entrance of the night preceding the 23 day of October 4004 BC"

What is synthetic theory? How did it go beyond Darwin?

-was Darwinian in two fundamental senses. first, it held that microlevel processes could be extrapolated to explain macrolevel phenomena; second, it held that species achieve and maintain a fit to their environment through natural selection -it went beyond Darwin in integrating advances in cellular and theoretical genetics, and showing that mutation, selection, genetic drift, and gene flow might well be all that one needed to explain the diversity of life

Where was polygenism greeted with enthusiasm? What did it scientifically justify?

-was greeted with enthusiasm in the American South, prior to the Civil War -if whites and blacks were not really brothers biologically, then slavery might have a scientific argument to justify it

Why had Mendel's work been buried for 35 years after he published it?

-was that heredity and development were considered as parts of the same process at the time he wrote

Who was Edward Tyson? What is he known for?

-was the leading anatomist in England and provided not only a competent dissection but the first clearly identifiable pictures of an ape

Industrial Revolution

-was the selecting factor -positive selection

How did Boas give culture its more modern use?

-ways that particular groups of people impose meaning on their surroundings, and to some extent construct their world and their lives -called it nature vs. nurture

How many editions did Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation go through and how many copies did it sell when compared to Origins of the Species? Why did Chambers publish it anonymously?

-went through 11 editions and sold 24,000 copies in its its first ten year, 1844-1854 (compared to "Origins of the Species" would go through 6 editions and sell only 9,500 copies in first ten years, 1859-1869) -if the author's identity had become known, it would have made him a laughingstock and destroyed his career

What is a gene defined as on p. 72?

-were arrayed on chromosomes "like beads on a string"

Founder Effect

-when a small number of individuals start a new population, all descendants are derived from them, and may have "weird" allele frequencies compared to the populations of origin (allopatric speciation)

What is maternal and paternal uniparental disomy?

-when chromosomes are deleted -result is Angelman syndrome

What is crossing over?

-when chromosomes switch genes

Gregor Mendel's Pea Plant Experiments

-when he crossed a parental yellow pod plant with a parental green pod plant, the next generation (or first filial, F1 generation) of plants were ALL green -when he crossed a green pod plant from the F1 generation with another green pod plant from the same generation, he found that the next generation (second filial, F2) had BOTH green and yellow pod plants. but it had 3 times as many green as yellow plants

Heterozygous

-when the two alleles are different (Aa)

Homozygous

-when the two alleles are the same (aa, AA) -chemically identical alleles at a single locus

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Conte de Buffon (1707-1788)

-whole organism must be studied, not just diagnostic features -suggested a common ancestry for humans and apes -planet was much older than 6,000 years (uniformitarianism) -Historic Naturelle (1749) -believed in common descent=saw the GCB as a continuum BUT not immutable -believed in organic change

What did Mendel work with and what did he study?

-worked with peas and studied the transmission of 7 qualities of pea plants, each inherited in a binary fashion

Natural Philosophy and Early Natural History

-world began in 4004 BC -science and religion in close harmony, linked by notion of design -therefore, in understanding nature, naturalists were investigating God's work= Natural Theology

What did Huxley eventually write in 1863?

-write the first book on human evolution, "Man's Place in Nature"

What was blending inheritance? What did Mendel show?

-you get genes from each of your parents to show that heredity is not blending

What did the 1994 best-selling book, The Bell Curve, postulate?

1. IQ is a measure of innate intelligence 2. Wealthy people have higher IQs than poor people 3. Programs designed to ameliorate educational deficits among the poor should be abolished because they are doomed to failure, as they are thwarted by nature, for people are where they deserve to be

Influences on Darwin in the Creation of his Theory of Natural Selection

1. Lyell's Principles of Geology: the earth is really old and the geological processes that were at work in the past continue today 2. Variation and Extinction (nothing fixed): finches varied, giant sloths were extinct, thus Darwin broke free of the great chain being 3. Patterned Variation: finches; i.e. beak shapes changed according adaption to environment (different approaches to obtaining food) 4. Artificial Breeding: inheritance and variation traits observed through animal breeders 5. Malthus Essay: competition to survival

Evolution works at 4 levels:

1. Molecular 2. Cellular 3. Individual 4. Population -genetic variation MUST BE heritable, passed on to the next generation

The 3 Key Elements of Darwin's Postulates

1. Populations are variable and that variation is heritable. This means that individuals who survive to reproduce will pass on their characteristics. 2. Populations grow faster than food supply. This leads to competition. 3. More individuals are born than can survive and reproduce. This means some individuals will die, and their characteristics will go with them.

2 things important to Mendel

1. The variants didn't blend with each other (no intermediate colors) but remained separate= different particles= practiced inheritance 2. He always had a 3:1 ratio of variants in the second generation

Darwin's Postulates

1. There is a "struggle for existence" because a population grows faster than its food supply. 2. There is differential success to survive and reproduce. 3. Variation in a population is present and is heritable

Explain the steps of the scientific method.

1. beings with the formulation of a problem that needs an answer and is answerable. a question that is answerable is one for which a class of data can be rigorously collected to settle it. (excludes studies of supernatural world, which are not amenable to rigorous data collection.) -the articulation of the problem to be studied is known as hypothesis: a statement about the world that may or may not be true, but which can be matched against some information in the real world to help us decide. hypotheses must have the property of testability: for which they have to be inside the domain of scientific investigation. 2. the collection of data that bear on the hypothesis. data can either be in the form of observation (reporting) or experimentation (a controlled activity). the elimination of extraneous information-control-is crucial to the enterprise, ensuring that the data are in fact relevant to the question at hand. collection of data cannot be haphazard, but must be done carefully and rigorously. 3. explanation: the rational, intellectual enterprise that relates the data collected to the problem formulated. there is never any guarantee that a particular explanation is right, but the most useful scientific explanations have several properties that we can use as guidelines for the formulation of scientific explanations generally.

What was Tylor's two-pronged attack that undermined the argument of European superiority?

1. known as "the psychic unity of mankind"--people everywhere have same intellectual capacities 2. culture

What are 3 reasons to study genetics in anthropology?

1. to help understand how evolution works 2. to study how people differ from one another 3. to look at genetics ethnographically, as an example of the way in which scientific knowledge is produced and consumed by modern society

Gamete cells

-(sex), sperm, ova

Childhood (Postnatal Stage)

-Age 6 -permanent definition, 1st molar

Who was Thomas Hunt Morgan and what did he show?

-American fruit fly geneticist -publishing a series of papers that showed: 1. genes are units of inheritance 2. each gene occupies a particular place (or locus) on the chromosomes, which are the units that are literally, physically transmitted

Who studied natural theology as a student at Cambridge in the 1820s?

-Charles Darwin

Who was impressed by Lyell's work?

-Charles Darwin

How many intellectual subfield are there in anthropology?

-Four

Galapagos Finches

-Galapagos Islands (600 miles west of Ecuador) -one basic type of finch -broke free of the GCB

Mendel is the father of what field?

-Genetics

Hormonal Factors that Affect Growth & Development

-Growth hormone -Testosterone -Estrogen

Who devised a famous list of the 4 attributes of science?

-Sociologist Robert Merton

Who identified the double-helix of DNA?

-Watson and Crick in 1953

Positive Selection

-advantageous genetic variants quickly increase in a population

What is a pseudogene?

-cannot make a functional product

Holistic

-considers all aspects of human existence to understand human variation and evolution, including its past, present, biology, culture, and language.

What is normal science?

-consists of boring work ("turning the crank")

Heteroplasmic

-differs from cell to cell (not like DNA)

Undernutrition (Malnutrition)

-inadequate amount of calories and/or nutrients or body's inability to absorb -stunted growth, underweight, vitamin & mineral deficiencies

Hyperplasa

-increase in cell # -cell growth

Mutations

-molecular alteration in genetic material caused by change in base sequence of DNA (carried on chromosomes) -new alleles introduced in population -spontaneous and random: doesn't supply an organism with what it needs -Random= the source of new variation -little impact on evolution alone, but when complied with natural selection, can occur more rapidly and confer enhanced survival -can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful -increases variation

Mitosis

-production of new somatic cells -production of identical daughter cells from a parent cell. DNA replication --> cell division

Differential Growth

-rate of growth of different tissues varies with age -body composition also changes

Increased Metabolic Rate

-releases energy in form of heat

Equilibrium

-sometimes frequencies don't change -i.e. Sickle cell gene in West Africa

What is reflexivity?

-the act of turning the anthropological gaze inwards

What is pleiotropy?

-the complex systemic effects of a single gene

What did Darwin's theory incorporate?

-the divergence of species from one another

How did Tylor's distinction between biology and culture have improved political implications?

-then there was no longer a justification in nature for mistreating people

Patterns of Natural Selection

-these patterns by which natural selection can act on a trait -directional selection -stabilizing selection -disruptive selection

Dominant

-trait that is expressed and simultaneously masks another trait if it is present

What is "Occam's razor"?

-try not to be too complicated--trim away excessive speculations

Distance Curve

-used to plot growth from one year to next

What was the problem with Lamarckism according to Marks?

-which saw evolution as an "unfolding" in which species responded to ecological pressure by climbing one link up the Great chain

Evolution defined as 2 stage process

1. Production and redistribution of variation 2. Natural Selection acting on this variation

What was the name of Tyson's monograph and what two crucial points did he make?

-"Orang-Outang", "sive Homo Sylvestris" 1. people closer to chimps than monkeys (chimps: he could identify 48 anatomical resemblance to a human but only 34 to a monkey) 2. physical continuity between animals and ourselves

Malthus on Population

-"favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavorable, ones to be destroyed. The results of this would be the formation of a new species. here, then i had at last got a theory by which to work" -Charles Darwin (1876)

What is semiotics?

-"genetics is like a code in some ways--but is not itself a code" -this metaphor has been immensely powerful and helpful in conceptualizing the way the cell works, but it is about what the cell is like, not what the cell is. -the domain of meanings, and another fundamental aspect of scientific advancement

Natural Selection

-"is based on Darwin's conclusion that individuals with advantageous characteristics will survive in higher numbers and produce more offspring than members of a population lacking advantageous characteristics... focuses on reproductive success." -environment changes, organisms that have characteristics that enable them to survive, reproduce, and have offspring that share these beneficial characteristics

How did Tylor define culture?

-"that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."

Somatic cells

-(body), bone, muscle, skin, organs

Charles Darwin

-1837 writings in journals--he accepted that species became modified -animal breeders -read Malthus: if populations remain stable--most young must die

Thomas Hunt Morgan

-1908, Fruit Fly experiments based on Mendel -genes transmitted from parents (offspring in ratios id'ed by Mendel) -genes found on chromosomes hereditary material transmitted during reproductive cell division (meiosis) -Won Nobel Prize in 1933

Alfred Russel Wallace (1828-1913)

-20 years after formulating Natural Selection, Darwin still hadn't published (Lyell gently publishing) -independently formulated -presented joint paper at Linnean Society with Darwin facilitated by Darwin's bffs Charles Lyell and Joseph Hooker

Rh factor

-3 alleles close together on same chromosomes= ccddee (Rh-)

History Naturalle (1749)

-36 volumes, described all living things, everything known about the natural world= anatomy, ecology, biogeography for each species

Homozygous Dominant

-AA, Normal hemoglobin

Heterozygous

-AS, Sickle cell trait/carrier -some abnormal hemoglobin, but enough normal not to be harmful -persons resist malaria, increase reproductive success

DNA: Chromosome Types

-Autosomes -Sex Chromosomes (X, Y) -Karyotype

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

-Born Naturalist -perhaps he'll do Natural Theology= ministry, nature-minded parson or vicar -started out on path to clergy -went to Cambridge in 18228 to study divinity (19 yr. old)

Sir Charles Lyell (1797-1875)

-British geologist (and lawyer) -"Principles of Geology" (1830): "change is the only constant" -provided evidence for Hutton's idea of uniformitarianism -gradualism

Modern Evolutionary Theory

-Builds upon: Mendelian genetics, Population genetics, natural selection -Evolution defined as 2 stage process -variation -Natural Selection -evolution works at 4 levels -factors that reproduce and redistribute variation

Blumenbachs 5 Categories of Race

-Caucasian, the white race -Mongolian, the yellow race -Malayan, the brown race -Ethiopian, the black race -American, the red race -marked a shift from geography to appearance

Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802)

-Charles Darwin's grandfather -Zoonomia (1794): espoused evolution (transmutation); life on earth had been evolving for "millions of ages before the commencement of the history of mankind"; -life evolved from a single common ancestor

Genetic Information Transmitted at Several Levels

-DNA -Gene -Chromosomes -Genome

What is transportation?

-DNA removed and reintegrated elsewhere

Understanding Darwin

-Darwinian fitness -no inherent direction or inevitable result -evolution is ongoing -natural selection is just one mechanism of change

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

-Darwins wasn't the first revolution -"On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres" (1543) -Heliocentric vs. Geocentric -"the earth is not the center of all things celestial, but instead is one of several planets circling a sun which is one of many suns in the universe." -Disposed humans from being the center of God's Creation, still remained pinnacle of God's work

Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834)

-English demographer and political economist concerned about the decline in living conditions in the 19th-century England -blamed decline on 3 things: overproduction of young, inability of resources to keep up with the rising human population, irresponsibility of the lower classes -human famine would become globally epidemic

Importance of Variation

-Evolutionary factors interact to produce variation and distribute genes within & between populations -These mechanisms of evolution work with the random variation generated by mutation -no direction to any of these factors... all random! -populations adapt via natural selection

Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)

-Father of Modern Genetics -Augustian Monk said his research would provide the mechanism for natural selection, defining what Darwin couldn't -Mendelian inheritance

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-1829)

-French naturalist -believed in microscopic organisms appeared spontaneously from inanimate materials then transmutated into complex forms by constant striving for perfection -evolution due to the inheritance of acquired characteristics as creatures adapted to their environments -environment produced a need for change -Lamarckism -first concrete theory of evolution and adaptionL inheritance of acquired characteristics -postulated a dynamic INTERACTION between organisms and their environment (organisms change in response to their environment)

Hard-Weinberg Equilibrium

-Godfrey Hardy (mathematician) & Wilhem Weinberg (physician) recognized some alleles are in equilibrium -in non-evolving populations frequencies of alleles and genotypes in an interbreeding population remain the same for generations -under certain assumptions genotypic frequencies reach stable levels in a single generation (reach equilibrium) -p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

Ladder base made up of 4 types (nucleic acid)

-Guanime (G) -Adenine (A) -Thymine (T) -Cytosine (C) -base pairs: A & T, C & G

Who developed the idea of "Social Darwinism"? Who developed the theory of the survival of the fittest and who coined the term? Was it Darwin? Explain.

-Herbert Spencer, and then convinced Darwin himself that it was the same as "natural selection"

Natural Selection in Humans & Malaria

-Heterozygous AS will get malaria, but because some of their hemoglobin is abnormal, the malaria parasite CANNOT complete inject all red blood cells -they will be more resistant to Malaria -added bonus is acquired immunity

What 2 French biologists tried to explain extinction? What did they argue?

-Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, argued that species have a natural fit to their environments, but environments change. when such a change happens, the organism is faced with two options: either die or change itself. he believed that they change in according to their needs, and that the physical alterations they effect are stably passed on to their offspring (the inheritance of acquired characteristics) thus extinction was something of an illusion: new species succeeded older species, but were actually descended from them -Georges Cuvier, held a different view. the GCB was passed, and by implication, any theory that presupposed it could not hold much water. he argued that there were 4 kinds of animals, built on entirely different body plans: vertebrates, "Articulata", "Radiata", and mollusks--and that no amount of argument could permit them to be linearly ranked, for they were so different as to be noncomparable. extinction, was real, and when species died out, in some catastrophe, new species were formed and took their place

Who coined the term biology?

-Lamarck

Inlfuences on Darwin

-Lyell's Principles of Geology -Variation and extinction (nothing fixed) -Patterned variation -artificial breeding (inheritance and variation of traits) -Malthus essay--competition for survival

Factors that Produce and Redistribute Variation

-Mutation -Gene flow (migration) -Genetic drift -Natural Selection

Did Darwin know where variation came from?

-NO -Darwin didn't know where the variation came from, but for natural selection to act, there must be variation present in the population

The Growth Cycle: Postnatal Stage

-Neonatal period (1st month) -Infancy (2nd month-3rd year, includes lactation) -Childhood (3-7 years) -Juvenile (girls: 7-10, boys: 7-12) -Puberty (days or weeks) -Adolescence -the 5 postnatal periods have a different rate of growth (growth velocity) per year -we can measure this using charts

DNA: The Genetic Code

-Nuclear DNA (nDNA) -All organisms share much of their genome -Mitochondrial DNA

Theory of Natural Selection (formulated on September 28, 1838)

-Observations: variation -variants are passed to offspring (some variations are advantageous; individuals with favorable variations live longer, gather more resources, have more offspring) -infinity of time -individuals born with characteristics that make them better able to survive in a particular environment and to pass their traits on to the next generation

The Growth Cycle

-Prenatal stage -Postnatal stage -Adult stage

Charles Darwin

-Real Evolutionary Theory "starts" with ...? -hired as a naturalist on the HMS Beagle -observed physical characteristics of finches and other organisms were adaptions (characteristics that enhance an organisms ability to survive and reproduce) to their diet and environment -Theory of Natural Selection

Homozygous Recessive

-SS, Sickle cell Anemia -abnormal hemoglobin -low reproductive success, untreated 80% die before reproductive years

Secondary Sexual Characteristics

-Sexual maturation -menstruation (menarche) and breast development in females -facial hair, deepening voice in boys -development of genitalia -sexual dimorphism -peak height velocity

What are the other 4 subfields?

-Sociocultural Anthropology -Archaeology -Linguistic Anthropology -Physical (biological) Anthropology -Applied Anthropology is sometimes considered a 5th discipline

What two scientists are associated with punctuated equilibrium? What is it?

-Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldrege -the literal origin of species was accompanied by a break with the direct past, so that different processes may act above the species level than below the species level

Carolus Linnacus (1707-1778)

-Swedish Botanist -wanted to document God's creations in an organized system based on GCB -> created formal classification system (taxonomy): Systema Naturae (1736, 10th edition 175 B) -perfected the binomial nomenclature used today -two different/unique names to describe organisms, genus and a species (i.e. Homosapiens) -4 taxonomic levels: class, order, genus, species (today it's: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species)

Darwin felt that this particular social scientist's work was the key to explaining biographic and other diverse issues in biology?

-Thomas Malthus, in his "Essay on Population"

Selective Pressures

-UV rays not as dangerous -colder temperatures; less sunlight; seasonality (i.e. winter) -melanin production tapered -humans adjusted culturally: fire, clothing, shelters... -but, lack of sunlight caused other problems

Who was Vesalius? What did he do? What did he advocate in regard to physicians learning anatomy?

-a Flemish physician -published a different kind of work: highly empirical and deliberately provocative "On the Fabric of the Human Body" -illustrated his with brilliantly detailed and realistic renderings of the body, musculature, skeleton, and organs -not so much in the implications of a theory, but in the methods of acquiring knowledge

What was Isaac de la Peyrere? What was the name of his book and what was its importance?

-a French Calvinist scholar and diplomat -published a book called "Pre-Adamites" and raised the possibility that the Bible, being frequently vague, and occasionally self-contradictory, might be compatible with the idea that there were people around before Adam

Who was Charles Lyell? What was his approach to geology? What did it become known as and what were its 3 ideas?

-a Scottish geologist, who published a magisterial 3-volume summary and synthesis of the field in the 1830s -sought to reform geology by giving it a more empirically rigorous basis -approach to geology become known as uniformitarianism, 3 related ideas: 1. that the only types of process we can use to understand earth history are the ones we see in operation today 2. that we can only invoke the magnitude of those processes that we see in operation today 3. the earth was consequently very old, so old that it was hard to see when it began, and hard to project when it might end--it just cycled on, with minor perturbations, beyond the grasp of time

Who was David Hume? What did he examine? What 3 things did he conclude were needed to infer that A caused B?

-a Scottish philosopher of the 18th century -examined the entire concept of cause and effect in scientific reasoning and concluded 3 things were needed to infer that A caused B with any degree of rigor 1. some sort of physical contiguity of A and B, such as contact 2. that A must precede B 3. the constant conjunction of the two, by which Hume meant a regular pattern in which A and B occur together

Who was Robert Chambers? What did he publish? How did he see life?

-a Scottish publisher -anonymously published a book essentially espousing Lamarck's ideas called "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation" -he saw life as a continual progression, and not only imagined humans ascending from apes, but Europeans ascending from nonwhite peoples as well.

Who was Linnaeus? What did he do? What did he publish and when?

-a Swedish botanist-physician -set out to formalize the relations among animals, vegetables, and minerals -published a small pamphlet in 1735 called "The System of Nature"

What is preformation?

-a baby was always there in sub-visible form and simply expanded within the maternal womb

Environmental Factors of Growth

-a child's growth rate reflects, perhaps better than any other single index: state of health and nutrition, psychological situation

What is analogy?

-a correspondence of fundamentally different structures that are nevertheless superficially similar such as a mosquito wing and a bat wing, or a centipede leg and a chicken leg, or an octopus arm and a monkey arm

What is homology?

-a correspondence of fundamentally similar structures due to common descent, which may nevertheless be superficially different--such as the paw of a dog and hook of a horse, or the snout of a pic and the blowhole of a dolphin, or the wish bone of a chicken and the collarbones of a human

Population

-a group of interbreeding individuals and their offspring who posses a particular collection of alleles or gene pool

What was the dodo?

-a large flightless bird found only on the island of Mauritius -last seen in 1684

Who was Franz Boas? What did he do?

-a scholar, who was trained initially in physics, then in geography, and last in anthropology in Germany -made his major impact in cultural anthropology and is largely responsible for professionalizing the field of anthropology, with his formalization of the distinctions among race, language, and culture

Language

-a set of written or spoken symbols that refer to things (people, places, concepts) other than themselves. -allows for the transfer of knowledge from one generation to the next

Pleiotropy

-a single allele having multiple effects -most complex traits are both pleiotropic and polygenic

According to Mendelian genetics, what is a trait controlled by? What is passed to offspring?

-a trait is controlled by a pair of genes, only one of which is passed on to a particular offspring

The European World View of the Past

-a world in stasis -fixity of species -Great Chain of Bejing -No Motion of Deep Time

Growth Hormone

-accelerates bodily growth

Peak Height Velocity (PHV)

-adolescence growth apart measured with velocity curve -chronological age (age 12 for girls [9.3-16 yrs] and age 14 for boys [12-17.5 yrs]) -growth without stressors (2.4-4.3 in/yr for girls and 2.8-4.7 in/yr for boys) -can only be determined after it has occurred

Genome

-all inheritable traits -e.g. chimps have 2 more chromosomes but share 98% of this DNA with humans

Common Descent

-all life descended from a common ancestor

Gene Pool

-all the alleles/information of all individuals in the population

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Expressed in Equation

-alleles A and a (or M and N, or whatever) -at frequencies of p and q (p + q = 1) -p = frequency of A -q = frequency of a -frequency of genotype AA will be p^2 -frequency of genotype Aa will be 2pq -frequency of genotype aa will be q^2 -p^2+2pq+q^2=1= (p+q)^2=1

Importance of Understanding Growth & Development

-allows us to understand life history, human variation, and even human adaption

Heat

-although humans originated in the warm to hot climate of Africa originated in East Africa -too much heat is stressful, harmful, and can induce death -to cope: vasodilation, sweating, reduction of body hair, body size/shape variations

What was natural theology?

-an English biology movement designed to demonstrate the hand of God in the study of Nature

What was Thomas Huxley?

-an anatomist who had made a scientific reputation upon returning from a sea voyage -one member of Darwin's circle

Who was Nicolaus Copernicus?

-an elderly Polish astronomer -heliocentrism

Fitness

-an organisms probability of survival and reproduction -for any locus/gene, fitness is measured by the relative contribution of a genotype to the next generation -the genotype that has the greatest representation in the next generation is the most fit genotype

Robert Chambers (1802-1871)

-anonymously published "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation" (1844) -Fauna evolved through geological time -changes were slow, not catastrophic -popular, sold more than Origino or Lyells PG

Allen's Rule

-appendage: torso ratio -populations native to warm climates= longer limbs to help dissipate heat -populations native to cold climates= shorter limbs to help retain heat

Chromosomes

-are located in the nucleus of all cells -numbers vary by species, but humans have 23 pairs

Temperature

-as humans migrated around the world, they adapted to changes in the thermal environment -humans are homeothermic -heat

Vitamin D and Sunlight

-as humans migrated out of Africa, selective pressures changed -sunlight helps body produce Vitamin D -Vitamin D critical for bone growth and mineralization lack of= rickets -natural selection favored LESS melanin production in northern latitudes where there was less sunlight, and MORE melanin in equatorial environments -skin color follows a gradation around the world

How is human behavior explained by sociobiologists?

-as ultimately selfish

What is biological anthropology centered on today and what is the 3 part division in the field?

-at the present time, centered on the study of physical aspects of humans as group members -3 part division field: primatology, paleoanthropology, and human variation (or human biology)

When did anthropology begin and by whom in what?

-began in 1872 by Edward B. Tylor in his book Primitive Culture

What type of climate did physical anthropology begin in?

-began in a far more intellectually primitive climate, one which held that "civilized races" must have better (or at least, bigger) brains than "uncivilized races," and thus began intensively to investigate variation in size and shape of the skull -tried to make non-white people look dumb

Functional Adaption

-biological adjustment that occur during an individuals lifetime ---developmental adaptions (which are permanent) and acclimatization

Uniformitarianism

-biological and geological processes that affected the earth in the past still operate today or -the shape of the earth today can be best explained by invoking processes we can observe today -earth much older than believed; process occurring in the present were the same that operated in the past, and will con't to operate in the future

Human Adaption

-biological beings continually work to maintain homeostasis -plasticity -physical environments place stress upon biological beings ---dietary deficiencies or excess ---biomechanical factors ---pathogens -we cope by adjusting to these stresses ---biologically ---physiologically ---behaviorally (culturally) -we adapt: ---genetically ---developmentally ---acclimatization ---culturally -adjustments to stress, short term and long term -functional adaption -both occur in extreme environmental conditions: cold, hot, high altitude -some have let to adaption (genetic)

Senescence

-biological changes in later adulthood -in females (50 years but variable)

What makes us human?

-bipedalism -non-honing canine: "not sharpened against the premolar, lacks a diastema or space" -material culture: objects humans use to manipulate their environment, including complicated tools needed for survival -hunting-human -speech -domestic foods -human evolution and overview of biological anthropology=human beings as biological organisms (examine VARIATION and CHANGE) -impact of culture: this is sometimes called "biocultural"

Concepts of Inheritance during Darwin's lifetime

-blending of traits of mother and father -traits in blood -examples in breeding -exception= biological sex

Vasodilation

-blood vessels expand, allowing more blood flow to skin, heat moves from interior to the surface of the body; excess heat lost through skin (flushing/temporary warm feeling)

Vasoconstriction

-blood vessels narrow, blood is kept away from skin surface to help RETAIN heat -avoid frostbite

Asynchronicity

-body parts grow at different rates leading to teenage gawkiness -period during growth spurt where motor performance is disrupted -exists primarily in boys -gangly, crackling voice

Reduction in Homeostasis

-body's ability to keep all systems stable in the face of mounting environmental stress -susceptible to stress

What is recombination?

-breaking apart of a chromosome and putting it back together

What is the continuity of germ plasm?

-building on all cells coming form cells--life is a long and unbroken series, when looked at from the standpoint of cells -cells build each other

How did natural theologians coyly reconcile earth history with human history?

-by interpreting the formation of the animals by God as recorded in Genesis to be specifically the formation of modern animals

Lamarckism

-by striving, animals could change and "move up the ladder"

Catastrophism

-calling upon events of enormous scale and rarity (i.e. "Biblical") to account for evidence of change on earth -relying on catastrophic explanations esp biblical (floods, etc.)

Recessive Trait

-can be masked in one generation and reappear unaltered

The cell's work is carried out by what?

-carried out by a diverse class of molecules called proteins

Variation

-caused by evolutionary processes and genetic change -these changes allow humans to adapt to environmental changes -genetic information transmitted at several levels

How do living things grow and proliferate?

-cell division

Adult Acclimatization

-changes in respiration -increased heart rate -increased production of RBCs

DNA: Programming for Everything

-chemical template for every aspect of organisms -double helix, ladder like structure -ladder is a comprise of 4 nucleotide bases attached to a sugar-phosphate backbone (Deoxyribose) -base pairs form the genetic code and allow for predictable self-replication

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

-chemical that makes up chromosomes -James Watson & Francis Crick (1953) -Rosalind Franklin: 1st to image DNA -Humans: 23 pairs of chromosomes

Secular Trends

-children have been getting bigger and heavier over last century -change in body size/growth over generations -especially true in industrialized countries ---increased health and nutrition

What is unequal crossing over?

-chromosomes make different sizes

Climatic Adaption

-climate and temperature play roles in determining anatomical differences among geographically different populations -Bergman's Rule (1847) -Allen's Rule (1877)

Genotype

-combination of alleles for a particular gene that an individual possesses -the genetic make-up

Reduction of Body Hair

-compared to other primates=cooling

Karyotype

-complete set of chromosomes

What did physical anthropology through WWII consist of? Why was this a crisis?

-consisted in documenting the physical differences among human groups and attempting to classify them on that basis -it was a crisis because as its evil German manifestation was both an embarrassment to the field and yet surprisingly difficult to distinguish from its American counterpart.

Mitochondrial DNA

-contained organelles in cells cytoplasm (mitochondria) -powerhouse of the cell -martilineal -miniature genome with 37 genes -heteroplasmic

What is independent assortment?

-describes the fact that any particular one of your gametes will contain a motel combination of chromosomes you inherited from your father and from your mother

Polygenetic Inheritance

-determined by multiple genes -2 or more genes work together to effect a single phenotypic trait (not allele) -skin color (3-6 genes) -phenotype can appear blended -Rh facor

When was the world created according to Bishop James Usser?

-determined the date was October 23, 4004 BC

What was Ernst Haeckel known for?

-developed a single scheme encompassing the biological evolution from amoebas to people, and continuing on to link the transformation of species to the rise of human races and the emergence and domination of political states -he saw the evolution of humans as a rise from the apes, the evolution of Europeans as a rise from the other kinds of people, and reaching its zenith with the Aryan state

Why did the 4-field division of anthropology develop?

-developed in U.S. in the 19th century, by early anthropologists from the Smithsonian Institution interested in studying Native Americans, who had finally been "pacified" through a combination of genocide and assimilation. -the "four-field" approach began as a system of systematically and comprehensively studying indigenous people.

What is translocation?

-different chromosomes break apart and rejoin differently

What is parallel evolution?

-different species evolving into similar forms

Alleles

-different versions of the same gene at the same loci -1 to 20 different alleles

Development

-differentiation of cells and their subsequent maturation. a sequence of orderly, often irreversible changes; can occur with or without an increase in size (immaturity --> maturity) -progression of changes (quantitive or qualitative) that lead from an undifferentiated or immature state to a highly organized, specialized, and mature state

Sweating

-dissipates heat (1.6 million glands)

Lamarck's Theory of Change (Correct Part)

-dynamic interaction between organism and environment

Genetic Variation

-each gene has a locus (location) on a chromosome -alleles

"Scientific" Race: Blumenbach

-emerges in the 18th century -Joham Friedrich Blumenbach (may 11, 1752- Jan. 22, 1840) -based on craniomatic analyses -5 categories -marked a shift from geography to appearance

Plasticity

-enables living things to better meet the demands of a changing environment on a daily basis ---light/dark ---cold/heat ---abundant/scarce resources

Organic Change

-environment acted directly on organisms through "organic particles"--couldn't describe mechanism for change

What is the opposite of pleiotropy?

-epistasis: several genes go to one effect

Altitude

-est. 25 million people live at "high" altitudes: 10,000 ft. above sea level and higher -hypoxia -adaption -adult acclimatization -developmental acclimatization -Tibetan and Quecha populations for the past 25,000 years have experienced genetic changes in response to high altitude due to the length of time they have been exposed to hypoxia

Human Variation and Human Adaption

-even though we are all members of the same species, there is tremendous variation among humans (sizes, shapes, colors, eye shapes, hair, facial characteristics, susceptibility to disease)

The Great Chain of Bejing (GCB)

-every living thing arranged in a great chain -baset nature --> most divine, linked by dependence on one another -continuum in the form of organisms from lowest to highest (God -> Angels -> Humans -> etc. -> Hell) -chain immutable, ranked, eternal

Two key concepts underlie this definition of Biological (physical) Anthropology:

-everyone is a product of evolutionary history (all the biological changes that have brought to its present form) -everyone is a product of our own individual life history (genes, biological make-up influenced by environment)

Why is spontaneous generation wrong?

-everything is either living or nonliving now

What is polygenic inheritance?

-everything phenotypically interesting is controlled by more than one gene

Plentitude

-everything that can exist does; no gaps

Biological (physical) Anthropology

-examines all aspects of present and past human biology. -biological evolution of humans and their ancestors. -biological variation within and between individuals and human populations. -the relationship of humans to other organisms.

Sociocultural Anthropology

-examines variations in cultural behaviors among human populations (current and past) -culture is learned behavior transmitted from person to person-- includes social systems, economic systems, marriage customs, religion, and philosophy

Albinism

-example of mutation -results from a mutation in a gene that produces a protein necessary to create colored skin/fur/feathers (in the case of humans, that mutation occurs on the pathway producing melanin -is a recessive trait, signified by the allele "a" -must be a homozygote, aa

Gene flow/migration

-exchange of genes between populations -new genes that didn't previously exist in population= genetic variation -makes distance populations genetically similar -key determinant is access to mates -gene flow decreases with increased geographic distance (isolation by distance) -Euro-American gene frequencies among African Americans via the Duffy Blood Group (0 in West Africans, 100% in Europeans) -moves variation from population to population

Recessive

-expressed in an organism if two copies are present, but masked if dominant trait present

What problem was Darwin's first generation's advocates faced with? How was this problem solved?

-faced with a problem when dealing with human evolution--there was virtually no fossil evidence for it -solved this problem by reviving aspects of an older theory, the GCB

James Hutton (1726-1797)

-father of Modern Geology -1785: suggested an infinity of time (no beginning, no end) -uniformitarianism -millions of years required to shape the earth (gradualism)=direct rejection of catastrophism

Baron Georges Cuvier (1769-1832)

-father of Paleontology -international expert on dinosaurs (rejected their existence implied evolution- "fixity" of species) -most popular proponent of catastrophism (explained the patterns of extinction and faunal succession that were observed in the fossil record) -Replacement (no in situ change) -Little change --> sudden change --> stability

Body Size/Shape Variations

-favored by Natural Selection

Directional Selection

-favors one extreme of a trait (think of it at going in one direction) -increase in hominid brain size through time (esp. between homoerectus and homosapiens)

Dimorphism

-females mature earlier than males ---faster pace in dental eruption and skeletal and organ maturation ---complete growth within two years after the advent of menarche (10-12 years) ---stop growing by 18 -males, however, ---larger than females at birth and throughout childhood ---at puberty, small time frame when females are taller BUT males continue to grow into late adolescence, almost two years after females have completed growing=differences in adult heights ---grow until 21-25 -in nutritionally stressed populations growth spurts do not happen or they are minimal

Sex Chromosomes (X, Y)

-females only carry X -males carry X and Y -the father determines the sex -Y chromosome-- partilines

The Dodo

-fightless pigeon indigenous to Mauritius (disc. 1581) -illustrated that extinction was possible=fissures in the GCB

What are the two approximations Marks gives in regard to reading the history of life?

-first approximation, the more similar two species appear, the more closely related they are -second approximation, rates of evolution are not constant, and therefore, a rapidly changing lineage may leave several slowly changing lineages looking rather similar to one another, while not closely related to one another

Galapagos, 1835

-first linking to natural selection in 1838 (turtles & finches were key evidence) -John Stevens Henslow (mentor and professor) helped make him an established scientist at 27 in 1836

Lamarck can be credited with producing the first theory of what?

-first modern theory of macroevolution, the transformation of one species into another, or evolution above the species level

Population Genetics

-focus on demes -population -population gene pool -species -reproductive isolation

What were the attractions to the theory of spontaneous generation?

-for the materialist, it was a way to argue that there is no basic difference between life and nonlife, for the former can arise from the latter -for the natural theologian, interested in understanding God through nature, spontaneous generation could be seen as a series of miracles, God's creative powers at work in the here and now

Features

-formed or built by people, these "objects" can't be moved (hearths, walls, living floors)

Cuvier was the founder of what discipline?

-founder of modern vertebrate paleontology

Cells

-genes are found in cells and cells are the basic unit of life -prokaryotes -eukaryotes

Macroevoultion

-genes are there cord for evolution over the course of MANY generations

Microevolution

-genes are there cord for evolution over the course of a FEW generations

Haplotypes

-genes close together on a chromosome are less likely to recombine -haplogroups -important for studying long time evolution -population histories -peopling of the New World

What causes a population to change its allele frequencies and go out of equilibrium?

-genes passed from generation to generation by interbreeding within populations that are members of the same species -genetic changes can result from the four forces of evolution

Adaption (in the NS sense) Evolutionary Long-term

-genetic alteration in response to environmental change, characterized by all individuals within a population or species ---body proportions

Factors that Affect Growth & Development

-genetic factors -hormonal factors -environmental factors

Sickle-Shaped Cells

-get stuck in blood vessels, from clumps, cannot transport oxygen -chumps can block blood flow, which results in pain, serious infections, and organ damage

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Assumptions

-given certain assumptions, there is no change in gene frequencies between one generation and the next -assumptions include: random mating, no mutation, no migration, no selection, a large population size (no genetic drift), all of which are Evolutionary Forces (RARELY TRUE) -if we do not observe the predicted H-W Equilibrium frequencies, then we know one of the assumptions has been broken. Evolution is operating

The HMS Beagle (1831-1836)

-given offer to be the ship's naturalist -assigned 2 years of charting lands and seas of South America -Lasted 5 years -Darwin was a tireless, voracious observer, recorder, collected (compulsive) -Read Lyell's P.O.G. on the Beagle and accepted, gave up on 4004 BC.

What does teleological mean?

-goal directed

Anthropometry

-growth charts (CDC/NCHS) -weight for age -height/length for age -weight/height -BMI/age -head circumference/age -skinfolds -mid upper arm circumference

Growth Charts

-growth in height can be recorded in two different ways: distance curve, and velocity curve -created to monitor growth changes -based on U.S. reference populations -not all groups have the same patterns as Americans

Juvenile Period (Postnatal Stage)

-growth slows -large brain= socialization and education

Define haploid. What are the sperm and egg cells?

-having one set of chromosomes -sperm and eggs, the products of meiosis, are haploid--they have half of the chromosomes that somatic cells have

What did Wilberforce ask Huxley and what was Huxley's response at the debate organized by the British Association for the Advancement Science?

-he sarcastically asked Huxley whether he thought he was related to the apes on his grandfather's side or his grandmother's side. given the choice, replied Huxley, between "a miserable ape for a grandfather" or a clever man who would use his gifts of wisdom and speech in the service of ignorance and prejudice, "I unhesitatingly affirm my preference for the ape."

Nutritional Status

-health conditions as influenced by the intake and use of nutrients -poor nutrition status--> undernutrition and over-nutrition

Genetic Factors that Affect Growth & Development

-hereditary will influence size and form -DNA provides blueprint that schedules growth

How was Count de Buffon's work radical? In 1751 what was he forced to do?

-his theory of the earth had it formed by natural means, tens of thousands of years ago -forced him to retract some of his more heretical notions about earth history, naturalism, and "truth,"--showing how sensitive theologians were already becoming to the difficulties in reconciling matura and scripture

Archaeologists are interested in:

-how did people live at their sites? -why people live where they did? -why were some cultures more complex than others? -what caused the shifts to agriculture? -main goal: TO UNDERSTAND PAST CULTURES

Forensic Anthropology

-human identification, skeletal biologists but in the medico-legal context (work with MODERN group)

How many chromosomes do human gametes have?

-humans have 23 chromosomes

Reproductive Isolation

-if two populations are isolated, no interbreeding can occur -related to geographical isolation -no gene flow= possibility for two different species to occur

When did the biblical narrative get questioned?

-in 1492

Nuclear DNA (nDNA)

-in nucleus of a cell -makes up chromosomes -each chromosome has a code for the production of a protein= gene -complete set of chromosomes (all inheritable traits): genome

How does Darwinism explain adaption?

-in terms of survival and proliferation of ancestors living in the distant past

Why does biological (physical) anthropology have different names?

-in the 19th century, it came to be called "physical" anthropology to emphasize the fact that its subject was the physical remains of people (generally their bones and brains) and to contrast with the mental aspects of human life that were becoming domain of "cultural" anthropologists. -in the 20th century, it gradually became clear that there were other things to study that fell within the scope of physical anthropology without being strictly "physical" in the sense that we commonly refer to the field as "biological anthropology," although the phrase "physical anthropology" remains in use.

What is biological teleology?

-in which the end, or telos, determines the present state

Hypertriophy

-increase in cell size -cell growth

Growth

-increase in mass or # of cells --> gradual increase and development of body to full size -total body growth= cell growth that occurs in 2 ways: 1. Hyperplasa 2.Hypertriophy -used to understand the nutritional status of an individual or population through the use of anthropology

Hypoxia-related stress effects

-increased in infant mortality -increased miscarriages -increased premature births -increased low birth weight babies -slowed growth and development; delayed maturation

Developmental Acclimatization (increased chest size)

-increased lung capacity and heart size ---not a genetic change, but an example of psychological plasticity (adjustment acquired during growth & development)

Environmental Factors that Affect Growth & Development

-influence development from birth to death -mutation -health -disease -SES (socioeconomic status) -culture

Variation

-inherited differences among individuals caused by evolutionary processes and genetic change

Natural Selection

-inherited differences, or variation among individuals that differentially affect their ability to reproduce successfully

John Ray (1627-1705)

-interbreeding criterion, 1686 -coined the term "species" -if two things can interbreed and produce fertile offspring then they are in the same species

What is universal Darwinism? Can it really be explained according to Marks?

-involving the perseverance of cultural or mental elements -it applies to humans -it is not at all clear that this process can be generalized to explain the features of interest in the cultural world sensibly

Race

-is a "new" concept -C. Loring Brace suggests the origins in the Renaissance (14th century) -categorization of these new peoples

What is ontology?

-is about being--about the state of existence, or of what "really is."

Biological Anthropology

-is divided into six subfields

Non-albino (normal skin color)

-is dominant -signified by the allele "A" -could either be homozygous (AA) or heterozygous (Aa) in genotype

What is science about? Explain.

-is not so much about "reality," or what there "is," as it is about what we can know. -is fundamentally about the kinds of questions one can meaningful ask, the kinds of data one can collect, and the kinds of answers one can generate. -in other words, it is about epistemology.

What was the significance of the dodo? What happened to it?

-it created a theological problem -if people could really make species disappear, and undermine God's plan of creation, wrote a prominent naturalist in 1690s, that would constitute a "dismemb'ring of the universe"--clearly not something to be considered lightly -no more dodos turned up -apparently, people could indeed make a species go extinct

In regard to sickle-cell trait and sickle-cell anemia, what is it better to be?

-it is better to be a heterozygote than to be a homozygote of either form

How is anthropology a field of mediation?

-it takes two entities that look like opposites and finds the areas of connection between them.

On the Origins of Natural Selection

-knew about and influenced by Lyell's theories -read and influenced by Malthus -ideas developed over 21 years -developed theory in complete isolation (no knowledge of genetics; no knowledge of DNA)

Length of Time Exposed to Hypoxia

-larger chest circumference -larger lung capacity -reduced stature compared to lowland individuals -genetic component for high oxygen saturation in hemoglobin

Adaption (larger chest size)

-larger lung volume and larger heart= pumps more blood -red blood cells can carry more oxygen molecules

Natural Selection

-leads to adaption -doesn't produce perfection -doesn't know what species need -e.g. cannot "try" to evolve to mutate the right genes (random) -mindless, mechanistic, has no goals, not striving to produce "progress." influenced by adaption to environment -genes that asset in survival and reproduction are passed on regardless of whether or not they are perfect

Developmentally

-level of individual during growth & development -not inherited & not reversible -chest size and altitude

Genetically

-level of the population via Natural Selection

How did Darwin provide a different view from Lamarck?

-life is not heading toward the next link, but merely toward survival

What is a reticulate biological history?

-like blood vessels, sometimes branching and sometimes reuniting

Why are pygmies short?

-live in moist humid areas where the air is still and sweating is inefficient. no cooling. -adaption: limit the amount of heat during exertion, get smaller

Anemia

-lower than normal RBC count -lifespan= 10-20 days -body can't replenish quick enough

What is Marks' belief or take on science and religion?

-luck doesn't exist

Normal RBCs

-main role: transport oxygen through body and remove CO2, easily mobile -life span= 120 days

What was another contribution of Darwin's, according to your author?

-major advance in biology

Menopause

-marks the end of month cycle and ability to reproduce

Culturally

-material culture allows us to culturally adapt in certain settings

Demes

-members of a species that have similar genes, interbred and produce offspring

What is microevolution? How does it differ from macroevolution?

-microevolution: evolution below the species level -macroevolution: evolution above the species level

Gradualism

-millions of years required to shape the earth =direct rejection of catastrophism -change gradual and slow

Infinity of Time

-minute changes each generation can add up

How does mitosis differ from meiosis?

-mitosis creates 2 identical cells -meiosis creates 2 and 1/2 cells

What is the difference between monogenism and polygenism?

-monogenist position was the more morally respectable one, for it seemed most compatible with the abolitionist position--we are all one kind, and it is not right to enslave one of your own. It was also the position of Biblical literalism, which could trace all people back to Adam and Eve. -polygenist position, held that the different races were the products of separate creations, of which the Bible only relates the last one, that of Adam and Eve, presumptive ancestors of the local populations of the Near East.

What was the difference between monogenists and polygenists? Which do Marks consider the evolutionists and which the creationists? Explain.

-monogenists held that the human species was a single natural entity, descended from an original single paid or people. thus, they were Biblical literalists and social liberals ---were also the first evolutionists: considering change within species, rather than transpacific change -polygenists, held that different races were the products of separate creations and had always been as they are ---they clung to a static creationist view of human origins, invoked it odiously to support the institution of slavery, and rationalized it with a modern, liberal interpretation of the Bible

Eukaryotes

-multicell organisms -have a cell nucleus and organelles -DNA contained in membrane--bound nucleus; DNA in prokaryotes is not membrane bound

Four Forces of Evolution

-mutation -gene flow (migration) -genetic drift -Natural Selection

How have humans related themselves to animals?

-mythologies universally give animals human characteristics and teach us how we can become more self-aware when we attend to those traits -mythology, cartoons

Recombination

-new genes introduced= new variation

What is satellite DNA?

-no function on the ends of chromosomes

Natural Selection in Humans & the Sickle Cell Gene

-normal RBC cells are smooth, round, and doughnut-shaped without a hole -Sickle-shaped cells are sickled -Anemia: lower than normal RBC count -Homozygous dominant -Heterozygous -Homozygous recessive -more common in some populations: Western and Central Africa, Greece, India -Adaption via natural selection to Malaria, which is predominant in regions with high frequencies of SS

What happened to nature? Who established its order? What about studying nature? What did allow for?

-not only was God removed from immediate events, and His domain now restricted, but Nature itself thereby become less mysterious and more fundamentally knowable. -divinely established order, set in motion by God -something fundamentally religious about studying Nature, for by coming to study the divine workings as they are manifest in the natural order, you can come to know the mind of God

Uniformitarianism

-not relying on catastrophes, but recognizing that the slow processes visibly today could account for the evidence of change on earth -biological and geological processes that affected the earth in the past still operate today or shape of the earth today can best be explained by invoking processes we can observe today

What is a species?

-not two individuals who just looked similar, but rather, who were capable of interbreeding with each other

Phenotype

-observable characteristics influenced by genotype and environment -the way they look

What is strand slippage?

-occur in regions where there is already some slight redundancy -DNA is being copied in preparation for cell division, the cellular machinery "forgets its place" and adds or deletes a few subunits

Catch-up Growth

-occurs following periods of slowed growth -growth rate can be 4x usual rate

Replication

-occurs in the nucleus and is part of cell division -mitosis -meiosis -DNA makes identical copies of itself (parents --> daughter)

Where are genes located?

-on chromosomes

Human ABO Blood Groups

-one genetic trait with different alleles -phenotypes: A, B, AB, and O -genotypes: OO, AO, BO, AA, BB, AB -A+B are codominant -O is recessive to all other types polymorphism -Mendel's Law of Segregation: 1 from each parent

Who was a holdout against Linnaeus? What did he write? How many volumes was it? He also produced the first picture of what in it?

-one holdout was a respected naturalist outside the university setting, a wealthy independent scholar who took the name of the town he owned, Buffon -wrote his own summary of Nature, a work published over several decades in 36 volumes, called "Natural History, General and Specific" -his picture of the gibbon

Autosomes (non-sex chromosomes)

-one of each pair from each parent

How much of the genome is actually coding sequence?

-only about 1-2% of the genome is actually coding sequence

OF the 25% of the genome that comprises genes, how much is coding sequence?

-only about 7% of that is coding sequence

Process of Human Growth

-orderly sequence of events -periods of rapid growth (infancy, adolescence) -differential growth

What are mitochondria? How many genes does a mitochondrion have? What are they exempted from and where do they come from? What does this mean about you mitochrondically?

-organelles whose function is to generate metabolic energy for the cell's function -has its own genes: 37 of them -are exempted from meiosis and crossing-over. -they come solely from the egg, from mother -mitochrondrially, you are a clone of your mother, and unrelated to your father

Lamarck's Theory of Change (Incorrect Parts)

-organisms change themselves (progressive change) -inheritance of acquired characteristics

Prokaryotes

-organisms with only one cell -no nucleus/membrane bound organelles

What did Malthus believe, as written in his Essay on Population?

-people over produce and it results in a "struggle for existence"

Adaption (in the NS sense) Acclimatization Short-term

-physiological response to environmental change can disappear

Sites

-places where past human activity occurred. This is where archaeologists excavate to study past behaviors. (habitation, procurement, processing, sacred, specialized) -contain features and artifacts

Peppered Moth (Biston Betularia)

-popular example of natural selection -indigenous to Great Britain -prior to Industrial Revolution (IR) all members of species had a peppered appearance (non-melanic= light) -1848, discovered a completely black variety of the moth, Biston Carbonaria (melanic=dark)

What was the predominant model of heredity at Darwin's time? How did it work? How would it kill natural selection, according to Marks? How did Darwin resolve this conflict of variation? What did he seek refuge in according to Marks?

-predominant model of heredity at the time, known as "Blending Inheritance" -a population moves closer to homogeneity every generation -losing variation every generation would kill natural selection as an agent of evolutionary change, if natural selection proceeds from the assumption of a variable population -realized he needed some kind of an engine to crank out more variation as it became blended away and finally sought refuge in Lamarcks theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics

What is the concept of the selfish gene and who coined it?

-primordial chemicals with no function other than to make copies of themselves -biologist Richard Dawkins

Mitosis & Meiosis

-produce variation -something special happens during meiosis: when copies of the homologous chromosomes are gathered near each other before division, there is some crossing over, resulting in the recombination of the pairs of chromosomes leading to a shuffling of the genes

Meiosis

-production of new gametes -one DNA replication followed by 2 cell divisions -gametes are haploid (1/2 the # of chromosomes) -does not result in identical cell copies -critical role in inheritance and variation

Heritability

-proportion of the phenotypic variation that is due to inheritance, rather than environment -0 (none of the variation is genetic) to 1 (all of the variation is genetic) -only heritable traits respond to natural selection= driving force in evolution

How was preformation "proved"?

-proved by some of the earliest microscopic studies of sperm, which seemed to show a little fellow, or homunculus, in the sperm head

Adolescence (Postnatal Stage)

-puberty (latin for to grow hairy) -development of secondary sexual characteristics

On the Origin of the Species

-published in 1859 -idea of natural selection incomplete -didn't know the mechanism=use of "variants" and "traits" -no knowledge of genetics -accepted some of Lamarck's ideas -hardly discussed fossils -died at Down House on April 19, 1882, at 73 -buried at Westminster Abbey -Darwin and Wallace did not understand the SOURCE of variation or HOW traits are inherited

When was On the Origins of the Species published? What were the 3 basic points it made? Did Darwin address human origins?

-published on November 24, 1859 -3 basic points it made: 1. there exists heritable variation between individuals in any population 2. the nature of the environment causes some individuals to survive and reproduce more successfully than others 3. this changes the composition of the population in later generations, as succeeding generations of the population take on the characteristics of its reproducing members -Darwin was ostensibly talking about historical origins, modified single mention to, "much light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history"

What factors from the environment can affect phenotype as indicated in Mark's height example?

-quality of diet -habits -general health -activity level -exposure to sunshine, etc.

What allowed for radical ideas to be disseminated more rapidly and who invented it?

-radical ideas could be disseminated far more rapidly than ever before, since movable type had been in use for several decades, pioneered by a printer named Johannes Gutenberg

Genetic Drift

-random change in allele frequencies -dependent on population size -the higher the population size, the smaller the effect of drift on allele frequencies -small populations are very prone to drift -over time increase genetic difference between two genetically related, but not interbreeding populations -founder effect -effects on evolution -decreases variation due to random chance events

U.S. Reference Populations

-rank a child's growth in comparison to children in reference population

Bergmann's Rule

-ratio of body mass/volume to surface area -populations native to warm climates=smaller body sizes (less mass: more surface area) ---more heat lost at surface, less heat retained -populations native to cold climates= larger body sizes (more mass: less surface area) ---less heat lost at surface, more heat retained

Mendel

-realized traits were determined by particles that worked in pairs -one particle of each pair was inherited from each parent -each particle was transmitted from parent to offspring in dependent of other particles=Law of Independent Assortment

Who intellectually rebuilt physical anthropology in the 1950s? What did he slam the door on and what did the new physical anthropology focus on?

-rebuilt by Sherwood Washburn -slammed the door on the physical anthropology that was centered on measuring people's skulls and relegating them to one group or another (it was static and typological, he argued) -"new" physical anthropology focused on the dynamics of evolution and adaption: one that would be better integrated with modern evolutionary biology

Effects on Evolution

-reduces genetic variation -this loss of genetic diversity= genetic bottleneck, like what cheetahs

Osteoporosis

-reduction in bone density -linked to reduced estrogen levels in females -compression fractures -dowagers hump

Velocity Curve

-refers to increments in growth value from year to year -different rate of growth

What does homology reflect?

-reflection of the common biological underpinnings due to common ancestry

Why did Buffon reject Linnaean classification? What did clustering suggest to Buffon?

-rejects the Linnaean classification because to him it implies macroevolution, which he knows cannot be true. -the clustering of cats and dogs and bears into a single group suggested to him, the idea of common descent

Allele Frequency

-relative proportion of each allele within a population (the # of an allele/total # of alleles in the population)

Genotype Frequency

-relative proportion of each genotype within a population (the # of individuals with each genotype/the total # of individuals in the population)

Testosterone

-released more by boys -leads to muscle growth, body, and facial hair -development of male sexual organs -linear growth of long bones

Estrogen

-released more by girls -maturation of breasts, sexual organs, fat accumulation -regulates liver production of cholesterol -preserves bone density -maintains body temperature

Adulthood (Postnatal Stage)

-reproductive period (age 20) until senescence -signaled by the completion of sexual maturity -reaching full height -fusion of long bone epiphyses -growth and development involve the replacement of cells and tissue (once every 7 years) -aging -senescence -reduction in homeostasis -osteoporosis

Darwinian Fitness

-reproductive success

Over-nutrition

-result of consumption of excessive amounts of calories, nutrients, vitamins and/or minerals= increase in weight gain -obesity, vitamin toxicity

What is the appearance of blending the result of in a trait like skin color?

-result of several different genes entering into different combinations; the process is still a particulate one.

Gregor Mendel's Pea Plant Experiments

-results were reflection behavior of chromosomes during meiosis -physical "units" responsible for attributes are located in sex cells -particles or units= genes -variants= alleles -genotype -phenotype -homozygous -heterozygous -phenotype based on dominant allele in heterozygous -recessive traits expressed in phenotype only with homozygous genotype

What is the difference between science and other origins myths?

-science seeks the most accurate description and explanation of the universe. -other origins myths for morality and story telling

Stabilizing Selection

-selection against both extreme values and favors the average version of a trait -example: birth weight

Disruptive Selection

-selection for the extremes and against the average value. Individuals at both extremes produce more offspring -no known examples in humans, although some have suggested immune system -with time, speciation can occur

Darwin knew his ideas would be controversial so what did he do convince his colleagues? What forced Darwin's hand? How was the situation resolved? Who was Alfred Russell Wallace?

-set about to amass an insurmountable quantity of data in support of his argument to convince his colleagues -his hand was forced, when he received a manuscript from a colleague he had never met, a young Naturalist named Alfred Russell Wallace -he consulted with friends, who arranged for himself and Wallace to present papers jointly in 1858 at the Linnaean Society.

What is sociobiology? What issues does it address?

-set out to account for the adaptive significance of behavior -addresses the issues: such as why populations regulate their growth and the evolution of the particular sterile castes in wasps

What are germ cells? Name and describe the process by which they divide.

-sex cells -divide in a way called meiosis

Acclimatization

-short term change, reversible

Cold Temperature Adaptions

-short-term adjustments: ---acclimatization (vasoconstriction and increased metabolic rate) -long-term adjustments: ---adaption (high metabolic rate, vasoconstriction) -most adjustments to cold are cultural

What is a paradigm shift?

-signals a time of great intellectual instability and great creativity, a scientific revolution -when you must rethink a large portion of your work and to reinterpret your data

Tay-Sachs

-single locus 2 allele system, N=normal allele, S=sickling allele -3 genotypes and 3 phenotypes -heterozygote advantage in crowded urban conditions of jewish ghettos due to resistance to tuberculosis

Malaria

-single locus 2 allele system, N=normal allele, S=sickling allele -3 genotypes and 3 phenotypes -heterozygote advantage in malarial conditions due to impaired transport of malaria parasite

Skeletal Biologists and Paleopathology

-skeletal biology variation, health, and disease among PAST populations

What are the 6 subfields of biological anthropology?

-skeletal biology/paleothology -forensic anthropology -primatology -human biology -genetics -paleoanthroplogy

What are the differences between social Darwinism and Darwinism?

-social Darwinism seemed just to be a rationalization, by recourse to "the natural way of things," of the vices of the wealthy and powerful -Darwinism did not really derive a justification

What is race?

-sociocultural, psychological concept used to categorize people of differing ancestry -an organizational scheme -belief that human variation can be classified -is it NOT: a biological reality

Two Types of Cells

-somatic -gametes

Codominant

-some alleles that are equally dominant, both expressed -AB Blood Type -ABO Blood Groups

What questions did horses, glyptodonts, armadillos, and sloths raise for Darwin whilst on the Beagle voyage?

-some animals were found in the same areas... ---was this a miracle, or the signature of an unknown, but interesting, natural process?

What is meant by imprinting?

-some chromosome are marked with their origin as they pass through the genome of a sperm or an egg into the next generation

What was the great chain of being?

-species intergraded into one another to form a chain of perfection

What is a homunculus?

-sperm

Two heterozygous carriers of cystic fibrosis stand a what chance of having a child with the disease?

-stand a 1 in 4 chance of having a child with the disease by precisely the same logic as Mendel's plants

Hypoxia

-stress at high altitudes -reduction in oxygen either the atmosphere or the body ---not less oxygen in amount, but less in terms of concentration (lower barometric pressure)

Genetics

-studies relatedness, human variation at the genetic-level, and population movements

Human Biology

-studies variation and health in MODERN LIVING groups

Archaeology

-study of cultural behavior in the historic and prehistoric past through analysis of the cultures material remains (via sites, features, and artifacts)

Anthropology

-study of humans/humankind from the perspective of all peoples through time. -understand the evolution of human culture and biology, how we vary, how we interact.

By the 1840s, what were physical anthropologists studying? What else did they find in this activity?

-studying the skulls of Indians and of other non-white peoples in the hopes of finding an organic, "physical" basis for their social economic inferiority -some found a justification for slavery, holding that the heads of Africans were so different from those of Europeans (product of separate creation)

What is a point mutation? What is an example of point mutation?

-substitution of one base for another somewhere in the DNA -Sickle-cell Anemia, for example, is caused by a point mutation

Melanin: Sunlight and Vitamin D

-sunlight and dark skin: ---before populations of humans migrated extensively, skin color followed a basic geographic distribution -life near the equator meant exposure to much sunlight=darker skin -as people migrated toward northern latitudes, colder climates, over the course of thousands of years variations in skin color arose -adaption: (long-term, genetic) -acclimatization: (short-term, physiological)

For Buffon what was the task of a scientist? To organize? Explain.

-task of a scientist wasn't just to organize and name things, it was to explain their relationships; and saw classification as a sterile enterprise if it is unaccompanied by explanation

How was Linnaeus applying radical biological relativism according to Marks?

-tearing down the linear hierarchy of the Great Chain of Being and replacing it with a hierarchy of a very different kind--one wherein all species are equal, and can be more meaningfully arranged in relation to one another than in relation to an imaginary transcendent ideal: presumably, us.

What is spontaneous generation?

-that living things can continually arise from nonliving matter

What was the psychic unity of mankind?

-that people everywhere have pretty much the same intellectual capacities

What was polygenism?

-that the different races of people were the products of separate creative acts by God, and therefore had no common biological history and should be considered separate species

What is Copernicus idea of heliocentrism?

-that the sun (not the earth) is the center of the solar system and that all the planets except the moon revolve around it, rather than around the earth

Race is a Strong Sociocultural Construct

-that we live by; determines how we define our identity -constructed by culture: how were perceived, how we perceive the world, phenotypes -very different in America vs. Latin America -our phenotypes, what we see, are a depiction of human variation, geographic population differences -18th century LA had 16 Racial Classification showing colonial diversity

What is Neo-Darwinism?

-the biological theory that arose shortly before the turn of the 20th century involved accepting Darwinian natural selection and rejecting Lamarckian inheritance

What are somatic cells? Name and describe the process by which they grow.

-the body (regular cells) -grows through a process of cell division called mitosis

What is molecular evolution? What paradox can be found with molecular evolution?

-the comparison of homologous proteins and genes across species -paradox: the evolution that it studies comprises for the most part neutral, unexpressed, nonadaptive differences between species; but what makes evolution interesting are the tangible physical differences that arise between species and affect their form and survival

What did the Industrial Revolution inadvertently lead to the discovery of?

-the construction of large factories, and building large factories necessitated the excavation of large holes for foundations. and excavating large holes turned up fossils

Complications with Human Migrations and Shifts in Evolution

-the correlation between body width and latitude is less strong in the New World. This is more than likely the result of gene flow and genetic drift -there have also been general changes in robusticity throughout time

What is the mechanical philosophy?

-the cosmos as a great machine (an appropriate metaphor for the time, of course), running essentially like a great clock, built by God but no longer requiring His vigorous intervention

How do analogy and homology differ?

-the difference is that the first (analogy) is still a meaningful symbolic correspondence, but the second (homology) is a meaningful biological correspondence. -the two are fundamentally different structures--developmentally, structurally, and functionally

What had Buffon speculated about the earth?

-the earth was considerably older than the few thousands years the Bible suggests

Ethnography

-the firsthand study of a human group in a specific place and situation.

What is epigenesis?

-the growth of an embryo involved producing a new functioning body from an undifferentiated mass every generation

What issue did punctuated equilibrium re-open?

-the issue of catastrophism that had been out of favor since the time of Charles Lyell

Variation

-the norm in nature and not caused by environment alone -animals in a species don't have the same essence; they are innately different

Who was Alex Hrdlicka? What did he create in his professionalization of the field?

-the person credited with professionalizing the subfield of physical anthropology -an avid student of the skeleton and the skull -founded the "American Journal of Physical Anthropology" in 1918 and the American Association of Physical Anthropologists in 1930

Define or explain the inheritance of acquired characteristics

-the physical alterations they effect are stably passed on to their offspring

Species

-the populations and their members that are capable of breeding with each other and producing viable, fertile offspring

Charles Darwin's: Theory of Natural Selection

-the process by which organisms with features that enable it to survive to reproductive age it will pass it along to offspring and so on.

Aging

-the process of maturation and the various social, cultural, biological, and behavioral events that occur over a lifetime

Meiosis

-the production of gametes or sex cells

What is serial homology?

-the relationship between your arm and your leg (a single upper bone, two lower bones, a complex joint, and five radiating digits) -duplication of genetic structures occurring throughout the chromosomes

Paleoanthropology

-the study of ancient humans, hominids (the remains of human-like beings), and the evolutionary past of humankind

What is epigenetics?

-the study of evolutionary or genetic changes that aren't directly encoded in gene sequences

Primatology

-the study of our primate cousins including lemurs, monkeys, and apes (chimpanzees, gorillas)

Linguistic Anthropology

-the study of the structure, evolution, and usage of language in human societies and its relation to culture.

Define linkage

-the transmission of genetic variations together, residing nearby on the same chromosome

What is the scientific method?

-there is no single method by which science works, to the exclusion of other modes of thought. -nor science is just "glorified common sense," as some have suggested. -rather, science is a set of methods for deriving knowledge about the unknown, beginning with the formulation of an answerable question, and proceeding by paring down the many answers that might be true, to the relatively few that probably are true. -there are many kinds of science, but it is useful to look first at the idealized or normative idea of what science is.

Why Race is NOT a biological reality?

-there is not a single trait in only on people that doesn't exist in others -each population has a range of variation and 94% of that variation occurs within a large geographical population -only 6% of all variation in humans explained by differences between populations -we are more genetically similar to one another than chimps are to each other

Longer necked giraffes had Selective Advantage

-they could reach food other animals couldn't= a better chance of survival and reproducing

Bergmann's Rule and Allen's Rule

-this Nilotic man, a Nuer herder from Sudan, has a tall linear body with elongated extremities (note his fingers) such proportioning increases the surface area relative to mass, and thus dissipates heat according to Allen's rule -cold weather populations tend to have relatively larger chests and shorter arms then do people from warm areas. Month the cold-adapted Inuit, such as this Alaskan woman, short limbs and stocky bodies help conserve heat

When did a papal decree the early 1500s say about the people in the New World?

-to be fully human and lost after the Tower of Babel

Did Darwin rush to publish?

-took 21 years -anguish, fear -illness -slow development of ideas -collection of a wealth of evidence

Particulate Nature of Inheritance: Mendel's "Law of Segregation"

-traits are inherited as discrete units -units that occur more frequently=dominant -units that occurs less frequently=recessive

How did Darwin transform Malthus' original statements?

-transformed Malthus' conservative and static social agenda into a dynamic biological one

Artifacts

-transportable objects made and used by past peoples (arrowheads, bowls, funerary items, art)

England, before Industrial Revolution (IR)

-tree lichen covered, moths light gray, speckled=camouflage