ANTHRO 101 STUDY

What are the bonding properties of these nucleotides?

1) Thymine bonds with Adenine 2) Guanine bonds with Cytosine 3) In RNA, Adenine (A) bonds with Uracil (U) instead of Thymine (T)

attributes evolved in response to competition with other males may also

1) attract females 2) provide an advantage in coercing females

Refer to the information on the genetic code provided in Figure 15.5. Use this information to determine how many amino acids are coded for by the mRNA sequence AUGCGCAGUCGGUAG.

4

A normal human somatic cell(non-gamete) has which of the following?

46 chromosomes

Which of the following DNA sources would be suitable for DNA fingerprinting analysis?

ANSWER: E a) blood b) skin c) semen d) bone e) all of the above

Cladistics

Classification focusing on evolutionary relationships (uses shared derived traits)

What kind of dominance is seen between the "A" and "B" alleles in the ABO blood type system

Codominance

What kind of dominance is seen between the "A" and "B" alleles in the ABO body type system

Codominance

Combining Great chain of being with essentialism

Combining the linear rankings of organisms with essentialist perspectives provided a perfect explanation for the diversity of life on earth. Everything is ranked in a specific order and things never really change from their essential form.

Physically, the DNA molecule can best be described as a

Double Helix

Which of the following is not necessary to execute a successful PCR?

a restriction enzyme

Genes

a section of DNA that has an identifiable function. For example, coding for a protein. However, only 1.5 % of our genome actually codes for proteins!

The evolutionary effects of genetic drift are

usually random and unpredictable.

genetic variation

variation caused by genetic factors

environmental variation

variation due to differences in environmental factors

fact

verifiable truth

Which of the following are products of genetic engineering?

agricultural crops with enhanced nutritional value

DNA ligases and polymerases are key components of DNA technology because they help break down the organismal genome into DNA fragments. true or false

false

Gene therapy has been tested on a large number of patients with a wide variety of inherited genetic disorders, and in numerous cases it has produced a complete cure. true or false

false

Reproductive cloning, the creation of genetically identical animals, is an exciting technology that can provide important insights into basic biology but lacks practical applications. true or false

false

Science has never actually observed the process of evolutionary change in species. true or false

false

Similar to genes that code for proteins, the products of genes that code for rRNA and tRNA must also undergo translation. true or false

false

The Hardy-Weinberg equation describes the genotype frequencies that will occur in an evolving population of organisms. true or false

false

The chemical bonds that hold the two complementary strands of the DNA double-helix close to one another are covalent bonds.

false

from the very start, DNA was thought to be a good candidate for the hereditary material because genetics believed it was a complex molecule? true or false

false.

Functions of DNA

has the ability to replicate, make copies of itself. Vital for transmitting genetic info from cell to cell, also from generation to generation. It is also critical in protein synthesis.

Mitochondrial DNA

in mitochondria : loop of mtDNA 16,600 bases. located in mitochondria, circular, 16,000 bases, 35 genes, maternally inherited, no recombination, useful for tracing evolutionary history

genotype frequency

necessary to determine within a defined population : measure of the relative proportions of different genotypes within a population

what do housekeeping genes do?

play an essential role in the maintenance of cellular activities in all kinds of cells and have been highly conserved in evolutionary history

Nonrandom mating

types of nonrandom mating include : 1) inbreeding 2)assortative mating. Involves no change in allele frequency, but a change in genotype frequency.

large brain (classify trait)

unique derived trait

X-linked recessive traits are

unpredictable in their frequencies

phenotype

actual observable trait

What kind of stone tool industry is the Acheulean tool industry?

core tools

anagenesis

straight line evolution: transformation of a single species over time. A single species exists at any point in time

evolutionary systematics

stresses the overall similarity of all homologous traits. Species sharing the larger number of homologous traits places in the same group, even if these traits do not reflect ancestor descendent relationship. As a result, species that do not necessarily share a common ancestor may be placed in the same taxonomic group. Evolutionary systematics focuses on overall similarity, not actual evolutionary relationships.

eugenics

study of all agencies under human control which can improve or impair the racial quality of future generations. bio-social movement, with philosophy for the improvement of human heredity. Early eugenicists took inspiration from the selective breeding of animals, as their analogy for improving human society & attempted to remove their contribution to the human gene pool (institutionalization, sterilization, euthanasia, mass extermination)

testability

subject to falsfication

defining subspecies

subspecies can be biological defined as population within a species that has...Fst value of at least 0.25 relative to other populations in the species

historical time

such as the origins of agriculture

Colobirines

symbolic relationship with bacteria Langrus Africa abroeal colobus

A point mutation that doe snot result in a change to the amino acid originally coded for is said to be a

synonymous mutation

polygenic trait

= a complex genetic trait affected by two or more loci

Nucleotides

= chemical units that make up part of the DNA molecule and specify genetic instructions. There are 4 possible types : Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytocine

sexual selection

=acts on traits that affect differential reproduction among individuals of the same sex. Competition within the same sex can be responsible for manifestation of secondary sexual characteristics. Amplified attributes may include : greater body size, strength, tooth weaponry, coloration. These traits serve no purpose in survival or the mechanical processes of reproduction.

adaptation

=advantageous changing, the process of successful interaction between a population and an environment. Any aspect of biology or behavior that confers advantage on an individual or population

Intersexual Selection "Mate Choice"

A form of natural selection in which individuals of one sex (usually the females) are choosy in selecting their mates from the other sex; also called mate choice

Sexual Selection

A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates.

Intrasexual Selection

A form of natural selection in which there is direct competition among individuals of one sex for mates of the opposite sex

Population

A group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area and interbreed, producing fertile offspring

genotype

genetic endowment of an individual

what is transcription

the conversion of a DNA-based sequence of nucleotides in a gene to an RNA-based sequence

what is ecological isolation

two species may feed, mate, and grow in different habitats within a common area

the subfields of anthropology

1)cultural anthropology 2)archeology 3)linguistic anthropology 4)biological anthropology

the four forces of evolution

1)mutation 2)natural selection 3)genetic drift 4)gene flow

Darwin's The Origin of Species first appeared in

1859.

Whcih type of selection tends to increase genetic variation? 1) Disruptive selection 2) diversifying selection 3) Directional selection 4) Stabilizing selection

1) Disruptive selection

History of Evolutionary thought (scientists in order)

1) Linneuaus 2) Cuvier 3) Lamarck 4) Hutton 5) Lyell 6) Malthus 7) Wallace 8) Darwin

Generation-to-generation, change in the allele frequencies in a population is ____ 1) microevolution 2) natural selection 3) mutation 4) macroevolution 5) genetic drif

1) Microevolution

Franz Boas

'the father of modern anthro' : it has been said that before Boas, anthropology was the study of race and after Boas, anthropology was the study of culture: he led scholars away from taxonomic classifications of race, to an emphasis on human biology and evolution. He divide people into seven ethno national groups. Conclusion was that cranial measurements were strongly influenced by nutrition, health, and other environmental factors, and thus influential in discrediting Morton's findings of racial differences in intelligence.

Which of the following events does not occur during the process of translation?

(C)ytosine in DNA pairs with (G)uanine in RNA, and (T)hymine in DNA pairs with (A)denine in RNA

Cercopithecoidea

(Old World monkeys) including macaques, baboons, and mandrills, they are more closely related to anthropoid apes than are the New World monkeys, having nostrils that are close together and nonprehensile tails.

Catarrhini

(Old World monkeys, apes and humans) is one of the two subdivisions of the higher primates (the other being the New World monkeys or platyrrhines). It contains the Old World monkeys and the apes; the latter of which are in turn further divided into the lesser apes or gibbons and the great apes, consisting of the orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans.

sickle cell anemia

(example of a mutation which changes at a single base) results from a substitution of one DNA base in the hemoglobin locus which normally codes for Glutamic acid. Mutation involves changing base T to A, which changes the amino acid. This change affects the entire structure of red blood cells and the health of the individual. Results in an extreme form of anemia (body does not have enough healthy red blood cells). that leads to sickness and death.

disruptive selection

(part of sympatric speciation): extreme values are selected over intermediate trait values

Lorisidae; Lorises & Galagos Range, Dental Formula, Diet, Social Organization, Other

-Location: Africa & South East Asia -Dental: 2.1.3.3 & Dental Comb -Diet: Insects & Fruit -Social: Solitary but social: females have region to self (solitary), males have larger regions that may overlap, social during breeding / small groups -Other: Most Nocturnal; excellent night vision -Arboreal (live in trees); loris slow moving galapagos fast

Lemuridae; Lemurs, Sifakas, Indriids Range, Dental Formula, Diet, Social Organization, Other

-Location: Madagascar -Dental: 2.1.3.3 -Diet: Fruit & Leaves -Social: Female Dominant groups, pairs -Other: Post-Orbital Bar, Grooming Claw -Among the most primitive primates; very diverse group; some nocturnal, some diurnal, some frugivores, some insectivores, some folivores, range in body size, -Diversity likely due to lack of competition form other primates

Tarsiiformes; Tarsioidea; Tarsiers

-Location: South East Asia -Dental: 2:1:3:3 & 1:1:3:3 -Diet: Insects -Social Organization: Pairs -Other: Post Orbital closure, unfused mandible -Vertical clinging and leaping locomotion, nocturnal extremely large eyes, Lemur traits: grooming claw & unfused mandible Anthro traits: post orbital closure, dry nose

Lemuriformes

-The most primitive primates unfused mandible, post-orbital bar, moist nose -Only found in Asia & Africa -Nocturnal in areas where they are sympatric with monkeys and apes

Why study primates

-models of human origins -extremely diverse in size, ecology, diet, shape, behavior and social organization -have adapted to many different environments -give us insights into ecological relationships -they are our closest relatives

A particular gene in a population has two alleles, C and c. If the allele frequency of C = 0.7, what is the frequency of c?

0.3

If there are 1,000 individuals in a population, and 600 of them are homozygous dominant for a gene that has only two alleles, what is the genotype frequency for the homozygous dominant condition?

0.6

What are three main mechanisms that can cause alley frequency change?

1) Natural Selection 2) Genetic Drift 3) Gene Flow

three requirements of the biological species concept (BSC)

1) can two organisms interbreed? 2) do they do so in nature of their own accord? 3) do they produce fertile offspring? If all three are true, then the two organisms are the same species.

By the mid 1800's what information had been gathered?

1) earth was much older 2) strata suggested many types of organisms had lived and gone extinct 3)dynamic relationship between an organism and its environment 4)variation in anatomical forms within a species 4)more individuals are born than can possibly survive

two major approaches to biological classification :

1) evolutionary systematics 2) cladistics

what are examples of transitional forms in the fossil record?

1) fish-amphibian 2) reptile bird 3) reptile mammal 4) whales

Where are all the transitional forms?

1) fish-amphibian 2) reptile-bird 3)reptile-mammal 4) whales

All the genes in a population are that population's ____ 1) gene pool 2) Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium 3) fitness 4) genotype

1) gene pool

Darwin's evidence

1) geographical distribution of species : species related to others nearby, not to those in similar habitats or other locations 2) artificial selection by humans : selective breeding--intentional breeding for certain traits, or combination of traits 3) vestigial organs : organs that have seemingly lost all or most of their original function in a species 4) ontogeny and development : more closely related species are more similar in their development 5) homology of structure : a state of similarity in structure and anatomical position, but not necessarily in function between different organisms indicated a common ancestry

How does science work? [The Scientific Method]

1) good question or interesting observation 2)develop an explanation... hypothesis 3)test the hypothesis 4) results either refute or support your hypothesis 5) propose a theory

how does fast macroevolution take place? (hypothesizes)

1) gradualism -- view that macroevolution is a slow and gradual process. Small changes accumulate in each generation over time resulting in major biological change or the formation of new species.If evolution is slow and steady, we expect to see the entire transition from ancestor to descendant over a long period of time in the fossil record. Preservation of many transitional forms give s complete record of gradual evolution. 2) punctuated equilibrium - long periods of time when little change occurs (stasis) and short periods of time when rapid evolutionary change occurs . IF evolution happens in quick jumps, we'd expect to see big changes happen quickly in the fossil record, with little transition between ancestor and descendant. Descendant is preserved in a layer directly after the ancestor, showing a big change in short time, with no transitional form. Transitional forms may have existed, but for a short amount of time and were not preserved in the fossil record.

DNA base pair differences

1) identical twins : 0 dif 2) unrelated humans : 1/1000, 3 million differences 3) human and chimpanzee ...1/100

the priority of access model can be disrupted by

1) males forming friendships with other males 2) males forming coalitions to mate guard females 3) males initiating consortships with females 4) female choice

Humans journey of evolution (progression)

1) primate like mammals 2)first true primates 3)anthropoids 4)miocene apes 5)humans

different approaches to studying genetics

1) process of inheritance 2)molecular level 3) population level

Inbreeded individuals have decreased fitness, related to :

1) reduced fertility 2)lower birth rate 3) higher infant mortality 4) slower growth rate 5) smaller adult size 6) loss of immune system

formation of mature RNA involves

1) removal of introns 2) splicing together of eons, the coding sections 3) Mature mRNA moves to Ribosome (out of nucleus) Ribosome is the site of protein synthesis

major advances in anthropological research from molecular phyogeny

1) resolving relationships between humans, chimpanzees and gorillas 2) evaluating biological validity of human races 3) settling dispute of the geographic origins of modern humans 4) opening new frontiers in ancient DNA

simple genetic traits

1) result from the action of a single locus with a clear mode of inheritance 2) discrete in that they produce a finite number of phenotypes

Translation (step by step)

1) ribosome docks onto mRNA at a position near the start codon 2) tRNA molecule recognizes the start codon and binds to it 3) multiple tRNA molecules bind to the mRNA strand in the appropriate sequence 4) each tRAn leaves behind an amino aced, forming chain of amino acids 5. amino acid chain elongates as the tRNA docking repeats 6. stop condon signals ribosome to detach from mRNA and release amino acid chain

types of sexual selection

1) selection for competition over access to mates usually stronger among males 2) selection for choice of mates usually stronger among females

different types of selection on complex traits

1) stabilizing selection 2) directional selection 3) disruptive selection

the population may not be in hardy-weinberg equilibrium for two basic reasons:

1) the effects of evolutionary forces: only mechanisms that cause changes in allele frequencies from one generation to the next 2). nonrandom mating : nonrandom mating involves patterns of mate choice that influence the distributions of genotype and phenotype frequencies

key aspects of natural selection

1) variation among individuals in every population 2)this variation is heritable (i.e. genetic passed on to offspring) 3)this variation leads to differences in fitness (# of offspring) 4. successful individuals leave more surviving offspring like them

Lamarack proposed a process of evolution with 3 components:

1)the will to change in response to environmental challenge 2)inheritance of acquired characteristics 3)law of use and disuse determines if body parts will be passed on

difficulties of theory : chapter in darwin's book

1)transitional forms? 2) organs of extreme perfection 3) social insects : non-reproductive workers 4) mechanism of inheritance & maintaining variation

What are the 5 Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

1. No mutations 2. Random Mating 3. No Natural Selection 4. Extremely Large Population Size 5. No Gene Flow

in a ribosome in the process of translating a molecule of mRNA, a maxium of _______ codons(s) can be occupied by tRNA any one time.

2

what kingdom are humans? what phylum are humans? what class? what order? what family? what genus? what species?

1. animalia 2. chordata 3. mammalia 4. primates 5. hominidea 6. homo 7. sapiens

when a cell reproduces into 2, 3 things/events must occur in specific order

1. copy DNA 2. separate copies, one for each cell 3. divide cytoplasm into 2 new cells

3 step process in DNA repair

1. recognition 2. removal 3. replacement

For a couple, both heterozygous for tongue rolling, the probability of having a non-rolling child is 1/4. What is the probability of another pregnancy producing children having a non-rolling trait?

1/4

Principia Mathematica

1687 by Newton: lays the foundations for classical mechanics: Universal graviton, three laws of motion

the combined length of all of the DNA present in a single cell of your body is approximately

2 meters

the total length of all of the DNA present in a single cell of your body is approximately

2 meters

When did anatomically modern humans appear?

200,000 years ago

consider a population with a total of 500 alleles for a specific gene. How many individuals are in this population?

250

Assume a certain molecule of DNA is composed of exactly 22 percent adenine. How much cytosine would you expect to find in this molecule?

28 percent

If every few years a giant axe chops off the head of every person who is over 6 feet tall, how will this affect the human population 1) Gene flow will increase 2) The mutation rate will increase 3) Alleles that promote "tallness" will decrease in frequency 4) Genetic drift will play less of a role in the evolution of humans

3) Alleles that promote "tallness" will decrease in frequency

Which assumption must be correct for a specific gene in a population that is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? 1) immigration, must equal emigration 2)selection must favor one form of the gene 3) No genetic drift can affect allele frequencies for the gene 4)equilibrium

3) No genetic drift can affect allele frequencies for the gene

phases of mitosis (normal cell division)

46 chromosomes TO interphase (replication of chromosomes) and prophase (chromosomes comes together) TO metaphase (chromosomes line up) TO anaphase (centromeres split) TO telophase (formation of two identical cells back to 46 chromosomes

a pea plant that is heterozygous for the flower color gene makes gametes. what is the probability that a specific gamete contains the recessive white allele for flower color?

50 percent. Heterozygotes can make two kinds of gametes

When was the date of split from apes?

6 million years ago

Consider a complete, functional piece of mRNA that contains a total of 66 codons. What is the maximum number of amino acids that could be present in the protein coded for by this mRNA?

65

human genetic variation across the human genome

83% to 97% of human variation is found within populations. 3% and 17% is found between populations. These results have been confirmed with studies of DNA markers, blood groups, and craniometric traits. Human Fst scores average about 0.17...which is below the subspecies mark.

Genetic Drift

A process in which chance events cause unpredictable fluctuations in allele frequencies from one generation to the next, Effects of genetic drift are most pronounced in small populations

Anthropoids (infaorder) (Haplorhines suborder) Primates with dry noses

A subdivision within the primates order based on shared anatomical characteristics; includes tarsiers, New world monkeys, Old world monkeys,apes and humans. These primates tend to be larger, active in daytime, and in large social groups.

Jean Lamarck

Acquired Characteristics

Charles Lyell

Age of the Earth

Uniformitarianism and Geological Time

Age of the earth and the passage of time are central to evolution. Archbishop James Ussher said that the earth was 6,000 years old, based on biblical events. Geological research was showing the earth was considerably older.

Refer to Figure 17.15 in your textbook. Which of the following do all of these birds have in common?

All are descended from a common ancestor.

Polypeptide chains found in proteins are constructed from what type of molecules

Amino acids

evolutionary approach to human variation

An evolutionary approach to human variation emerged in the last half of the 20th century, before then the typical approach was racial classification. The biological concept of race has largely been abandoned and replaced with descriptions of human variation. However, we must address the issue of race because it is routinely used outside of academia.

Suborder Name

Anthropoidea

What is anthropology?

Anthropology is the "study of humans"--the science of human biological and cultural variation and evolution. Humans can only be fully understood through their biology and culture.

Hominoidea

Apes/Humans Great Apes Orangutan-Gorilla-Chimps and Bonobos Ponginae-Gorillanae-Hominae(chimps and humans)

Which types of east African pre-australopithecine hominids were surprisingly associated with a forest dwelling lifestyle and not a life in mixed woodland or the savannas

Ardipithecus Ramadus

The form frequently identified to as Homo erectus inmost common found on which continent?

Asia

Which hominids had widely flaring zygomatic, large temporals and master muscles, sagittal crests, and are found only in East Africa, and lived after 2.5 mya

Australopithecus Boisei

Genetically engineered bovine growth hormone (BGH), which is highly effective for improving overall growth and milk production in cattle, remains a hotly debated issue because

BGH could drive traditional family farmers out of business.

C Linnaeus

Biological Classification

C. Linnaeus

Biological Classification

Tarsiiformes : 5 Features (mandible, teeth, orbital bar/closure, claw/comb, nose)

Both Primitive & Derived Traits -Unfused mandible -2.1.3.3/1.1.3.3 -Post orbital closure -Grooming claw -Dry nose

A small segment of DNA on the template strand contains the base sequence CGT. If an mRNA transcript is made that includes this sequence, what would be the anticodon on the tRNA that would bind to this corresponding mRNA sequence?

CGU

Infraorder Name

Catarrhini

Chimpanzees

Central and West Africa They are our closest living relatives, sharing more than 98 percent of our genetic blueprint. Humans and them are also thought to share a common ancestor who lived some four to eight million years ago. They live in social communities of several dozen animals, and can habituate themselves to African rain forests, woodlands, and grasslands.

assessing genetic variation

Comparisons of genetic variability within and between population are frequency in population genetics. In our case, variation are frequencies of a given allele at a known locus and samples are human populations. Fst value relates frequencies to proportion of variation between populations.

Of the organisms listed below, which one is not believed to have undergone a genetic bottleneck at some point in its recent evolutionary history?

Culex mosquitoes

Age of planet earth

Current estimates suggest that the earth is 4.54 billion years old. Based on evidence from radiometric age dating of meteorites consistent with the ages of the oldest known terrestrial and lunar samples. These techniques were not available in the 1800's. Rather, scientists depended upon studies of strata--the layering of rock and earth. This gave naturalists an appreciation that Earth may have been through many changes during its existence.

catastrophism

Cuvier used a hypothesis called catastrophism to explain the extinctions. Suggested that a series of catastrophes occurred during the planet's past (asteroids, volcanoes, fast sea changes). Many living creatures went extinct, and others moved in to fill their niches.

Guanine bonds with which nucleotide in formation of mRNA

Cytosine

A population of organisms has a gene for which there are two alleles, D and d. The allele frequency of D = 0.8. If this population satisfies all five of the Hardy-Weinberg conditions, what are the genotype frequencies that are expected in the next generation?

DD = 0.64; Dd = 0.32; dd = 0.04

transcription

DNA contains all of the instructions a cell needs to sustain itself. To be implemented, the instructions contained within genes must be expressed into a form that can be used by cells to produce the proteins needed to support life. During transcription, a portion of the cell's DNA serves as template for creation of an RNA molecule

The primary reason why the same basic techniques can be used to analyze the DNA from species as diverse as bacteria and humans is that

DNA has a consistent structure in all organisms.

Translation occurs when

DNA is copied to form mRNA

What are three differences between DNA and RNA

DNA is double-stranded whereas RNA is single-stranded DNA contains Thymine that bonds with Adenine whereas RNA contains Uracile that bonds with adenine DNA is only found in the nucleus whereas RNA can be throughout the cell

Patients with XP possess a recessive allele that produces a nonfunctional

DNA repair enzyme.

DNA replication

DNA replication is a biological process that copies DNA. Involves splitting the strands and attracting complementary bases. Two identical DNA molecules are formed from the original molecule. 1) helices unwinds the double helix 2)while helices separates the helix, primase (red) assembles a primer 3) beginning at the primer, DNA polymerase attaches to the original strand and begins assembling a complementary strand 4) a new DNA strand is synthesized

Which of the following statements regarding DNA technology is false?

DNA technology can be used to remove undesired alleles from a multicellular organism

On the origin of species by means of natural selection

Darwin

The history of evolutionary thought

Darwin's work built on ideas of earlier scholars. The development of evolutionary theory can be traced back to: greek and roman legacy, scientific revolution, adaptation and influence of environment, uniformitarianism and geological time, population dynamics

What is the most regular effect natural selection has on variation within a population

Decreases variation

What do we study in living primates to understand extinct species?

Dentition Locomotor patterns Diet Social cognition Technology more!

Genetic Variation

Differences among individuals in the composition of their genes or other DNA segments

Sexual Dimorphism

Differences between a secondary sex characteristics of males and females of the same species

Francis Bacon

English philosopher, statesman, scientist, author, and lawyer, "father of the scientific method": encouraged scientists to gain knowledge through observation of nature, developed systematic rules for observation and collection of data, emphasized importance of experimentation in the quest for information

Islands are isolated and thus susceptible to strong natural selection.

Evolution is best viewed as a purposeful and directed change over time.

Adaptive Evolution

Evolution that results in a better match between organisms and their environment

Microevolution

Evolutionary change below the species level; change in the alley frequencies in a population over generations.

challenges to a static view of the world

Excavations produced fossils that were truly unusual creatures (disks), resembled modern day forms, but did not fit classifications remains of small ancient horses with multiple toes. Example: Mammoths were not the same species as living elephants

G Cuvier

Extinction

G. Cuvier

Extinction

A synonymous mutation will change the amino acid coded for by the DNA sequence

False

Because human hunters favor taking the largest rams with the biggest horns, there has been selection favoring larger and larger horn size in wild populations

False

RNA polymerase makes the new compliment strand in DNA replication

False

The dark colored mice on all of the discontinuous (separated) lava flows in the southern Arizona have the same nitrogenous base change in MC1R gene

False

The organism that causes leprosy, Mycobacterium leprae, has the fewest number of fossil genes of any known species

False

Can we measure natural selection?

Fitness is a common measure = an organism's probability of survival and reproduction. For any locus, it is the relative genetic contribution of a genotype to the next generation.

Fst

Fixation index - statistical measure used to assess genetic variation between samples compares the level of genetic variation within two or more sub-populations relative to the total population

shared vs. unique traits

For humans, the absence of a tail is a shared derived trait. Upright walking in human is a unique derived trait.

post-trnaslational modification

For many proteins, translation is only the first step in their life cycle. Moderate to extensive post-translational modification may be required before a protein is complete. For example, some chains of amino acids (polypeptide chains) require the addition or deletion of other molecules before they are considered 'finished' proteins.

What are three of Darwin's lines of evidence

Fossil Record Adaptations Domestication of plants and animals Genetics

What are three of Darwin's lines of evidence

Fossil Record Domestication of plants and animals Adaptations

What does fossil evidence lend support to?

Fossil evidence has been interpreted to lend support to both the multi regional and out of africa models? The fossil evidence also supports both replacement and assimilation.

The research of biological anthropologists may focus us:

Fossils, biological basis of behavior, human variation, biology and ecology's influence on culture, nonhuman primate species

Which of these evolutionary forces is most likely to reduce variation between populations

Gene flow

Biological evolution can be defined as a change in the frequency of alleles in the

Gene pool

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

General belief at the time was that the sun and stars rotated around the earth. Placing humans and their planet at the center of the universe. Copernicus introduced the heliocentric theory, that earth revolves around the sun.

modern human origins debate

General trend in the fossil record shows that modern humans evolved from homo heidelbergensis. Debate resolve around : 1) location of transition 2) nature of the transition

Founder Effect

Genetic drift that occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a large population and form a new population whose gene pool composition is not reflective of that of the original population

Bottleneck Effect

Genetic drift that occurs when the size of a population is reduced, as by a natural disaster or human actions. Typically, the surviving population is no longer genetically representative of the original population.

genetic mapping

Genetic maps provide information about which chromosome contains the gene and precisely where it lies. Have been used to find the gene responsible for relatively rate inherited disorders : cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy.

Genetic distance and geography

Genetic relationships between populations show a strong relationship to geographic distances which is likely due to 1) gene flow : the closer the two populations are, the greater amount of gene flow 2) sequential founding of populations: patterns relating to the history of human expansion around the globe. Genetic distance between populations increases with geographic distance, but differences are VERY SMALL!

mitochondrial eve

Genetic studies estimate that mitochondrial eve around 200,000 years ago, most likely East Africa. Dating for Eve was a blow to Multiregional hypothesis, and boost to Out of Africa model.

Neutral Variation

Genetic variation that does not provide a selective advantage or disadvantage

On the basis of the chapter's Biology Matters box ("Have You Had Your GMO Today?"), which of the following statements is false?

Genetically modified crops are used only for the production of breads and cereals.

Georges Cuvier

He addresses challenges to static view of the world. He was a french anatomist and the world's leading expert on the anatomy of animals. By analyzing fossils, he concluded that many of the animals no longer exist.

Gorilla

Gorillinae gorillas Central and West Africa Closely linked by DNA, family Hominidae are one of the four species of great apes that are the closest living relatives of humans - the other three are chimpanzees, bonobos and orangutans. Great apes are different from monkeys for a variety of reasons: they are larger, walk upright for a longer period of time, don't have tails and have much larger, more developed brains.

Heterozygote Advantage

Greater reproductive success of heterozygous individuals compared with homozygotes; tends to preserve variation in a gene pool

Essentialism

Greek and Roman philosophers also advocated the idea of essentialism. Each organism has a true, ideal form. All living representatives of that organism are slight deviations from the ideal type. This explains the variation that we see among members of the same species.

Lemuriformes : 6 Features (mandible, teeth, orbital bar/closure, claw/comb, nose)

Most Primitive Traits -Unfused mandible -2.1.3.3/2.1.3.3 -Post orbital bar -Tooth comb -Grooming claw -Moist nose

example of a complex trait

Height is a complex trait with a continuous distribution. Humans are not produced with discrete heights : short, medium tall. Rather, the distribution is continuous. Some people may have the genetic potential for being tall but their diet quality affects their height.

Family Name

Hominidae

Superfamily Name

Hominoidea

Genus Name

Homo

Which hominid is primarily known for its thick cranial vault bone, sagittal keeling on the brain case and cranial volume frequently exceeding 900cc in later sites

Homo erectus

What are ways in which humans are a bizarre species?

Homo sapiens (part of family HOMINAIDAE): 1)bipedal 2)big brains 3)tiny faces and canines 4)wide ranging, with stable home base 5)broad, carried diet 5)cultural

Homo sapiens

Homo sapiens is characterized by a number of craniofacial features which are associated with our large brains and unique form of locomotion. Homo sapiens is latin for wise man or knowing man.

where do humans fit in the great assemblage of life?

Humans are animals (classified as part of the kingdom animal): mobile, multicellular organisms composed of tissues that derive energy from the consumption of other organism. Humans are vertebrates--animals with central nerve cords and backbones (phylum chordata). Humans are mammals--we have hair and nurse our young (class mammalia). Humans are primates (we have grasping hands, bony enclosed eye sockets, and relatively large brains (order primates). Humans are hominoids--we have the ability to swing our arms in a circle. We also have flat, broad chests, and no tail (family hominid). We are not alone (genus homo).

comparing Fst values across species

If you compare any two humans from anywhere on the entire planet you will find on average 1/4 the amount of genetic diversity between them than you would find if you compared any two chimpanzees!

Darwin

In 1838, Darwin discovered the principle of evolution by natural selection. He was 28 years old and returned from the voyage of the Beagle just two years earlier. His observations indicated that biological species change through time and that new species arrive through transformation of existing ones. Searching for an explanation of how these processes worked.

Which molecules within cells contained hereditary information

In 1869, Miescher isolated a previously unknown type of molecule that was slightly acidic and contained a high proportion of phosphorus. He named the molecule 'nucleon' later changed to 'nucleic acid' and then 'deoxyribonucleic acid.' Did not believe that 'nucleon was the carrier of hereditary information. He thought it lacked the variability necessary to account for the incredible diversity among organisms.

reconciling genetics and darwinism

In the early 1930s, The Founders of Theoretical Population Genetics showed how Mendelian genetics could be used to explain continuous variation. Also they addressed two major questions remaining from Darwin's theory... how traits are inherited, how variation is maintained within a population.

Consider Figure 16.3. What would be the effect of using one type of restriction enzyme to cut the DNA containing the gene of interest, and then a different one to cut the plasmid DNA in the first step?

Incompatible DNA fragments would be produced.

What are Mendel's two basic laws

Independent assortment segregation

When natural selection is operating, which of the following is likely to occur?

Individuals within a population may have greater survival than others.

linguistic anthropology

Linguistic anthropology is the study of language. Linguistic anthropologists study trends in the evolution of languages. To what extent does language shape culture? Is language a uniquely human trait?

Many bizarre plants and animals inhabit the Galápagos Islands, as young Charles Darwin observed when he visited there in the early 1830s. Which of the following is the most likely reason that oceanic islands often have such unusual inhabitants?

Islands are isolated and thus susceptible to strong natural selection.

Location of DNA

Most DNA is contained in the nucleus of cells. Small amount of DNA also exists in the mitochondria.

Which of the following statements about gene flow is true?

It reduces the genetic variation between populations.

Galileo (1564-1642)

Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomy and philosopher. Advocated testing new ideas through experimentation, known as "the Father of Modern Science." Strong proponent of Copernicus' heliocentric theory. Galileo tested and supported some of the heliocentric theory. Studied the tides and movement of the planets. He was arrested and charged with publishing support of heliocentrism and also proposing an atomic theory.

Anthropoidea : 4 Features (mandible, teeth, orbital bar/closure, claw/comb, nose)

Most Derived Traits -Fused mandible -2.1.3.3/2.1.3.3 or 2.1.2.3/2.1.2.3 -Post orbital closure -Dry nose

classification humans

Kingdom-Animalia Phylum-Chordata Subphylum-Vertebrata Class-Mammalia Order-Primates Suborder-Anthropoidea Superfamily-Hominoid Family-Hominid Subfamily-Hominin Genus Species-Homo sapiens

List three of the basic conditions necessary for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

Large population to prevent random genetic drift no mutations equal fertility

Strepsirrhini

Lemurs and Lorises which consist of the lemurs of Madagascar, galagos (bush babies) and pottos from Africa, and the lorises from India and southeast Asia. Primates with moist noses. Also known as prosimians. Suborder

Changes in the coloration of pepper moths over time are one dramatic example of the mode of natural selection known as

directional selection.

Linnaean Classification System

Linnaeus believed in a fixity of nature. All of nature had been constructed in the hand of God, no new species could arise from others, nor could substantial change occur in living forms. However, the Linnean Classification system destroyed the great chain of being, placing all species at the same level. He described humans just as he described any other plant or animal.

the genetic evidence of the modern human origins debate

Look at genetic variation of modern humans and work backward in time, asking what models of evolutionary change produced the present patterns. Thanks to paleogenetics, we can compare the genomes of ancient and present day people. DNA sequences from living people can be used to determine their most recent common ancestor which is the most recent individual from which a set of organisms are descended. Tracing common ancestry is often accomplished using mtDNA which is inherited only from your mother. Genetic evidence supports an Out of Africa Model of the modern human origins.

The process that creates sex cells, gametes, is called which of the following

Meiosis

What do melanocytes produce

Melanin

Punnett Square

Mendel created a model for the transmission of traits across generations.

Mechanism of inheritance and maintaining variation

Mendel crossed peas plants with 7 dif phenotypic characteristics. Rather than intermediates, either one or other form was produced. Specific unit of heredity (allele) causes a specific observable trait. Some traits were dominant (masked the effect of the other allele at a given locus) and others recessive (were masked)

the 3 types of RNA and their functions

Messenger RNA = encodes proteins Transfer RNA = aids translation Ribosomal RNA = used to make ribosomes

This type of evolution is seen over a short number of generations by measuring changes in allele frequencies

Microevolution

the origin of modern humans : fossil evidence

Modern humans are associated with several changes in craniofacial anatomy : 1) more well rounded skull 2) small brow ridge 3) presence of a prominent chin. These changes may have allowed increase in temporal lobe, more efficient breathing gin hot climates, and improved vocal language skills.

The inheritance of a specific trait may not appear to follow the Mendelian pattern if which of the following factors are present?

Modifying genes Incomplete dominance linkage environmental influences

How do we use molecular data to establish evolutionary relationships?

Molecular phylogenics are complementary to morphological approaches in : establishing evolutionary relationships, determining the validity of a species or subspecies designation. Compare sequences of DNA and mutations in those sequences to determine primitive, derived, and shared derived molecular patterns.

Paabo

discovered that neandertals bequeaths some of their genes to modern humans

balancing selection

Most allele frequencies are intermediate due to balancing selection. Balancing selection is the selection for the heterozygote abad against the homozygote. Although harmful, a particular allele may not be totally eliminated through selection. So heterozygotes will continue to pass on the allele to the next generation. In fact, there are situations in which the heterozygote condition is more fit.

Linking DNA to heredity

Most scientists believed that protein was the carrier of hereditary information. In 1944, a series of groundbreaking experiments showing that DNA carried instructions from one cell to another.

What is the name of the hypothesis that proposes that massive gene flow allowed all humans in different parts of the old world to evolve together from Homo erectus into anatomically modern humans

Multi regional hypothesis

what causes mutation

Mutation are random and there is no way of predicting when they will take place. They can be caused by a number of environmental factors : background radiation, heat, and ingested substances such as caffeine. Mutations can take a place in any cell of the body. To have evolutionary importance, mutation must occur in a sex cell.

Which of the following statements about genetic variation is true?

Mutation is the ultimate source of new alleles.

With which of the following statements would an evolutionary biologist agree?

Mutations provide the foundation for evolutionary change.

Misconceptions about structure, function, and evolution

Natural selection does NOT always produce perfect structures. All structures are NOT adaptive. Current structures DO NOT always reflect initial adaptations. There are scientist swho believe in evolution AND god.

Directional Selection

Natural selection in which individuals at one end of the phenotypic range survive or reproduce more successfully than do other individuals

Disruptive Selection

Natural selection in which individuals on both extremes of a phenotypic range survive or reproduce more successfully than do individuals with intermediate phenotypes

Stabilizing selection

Natural selection in which intermediate phenotypes survive or reproduce more successfully than do extreme phenotypes

Balancing Selection

Natural selection that maintains two or more phenotypic forms in a population

Platyrrhini (parvorder)

New World monkeys, marmosets, and tamarins (Callitricidae) They are distinguished by having nostrils that are far apart and directed forward or sideways, and typically have a prehensile tail.

Two Basic Kinds of Monkeys

New World: South and Central America Flat nosed (or platyrrhine) Nostrils are far apart and open to the side; Have scent glands rely more on scent to mark territories than Old World species Old World: Africa and Asia Downfacing nose (or catarrhine) Nostrils are closer together and open downward or forward(Apes and humans share this nasal feature as well.)

List three of the basic conditions necessary for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

No mutations Large population to prevent random genetic drift Equal fertility

X-linked allele is passed down from a father to

None of his sons but all of his daughters

chromosomes

Nuclear DNA sequences are bound together by proteins in long strands called chromosomes that are found within the nucleus of each cell. Chromosome is a long strand of DNA. Humans have 23 paris of chromosomes, totaling 46 chromosomes.

The basic building blocks of nucleic acids like DNA or RNA are

Nucleotides

Baboons

Old world monkey, These primates have abandoned trees (except for sleeping and refuge) and have become largely terrestrial, living the savannahs, deserts, and highlands of Africa.

Where did the essential forms come from?

Origin stories of the Judeo Christian Islamic tradition. Genesis clearly explains the origin and diversity of life on earth. All creatures were created by God, roughly at the same time. Adam names all forms and thereby confers upon them their essence. Vast majority of people in 18th and 19th century Europe were embedded in a culture and belief system that embraced a literal interpretation of these ideas. It was not neither easy or socially acceptable to challenge them.

What is the name of the hypothesis that proposes that there was a second hominid radiation out of Africa that replaced all other hominids around the world without any genetic intermixing between populations

Out of Africa Hypothesis

Features of Primates

Pentadactyly: having five toes/fingers Retention of Clavicle: maneuvering of limbs Generalized Skeleton Increased Visual Acuity Post-Orbital Bar / Post Orbital Closure Grasping hands and feet Reduced Reliance on Olfaction: smaller noses Nails on Digits Increased Encephalization Small Litters: increased reliance on learning and importance of social behavior; slow infant development; infants helpless; mother-infant bond critical for teaching infants social skills Generalized Dentition

Does selection act more on the Genotype or Phenotype?

Phenotype than the genotype; it acts on the genotype indirectly, via how the genotype affects the phenotype

In approximately 30% of our genes we possess more than one allele, where the frequency of the second allele is at 1% or greater. What is this called when we have multiple forms of a gene?

Polymorphism

Orangutan

Ponginae Sumatra and Borneo On the ground, orangutans walk on all fours. Orangutans find their food in the trees where they live. More than half their diet consists of fruit. They also eat nuts, bark, and other parts of plants and trees. Every once in a while they eat insects such as ants and termites, as well as bird eggs. Though an adult male orangutan can weigh up to 220 pounds (100 kilograms)—females weigh about half what males do—orangutans spend most of their time up in the trees. They are the largest of all arboreal animals. Equipped with very long, powerful arms and hook-shaped hands and feet, these apes climb and swing from tree to tree with ease. They reach from one tree to the next with their long arms, grasping the next branch with long hands or feet, and swing their bodies across the gap.

Order

Primates

Primate Taxonomy : Prosimians vs Anthropoids

Primates -Prosimians: primitive traits a)Lemuriformes & b)Tarsiiformes a)Lemurs & Lorises b)Tarsiers -Anthropoids: derived traits a)Platyrrhines (new world) & b)Catarrhines (old world) a)Cuboids (new world monkeys) b)Cercopithecoids (old world monkeys) & b)Great Apes & Humans

Greek and roman legacy

Prior to the scientific revolution, it was widely held that: 1) the world was static, unchanging 2) organisms could be linearly ranked, based on superiority of form 3) earth was 6,000 years old

An uneven rate of evolutionary change over time is called

Punctuated equilibrium

RNA vs. DNA

RNA : 1) nucleotides : adenine (a), cytosine (C), guanine (G), uracil (U) 2) RNA is single stranded 3) contains ribose sugar molecules DNA: nucleotides : adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanin (G), thymine (T), DNA is almost always in a double stranded helical form, contains deoxyribosemolecules

An E. coli bacterium is lacking in the amino acid tryptophan. Which of the following would be true about this bacterium?

RNA polymerase can bind to the operator

Which of the following is not true about the differences between DNA and RNA?

RNA uses deoxy-ribose not ribose

is there genetic evidence to biological race?

Racial classifications focus on differences between groups. The reality is that level of genetic variation is far greater within than between human populations. Further, there is not a single genetic marker that can be used to differentiate 'race.' Genetic variation in populations such as Europeans and Asians are actually subsets of the variation in the African population. People have lived longer in Africa than anywhere else, and so more mutations have accumulated in that population.

Change sin allele frequencies in populations caused by "sampling error" or chance occurrences are said to be due to the mechanism called:

Random genetic drift

A condition that must be assumed for the state of genetic equilibrium is

Random mating

Exons

Research has shown that much of our DNA is made up of noncoding sequences of DNA. Exons are sections of DNA that code for amino acids that make up proteins.

introns

Research has shown that much of our DNA is made up of noncoding sequences of DNA. Introns are sections of DNA that do not code for amino acids that make up proteins.

Malthus

Resource/Population Imbalance

Malthus

Resource/Population imbalance

Which of the following scholars made the greatest positive contribution to Darwin's work

Reverend Thomas Malthus

RNA

Ribonucleic acid = molecule that functions to carry out the instructions for protein synthesis specified by the DNA molecule

whats an example of a housekeeping gene and why?

Ribosomal RNA gene. they are needed in all cells that carry out protein synthesis.

which phase does replication occur?

S Phase

Species Name

Sapiens

Gregor Mendel demonstrated that the hereditary units are

Segregated in gamete formation

What are Mendel's two basic laws

Segregation Independent assortment

Which of the following is an example of a balanced polymorphism

Sickle cell anemia and malaria

Holistic approach

Strength of anthropology = holistic approach, taking into consideration all aspects of human existence : diet, fertility, religion, disease, social system, and more!

Linnaeus

Swedish naturalist who compiled one of the first formal classifications of all living creatures (taxonomy). Linnaeaus grouped clusters of organisms that were most similar to one another into categories called species and then grouped species into genera. No species considered superior to any others.

Great Chain of Being

The "Great Chain of Being" is an important idea in Greek and Roman philosophy. This linear ranking of organisms reinforced beliefs that some life forms were superior to others (God then males then females then beasts of air, sea, land, then plants)

Gene Pool

The aggregate of all copies of every type of alley at all loci in every individual in a population. The term is also used in a more restricted sense as the aggregate of alleles for just one or a few loci in a population

Point Mutation

The change of as little as one base in a gene

Relative Fitness

The contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation, relative to the contributions of other individuals in the population

Interaction of the evolutionary forces

The four evolutionary forces act together to produce evolutionary change. Mutation introduces new genetic variants. Genetic drift, gene flow, and natural selection changes the frequency of the mutant allele.

Gibbons and Siamang Apes

The males and females are similar in size, living social groups of two adults and offspring. The siamang is an arboreal black-furred gibbon native to the forests of Malaysia, Thailand, and Sumatra.

Scientific revolution

The scientific revolution opened the door to the systematic study of the world. This era was associated with new ideas and knowledge in physics, astronomy, biology, medicine and chemistry which transformed medieval views of nature and laid the foundations for modern sciences. Highlights included: Copernicus' heliocentric theory, Galileo's astronomical discoveries, Newton's Principia Mathematica

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

The state of a population in which frequencies of alleles and genotypes remain constant form generation to generation, provided that only Mendelian segregation and recombination of alleles are at work.

Gene Flow

The transfer of alleles from one population to another, resulting from the movement of fertile individuals or their gametes.

n Figure 18.9, the survival of newborn humans is compared against their birth weight. Note that these data are from London and span the period between 1935 and 1946. If you were to look at a graph of comparable data for the same population from the 1990s, what differences, if any, would you see?

There would be a broader optimum birth weight as a result of medical advances.

Refer to Figure 18.4 in your textbook. If the population of wildflowers in this hypothetical simulation of genetic drift were made up of 1,000 individuals instead of 10, how would this affect the change in allele frequencies

There would probably be a much smaller change in allele frequencies.

Which of the following statements about restriction enzymes is false?

They are used to glue together short segments of DNA.

Each codon contains how many nucleotides

Three

insights from Darwin's voyage

Tremendous amount of observable variation in living species which challenged notions of fixed, rigid categories. These variations made sense in terms of the environment. Organisms are well adapted to specific environments.

A tRNA molecule can, and generally does, bond back to itself, as well as bonding to other molecules

True

Chance and time are the two most important factors in considering likelihood of a particular mutational event happening

True

Chance, selection, and time are the key elements governing evolution according to Sean Carroll

True

Changes in the average body size of Atlantic Cod can be directly attributed to human actions

True

Down's Syndrome is caused by a chromosomal trisomy

True

Genes that are no longer critical to an organism's survival and reproductive success may start to accumulate both synonymous and non-synonymous mutations

True

Many mammals that have trichromatic vision also show an increased number of dysfunctional genes for olfaction

True

Most simple point mutations that occur should be non-synonymous, but most of the mutations we actually see in the DNA code are synonymous

True

Non-synonymous mutations occur in gene sequences less often than pure chance would predict

True

Purifying selection acts to remove any mutations that tend to reduce an organism's chances for survival or the ability to attract mates

True

A triplet base sequence on the template strand of DNA reads ATT. What will be the corresponding mRNA codon, tRNA anticodon, and amino acid coded for by this DNA?

UAA; AUU ; no amino acid (= stop codon)

To study the genetic basis of the inherited human disease sickle-cell anemia, a biologist first isolates DNA from an affected individual's cells. Which of the following would be the next step in this process?

Use restriction enzymes to break the DNA into smaller fragments.

The Malay Archipelago

WAllace dedicated to Darwin

survival of the fittest

Wallace had concluded that species evolved, but was not sure how. He wrote his theory 'Survival of the Fittest' and sent it to Darwin.

who discovered the double helix

Watson and Crick

Structure of DNA (April 1953)

Watson and Crick proposed the double helix or spiral staircase structure of the DNA molecule. The DNA molecule resembles a ladder of two strands arranged in a helix joined together by chemical bases.

Does race have any biological validity?

We can examine this question by : 1) craniometrics 2) population genetics 3) patterns of skin reflectance

why does race persist?

We have a solid understanding of human biology variation and evidence that the biological concept of race is invalid...so why does race concept persist? Some reasons : role of race in the history of global expansion and colonialism, reliance on popular misconceptions and stereotypes, recent history of race in America, inability of scientists to convey info outside of academia

Mendelian genetics and Darwinism

When Mendelian genetics were first rediscovered, biologists thought that it was incompatible with Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. Darwin believed evolution proceeded by gradual accumulation of small changes. Mendel's findings seemed to show that inheritance was fundamentally discontinuous.

Transmission of genetic information : within a single person

Within a single person, it is essential that all the genetic information within the initial cell be transferred to all future cells

Consider the chapter's Biology Matters box, "One Allele Makes You Strong, Another Helps You Endure." Which of the following human genotypes would the genetically engineered knockout mice most closely resemble?

XX

Are we more alike than different?

Yes!

Are humans primates?

Yes! We use living primates as models to understand extinct species.

Derived Character

a character that has changed since the last common ancestor

Shared derived character

a character that has changed since the last common ancestor and is shared by two or more species

Primitive Character

a character that has not changed from the ancestral condition

heritability

a common measure used in studies of complex traits = the proportion of total variation of a trait due to genetic variation = genetic variation / total variation = genetic variation / (genetic variation + environmental variation). A value above .5 would be considered high heritability.

Consider the DNA template shown in the middle of Figure 15.9. If the C at the start of the sequence of bases is deleted, this genetic mutation will result in

a frameshift that affects the entire mRNA molecule

In a criminal trial in which DNA fingerprinting has been used, a genetic "match" between the suspect and evidence left at the crime scene provides

a high probability that the suspect is guilty.

natural selection

a mechanism for evolutionary change favoring the survival and reproduction of some organisms over other because of their biological characteristics

natural selection

a mechanism for evolutionary change favoring the survival and reproduction of some organisms over others because of their biological characteristics. Individuals with certain characteristics survive to reproduce and pass on their alleles to the next generation. Natural selection does not create new genetic variation, but it can change the relative frequencies of different alleles Natural selection filters genetic variation.

socially constructed race concept

a set of cultural or ethnic factors linked with easily perceived morphological traits (such as skin reflectance, body shape, or cranial structure) these have been used to create artificial, "biologized" categories

pleiotropy

a single allele effects more than one trait

biological concept of race

a taxonomic definition of race equates it with the concept of subspecies ( groupings within a species that are physically distinct from each other, but capable of fertile interbreeding) . A race, or subspecies, is a unit within a species that is taking an evolutionary trajectory different from the trajectory of other populations within the species. It is becoming increasingly differentiated at the genetic level.

Founder effect

a type of genetic drift caused by the formation of a new population by a small number of individuals. Example. island population of Tristan da Cunha

instructions for making proteins

in genes

In gel electrophoresis, the distance traveled by a DNA fragment

a) corresponds to the size of the fragment.

In human gene therapy, doctors

a) seek to correct genetic disorders by repairing the genes that cause them.

During protein translation, "wobble" refers to

a) the ability of a tRNA molecule to bind to more than a single unique codon.

During protein translation, wobble refers to the

ability of a tRNA molecule to bind to more than a single unique codon

regulatory genes

act as switches to turn protein coding genes on or off--these can dramatically affect how genes are expressed. Explains how large physical differences exist between species with very similar genes.

importance of protein production

all biological structures (nerve cells, blood cells, bone cells) are made predominantly of proteins. Proteins may act alone or in complexes to perform cellular functions.

in humans, the protein insulin is produced in specialized pancreatic cells. in an individual human, the gene for insulin is located in

all cells. the gene for insulin is present in all of a human's cells but is expressed only in the specialized pancreatic cells

during the first half of the twentieth century, as genetics began the search for what genes are made of, they knew that the hereditary material

all of the above

what is a genome

all the DNA-based information in the nucleoid or nucleus of an organism

total population

all the individuals within the population. However, microevoltuion is concerned with individuals contributing genetic information to the next generation (i.e. breeding population)

In the Hardy-Weinberg equation, the terms "p" and "q" represent the ________ in a population.

allele frequencies

mass extinction

extinction of a large number of species at the same time. We may be causing one with changes to the atmosphere, current co2 levels similar to that of Permian.

phylogenetic tree

also called evolutionary tree : a branching diagram or tree showing the evolutionary relationships among species

Henry Goddard

american psychologist and eugenicist : promoted use of intelligence testing, established IQ testing program on ellis island, did an experiment in the heritability of intelligence and moral ability

What is attached to the acceptor end (opposite end from the anti-codon end) of a tRNA molecule

amino acid

determinants of gene flow

amount of gene flow between human populations depends on a variety of environmental and cultural factors : 1) geographic distance 2)social and cultural groups 3) ethnic differences 4) religious differences 5) social class

If the human genome were a book:

analogy to the human genome stored on DNA to that of instructions in a book : 1) the book (genome) would contain 23 chapters (chromosomes) 2) each chapter contains 48 to 25- million letters 3) the book obtains over 3.2 billion letters total 4) the book (all 23 chapters!) fits into a cell nucleus the size of a pinpoint. AT least one copy of the book is contained in most cells of our body.

Genes code for which of the following biological molecules?

ans: all of the above a. enzymes b. structural proteins c. transport proteins d. defense proteins

When a molecule of DNA replicates without error, each of the resulting molecules contains

ans: all of the above a. same amount of A as T b. same amount of G as C c. one new strand and one old strand d. the same sequence of bases as did the original

Before damaged DNA can be repaired, which of the following must occur?

ans: all of the above a. the damaged are must be recognized b. the damaged area must be removed c. the damaged area must be replaced d. a collection of various repair enzymes must be present

which of the following would you expect to find in a sample of DNA from one of your liver cells?

ans: all of them a. transposons b. spacer DNA c. DNA that codes for proteins d. DNA that codes for RNA

Which of the following would not be considered a concern for critics of genetic engineering?

ans: e a) Genetically modified plants or animals could spread to wild species. b) Genetically modified foods may cause allergic reactions in unsuspecting consumers. c) Genetic engineering of herbicide-resistant plants may lead to increased use of herbicides. d) Genetic engineering of plants containing Bt toxin may be harmful to beneficial insect species. e) none of the above

Imagine that sometime in the future human space explorers discover life on another planet and that this life has DNA as its genetic material. Which of the following could be used to study the genetics of this extraterrestrial life?

ans: e a) cloning b) gel electrophoresis c) PCR d) restriction enzymes e) all of the above

A violation of which of the following conditions would cause a population to shift away from its stable Hardy-Weinberg frequencies?

ans: e a) no genetic drift b) no gene flow c) no net mutation d) no natural selection e) any of the above

Which of the following is a critically important tool used in experiments involving DNA hybridization?

ans: e a) restriction enzymes b) DNA probes c) heat d) radioactive or chemical labels e) all of the above

DNA cloning is beneficial because a cloned gene can be

ans: e a) sequenced using automated sequencing machines. b) transferred to other cells of the same organism. c) transferred to cells in other organisms. d) used in DNA hybridization experiments. e) all of the above

Basing your answer on the information in Figure 17.6, which of the following organisms should have five digits and the same set of arm bones?

answer : all of the above a) chimpanzee b) cat c) squirrel d) dolphin e) all of the above

The evidence supporting biological evolution includes

answer : e a) fossils. b) patterns of embryological development. c) shared anatomical characteristics. d) molecular similarities. e) all of the above

Which of the following contributes to the spread of antibiotic resistance among pathogenic bacteria?

answer : e a) the transfer of resistance genes between bacteria b) poor sanitation in areas where pathogenic microbes are plentiful c) indiscriminate use of antibiotics d) directional selection e) all of the above

Which of the following would not be considered as one of the steps in the evolutionary process?

answer : e a) Random mutations and genetic rearrangements occur. b) Natural selection acts on the genetic variation present in a population. c) Inheritable characteristics are produced by random genetic events such as mutation. d) Allele frequencies in a population change over time. e) none of the above

The cytochrome c data in Figure 17.10 suggests that which of the following statements is true?

answer: d a) Rhesus monkeys and humans are fairly closely related. b) Humans and moths are only distantly related. c) Tuna and dogs are only distantly related. d) all of the above

comparative approach

anthropologists often use a comparative approach to study human behavior and biology to identify : aspects that are similar in all populations, aspect that are unique to specific environments or cultures

Primate

any placental mammal; is a mammal in taxonomy, it includes two distinct lineages, strepsirrhines (primates with wet noses) and haplorhines (primates with dry noses) or anthropoids and prosimians. Which consists of the lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, New World monkeys, Old World monkeys, apes, and humans.

Mendel's law of independent assortment

applies to genes on different chromosomes

Capuchin monkeys

are New World monkeys of the subfamily Cebinae. They are found in the Northern parts of Argentina. They are also scattered around North America and South America.They only live in the trees and they only are active during the day. They are considered to be the most intelligent of New World Monkeys. They have arms, legs, and a tail that are dark in color. The rest of the body is white or cream. They have a black cap of fur on top of the head. They can be 22 inches long for the body and the tail can be that long too. They only weigh about 2 pounds when they are fully grown.

Bush babies Subfamily of lorises

are also known as Galagos. These monkeys are small, nocturnal primates native to continental Africa. They are sometimes included as a subfamily within the Lorisidae or Loridae. They have large eyes that give them good night vision, strong hind limbs, acute hearing, and long tails that help them balance. They have nails on most of their digits, except for the second toe of the hindfoot, which bears a 'toilet' claw for grooming. Their diet is a mixture of insects and other small animals, fruit, and tree gums.

proteins

are essential parts of organisms and participate in virtually every process within cells, from metabolism to maintaining cell shape

Prenatal screening in humans, HIV testing in humans, and genetic engineering for protection against insect attack in plants all

are examples of the application of DNA technology.

what are mutations

are permanent alterations in DNA structure

what are gene promoters

are sections of a gene that function as an on/off switch for transcription

what are transposons

are sequences that can move from one position on a chromosome to another, or even from one chromosome to another, and may disrupt a gene's function in the process

Bonobos

are sometimes called pygmy chimpanzees even though they are about the same size as chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Overall, they have a more gracile, or slender, build than chimpanzees. They exhibit moderate sexual dimorphism. Bonobos have black hair and black faces from birth. Locomotion patterns in bonobos include quadrupedal knuckle walking, modified brachiation and some bipedalism . Bonobos show a greater predisposition for bipedal gait than other apes because of a more centrally positioned foramen magnum, longer thigh bones, longer feet, and differential distribution of body weight.

what are extrons?

are the coding segments of DNA

what is race?

as applied to humans, race is a vague term that has multiple meanings referring to group membership

Mendel

autrian monk who conducted extensive series of experiments in plant breeding and showed that genetic information is inherited in discrete units. Prior to Mendel, it was thought that inheritance involved blending together of genetic information from the egg and the sperm

allele frequencies

calculated by counting the number of each allele and dividing that by the total number of alleles

Which of the following is an example of a shared characteristic between species that exists because of common evolutionary descent?

b) the number and type of bones in the limbs of vertebrates

genotype frequencies

calculated by dividing the number of individuals of each genotypes by the total number of individuals

theistic evolution

belief that God operates through the natural process of evolution

Again refer to Figure 17.10. If you were to plot the cytochrome c data for a frog on this graph, where would it most likely be placed in relationship to the other animals?

between the tuna and the rattlesnake

what is a misconception about natural selection?

bigger is always better. ACTUALLY, bigger is not always better. Newer is better. ACTUALLY, newer is not always better. Natural selection always works. ACTUALLY, natural selection does not always work. There is an inevitable direction in evolution. ACTUALLY, evolution does not have an inevitable direction.

the process of gene transcription begins with the

binding of RNA polymearase to a region of DNA called the promoter.

The process of gene transcription begins with the

binding of RNA polymerase to a region of DNA called the "promoter"

which of the following would not be considered a mechanism used by eukaryotes to regulate gene expression?

binding of tryptophan to a repressor protein

biological anthropology

biological anthropology is concerned with the biological evolution and variation of the human species, past and present (physical anthropology)

reproduction

biological process by which new individual organisms are produced from their parents. Two types of reproduction : sexual and asexual. Sexual reproduction typically requires the involvement of two individuals or gametes, one each from opposite type of sex. Each parent organism contributes half o the offspring's genetic makeup

example of real life alleles

blood type

what do chromosomes contain

both DNA and protein

homozygoe

both alleles at a given locus are identical

What is the rate of evolution?

both gradualism and punctuated equilibrium can be useful way of thinking about evolution, but strict versions of either are incorrect. The rate of evolution is variable--sometimes fast, sometimes very slow.

Phylogenetic tree

branching diagram or tree showing the evolutionary relationships among species

phylogenetic tree

branching diagree or tree showing the evolutionary relationships among species

cladogenesis

branching evolution: formation of one or more new species from another over time. One or more new species branch from an original species

A certain enzyme is known to be responsible for separating the two strands of a DNA molecule to facilitate the process of DNA replication. This enzyme most likely

breaks hydrogen bonds between bases

The Galápagos Islands have played a significant role in the development of evolutionary thinking for more than 150 years. Which of the following is not an example of evolutionary change that has been studied using species from the Galápagos?

breeding of new varieties from a single wild species

REverand Thomas Malthus

british economist--the power of population is indefinitely greater than power in the earth to produce subsistence for man: 1)populations grow faster than resources 2)many organisms die before reaching maturity and reproducing. Malthus was interested in social applications to address poverty, thought that the dangers of population growth would preclude progress towards a utopian society.

comparing genomes

by comparing human DNA sequences with other organisms we can determine : what is our relationship to other species? what makes us unique?

classification of living species

can be based on the morphology or genetic distances among creatures

parisomy

can be defined as economy in explanation, the least complex path. Scientists compare different phylogenetic trees to see which is more parisomous.

microevolution

changes in frequencies of alleles from one generation to the next rather than focusing on individuals, microevolution focuses on defining the relative frequencies of alleles, genotypes, and phenotypes for entire populations

what is macroevolution:

changes on the large scale

what is microevolution:

changes on the small scale

disruptive selection example

cactus spine numbers: they always choose cacti with intermediate number of spines (too few not attractive, and too many spines hard to gather). Gradually, gene pool changes in favor of the two extremes in spine numbers.

Down Syndrome's cause

caused by an extra chromosome in the 21st position or changes in that chromosome pair

EVOLUTION =

change in GENE FREQUENCY in POPULATION over TIME

Evolution

change in a living organisms over time: When and how and why did certain marriage systems evolve? What skin color did the first humans have? Why did other skin colors evolve?

What are some ways in which mutations occur?

changes in a single DNA base, changes in larger sections of DNA, changes in an entire chromosome

complex genetic traits

characterized by continuous distributions rather than finite number of discrete values. Complex traits are affected by the environment.

Cladistics

cladistics stresses evolutionary relationships between organisms based on shared derived homologous traits. Primitive traits and unique derived traits are not considered?

classification of extinct species

classification can be limited by the types of info available for a species

A biologist intends to use PCR to perform a task. The biologist probably is trying to

clone a gene

cultural adaptations

clothes, shelter, food production, etc.

total variation

combination of genetic and environmental variation

Fst = 1

completely isolated from each other no sharing of genetic material. populations are fixed

Franklin

conlcuded that DNA had two helices and Wilkins secretly showed Wanson and Crick x-ray diffraction photos taken by Franklin without her consent.

The most common way gene expression is regulated in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes is through the

control of gene transcription

in humans, the genetic commonality of height and skin tone is that they are both

controlled by multiple genes with a strong environmental influence

the work of archibald garrod and william bateson on inherited human metabolic disorders provided some of the first clues that genes work by

controlling the production of proteins

examining craniometrics

cranial capacity is a measure of the volume of the interior of the braincase measured in cubic centimeters (cc). Cranial capacity was thought to indicate mental ability or intelligence. Morton measured skulls concluding that the skulls and brains of different races varied in size. He concluded that human races had different levels of intelligence. Forensic experts are able to classify a skull as asian, black or white but that does not mean these are meaningful groups! About 80% of the variation in cranial shape occurs within each population and 20% occurs between populations across regions.

meiosis

creation of sex cells by replication of chromosomes followed by two cell divisions. Each sex cell contains half of an individual's chromosomes. When a sperm cell fertilizes and egg cell, then the total number of chromosomes is restored. Produces gametes (sex cells) involves two cycles of cell division : chromosomes replicate themselves, then cell divides, then divides again without replicating

REginand Punnet

creator of punnett square, but struggled to explain why a dominant gene would not become fixed and ubiquitous in a population

What is it called when homologous chromosomes exchange segments

crossing over

continuous variation

difficulty exists in trying to divide a continuum of units into discrete categories. As we discussed, complex traits have continuous distributions. Many traits used to define race are continuous!

sexaul dimorphism

differences in size between the sexes associated with extreme male competition and dominance over females

variation

differences that exist among individuals or populations

Which of the following animals is a product of artificial selection?

dalmation

Darwin's tree of life

darwin addressed limitations of the linneaus' classification with his tree of life: this new system of natural classification expresses both evolutionary relationships and time

cultural anthropology

deals primarily with variation in cultures of populations in the present or recent past. Cultural anthropologist look at all aspects of behavior within a society including social, political, economic, and ideological aspects of culture.

Sir Francis Galton

dedicated his career to studying variation among human populations, including facial images, mental characteristics, height, and fingerprint patterns. He was the first to 1) study human differences and inheritance of intelligence 2) use surveys for collecting data on human communities. He coined the term eugenics.

competition over access to mates

degree of sexual dimorphism provides a morphological indicator of male competition

messenger RNA (mRNA)

delivers the genetic information, or instructions, from DNA to the ribosomes, where proteins are made

Disruptive selection

extreme values are selected over intermediate trait values. In dramatic cases, the distribution of traits is divided into two distinct groups. Some scientists have even attributed speciation events to this force.

female mate choice

election of one or more mates by females : since females make disproportionate investment in reproduction...they may be more selective about their mates. Female considerations in mating starts : 1) seek males that can contribute to acquiring food and ensuring safety 2) males that are good allies against other females or males 3) males that contribute toward infant care 4) selecting males with good genes 5) avoid inbreeding

Alfred Russel Wallace

english natural historian and specimen collector. While collecting specimens, Wallace noticed the diversity of species across the island. Unlike Darwin, he wanted to tell the world about his ideas. Wallace wrote short stories and sent them off to journals in England. New species arose from old species and species were connected like a branching tree.

Newton

english physicist, mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, and theologian--built first practical reflecting telescope, developed a theory of color, formulated an empirical law of cooling, studied the speed of sound

phylogeny

evolutionary history of group of organisms

"Organs of extreme perfection"

ex. the eye

Tay-Sachs disease

example of natural selection (against the recessive homozygote). Carriers are not afflicted, but still pass on the allele if their mate is also a carrier, they will produce a child with the disease.

speciation

explains why organisms can be classified hierarchically : a group of species that share a common ancestor can be arranged in a family tree

hypothesis

explanation of observed facts, must be testable

do males and females hold the same views on reproduction

female sex cells are more costly and limited than male sex sells. Reproductive mistakes are more costly for females than they are for males. 1) number of offspring that they can physiologically produce: females are more limited than males 2) investment before and after both of offspring: females care for developing young, male investment can be much less 3) certainty of parentage : females sure that the offspring are their own and males are not certain 4) time lost with infant mortality: females must wait for resumption of ovulation, male reproductive capacity is independent of success / failure of previous copulations

transcription: step by step

first, RNA polymerase binds to the DNA template strand. Second, RNA polymerase synthesizes a strand of RNA that is complementary to the DNA template strand. third, the new RNA strand becomes longer and longer as the DNA template is transcribed. Noncoding regions called introns are removed from newly synthesized mRNA.

A nucleotide is composed of

five-carbon sugar a phosphate group a nitrogenous base

molecular clock

for the past 40 years, evolutionary biologists have been investigating the possibility that some evolutionary changes occur in a clock like fashion. The idea of the molecular clock was based on observed regularities in the rate of genetic change along different phylogenetic lines. Over the course of millions of years, mutation may build up in any given stretch of DNA at a reliable rate. When a stretch of DNA does behave like a molecular clock, then it can be used to measure the time elapsed since two species shared a common ancestor. This info can be used to date divergences for which we don't have fossils. However, we need to calculate the rate at which genetic distance changes through time. This can be calculated based on a known and dated species split = genetic distance between species / time since last common ancestor of the species

assortative mating

form of nonrandom mating that occurs when there is mating based on phenotypic similarity or dissimilarity. Positive assortative matin his when you seek mates with traits similar to yourself. Negative assortative mating is when you seek mates with traits dissimilar to yourself.

inbreeding

form of nonrandom mating that occurs when there is mating between biologically related individuals. Results in increase homozygosity. Offspring have higher chances of having deleterious recessive genes.

stabilizing selection

form of selection against extreme values large of small in a continuous traits. Individuals with extreme values are less likely to survive. Those closer to average values are more likely to survive and reproduce. This is a complex trait with continuous distribution. Those with intermediate values are more likely to survive and reproduce, and pass on their genes. Increase in intermediate values occurs.

sympatric speciation

formation of a new species from an ancestral species in the absence of geographic isolation. Members of the population adopt different behaviors and become reproductively isolated. examples : focus on dif food sources, one is active during day the other at night, one lives in the canopy, the other on the ground

adaptive radiation

formation of many new species following the availability of new environments or the development of a new adaption: event in which lineage rapidly diversifies, with the newly formed lineages evolving different adaptations. Rapid diversification of mammals may constitute an adaptive radiation.

reproductive isolation

genetic isolation of a population that may render them incapable of producing offspring. reduced or eliminated gene flow between populations (most commonly caused by geographic isolation between populations)

Insertions or deletions of bases to the DNA strand will likely cause what kind of mutation

frame-shift mutation

transfer RNA (tRNA)

free floating molecule that is attracted to a strand of messenger RNA, resulting in the synthesis of a protein chain

Lamarck

french scientist--believed in dramatic and significant change in both species and individuals. Organic forms were constantly changing, even within their lifetimes. Held that the relationship between an organism and its environment is dynamic.

In the Hardy-Weinberg equation, the term "2pq" represents the

frequency of the heterozygous genotype.

overview of protein production

from DNA to protein production : 1) DNA strand splits 2) RNA is synthesized from the DNA template 3) messenger RNA trasnports info from nucleus to ribosome 4) transfer RNA facilitates the synthesis of amino acids 5) amino acid chains (polypeptide chains) from proteins 6) proteins go to work!

fetilization =

fusion of gametes. Sex cells are haploid as they only contain one copy of each chromosome (23 total)

A sequence of DNA that contains information for the synthesis of RNA molecules used in the manufacture of proteins is also known as

gene

A sequence of DNA that contains information for the synthesis of RNA molecules used in the manufacture of proteins is also known as a(n)

gene

In genetic engineering, genes can be inserted from one organism into another or back into the original organism using which of the following techniques?

gene gun

Among individuals, the ultimate source of heritable differences fueling natural selection is

gene mutation.

Individual genotypes in a breeding population, taken as a whole, compose the

gene pool

most genes have a stretch of DNA that that acts as an on/off switch for gene expression. what is this stretch of DNA called?

gene promoter

what is the main function of genes

genes bring about the production of proteins. Genes are composed of DNA.

DNA = ?

genetic code (deoxyribonucleic acid): 'set of instructions for determining the makeup of biological organisms.' DNA provides the codes for biological structures and means to translate the code. Provides information for building, operating, and repairing organisms.

estimated divergence date

genetic distance between species / rate at which genetic distance accumulates through time

Which of the following is more likely to occur when a population of organisms is small?

genetic drift

problem with the biological race concept

genetic variation exists, and it is geographically structured. However, the race concept has been associated with the idea of defining discrete and easily distinguishable groups of human populations. Supporters claim that humans can be categorized into separate races.

uniformitarianism

geologic processes that we observe in the world today (such as erosion) operated in the same way in the past. This means that we can study the world in the present and use this information to make inferences about the past.

ontogenetic time

gestation, birth, death

paternal mtDNA

gets shed. In most species, including humans, mtDNA is inherited soley from the mother. Paternal mitochondria are located on the mid piece of the sperm which is lost during fertilization. mtDNA was the first significant part of the human genome to be sequenced. The fact that mtDNA is maternally inherited has enabled researchers to trace maternal lineages far back in time 'mitochondrial eve.' At fertilization, tail and paternal mtDNA are shed.

genes do not code for

glycolipids

Aristotle

greek philosopher: student of and teacher of Alexander the Great, Aristotle compiled a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality, logic, politics and metaphysics. Proposed a hierarchical organization of life forms, placing organisms according to complexity of structure and function.

What are the two criteria that Barbara Smuts used to define friendship in baboons

grooming use of tools (knowledge is passed down)

outgroup

group that is more distantly related to the species being classified aids in determining whether ancestral state of a trait is primitive/derived.

species

groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups, the biggest gene pool possible under natural conditions

breeding population

groups of organisms that tend to choose mates from within the group--excludes individuals too young and too old to mate, cultural and geographic factors may exclude other population. It is difficult to define what proportion of mating within a group defines a human breeding population. Often, the definition of a population depends on the specific research question.

What functional gene is lacking in Ice Fish according to Carroll

hemoglobin

What type of characteristics define evolutionary relationships?

homologous structures: primitive and derived

certain genes in your genome are involved in the everyday funcitons that keep your cells and you alive. what are these genes that are always expressed called?

housekeeping genes

example of stabilizing selection

human birth weight : a result of genetic and environmental factors. occurs against both extremes AND number of chicks in a nest

example of directional selection case study

human brain size : three fold increase in brain size over the last 4 million years!

geological time

humans have existed for a small portion (6 million years since our divergence with chimpanzees)

Nuclear DNA

in nucleus : 46 chromosomes, 3.4 billion bases. 22 autosome paris + sex chromosomes, 3.4 billion bases, 20,000 genes, inherited from both parents, extensive recombination (shuffling), large number of variable regions useful for studying diversity

In bacteria, genes are typically turned on and off

in response to environmental changes

which of the following statements regarding genes is false?

in sexually reproducing species, each cell contains a single copy of every gene.

parallel evolution

independent evolution of similar traits in closely related species (ex. increase in dental size among early human ancestors)

convergent evolution

independent evolution of similar traits in distinct evolutionary lines (bipedality in chickens and humans)--they are bipedal but this is not because they descended from a common ancestor (evolved independently)

what is behavioral isolation

individuals choose their mating partners. this choice is often dependent upon courtship rituals

For the information contained in a gene to be used to produce a functioning protein,

information must be transcribed into mRNA and then translated into amino acids

what do gene regulatory proteins/transcription factors do?

interact with signals from the environment and regulatory DNA to control gene expression.

Fst = 0

interbreeding freely, complete sharing of genetic material

What may cause a jump in fossil record?

irregular fossil preservation : makes it difficult to conclude that evolution happened rapidly

what is noncoding DNA

is DNA that does not code for any kind of functional RNA

Science

is a body of knowledge, is a process for building that knowledge, has both creative and critical components. a way of knowing: accumulating data from observations and experiments, seeking relationships of the data and with other phenomena, excluding supernatural explanations and personal wishes

what is RNA

is a single-stranded nucleicacid similiar to DNA

Sexual selection in a population

is a special type of natural selection

sperm

is derived from the greek word sperma meaning seed and refers to the male reproductive cells, sperm have 22 chromosomes in the head mtDNA in the mid-piece

A sample of DNA from a person suspected of having sickle-cell anemia is subjected to DNA hybridization using two probes—one that binds to the normal allele and another that binds to the sickle-cell allele. If both probes bind to the DNA, this individual

is heterozygous for the sickle-cell gene.

Even though you and your brothers or sisters are all humans, odds are that each of you has a somewhat different genetic makeup. The molecular basis for this inherited genetic variation

is related to the differences in the DNA nucleotide sequence of your genes

even though you and your bros and sisters are all humans, odds are that each of you has a somewhat different genetic makeup. the molecular basis for this inherited genetic variation

is related to the differenece in the DNA nucleotide sequence of your genes

what is speciation

is the development of new species through evolution.

what is gene expression

is the manifestation of the information encoded in a gene as a specific trait - different sets of genes are expressed in different cell types

genetic divergence

isolation is the first step in the speciation process...but alone is cannot guarantee speciation. Evolutionary forces act on isolated populations (mutation, genetic drift, and natural selection will produce genetic divergence)

chronospecies

labels given to different points in the evolutionary lineage of a single species over time (refers to anagenesis)

DNA

large molecule, restricted to nucleus(some exceptions), separated from cytoplasm

hylobatidae

lesser apes- Gibbons and siamangs southeast Asia

limitations of linneaus' classification

linneaus produced a comprehensive classification based on similarities in physical structure and behavior : limitations include 1) no info about evolutionary relationships 2) dimension of time is absent

macroevolution

long term patterns of genetic change over thousands and millions of generations, and the origin of new species

macroevolution

long terms patterns of genetic change over thousands and millions o generations and the process of speciation = mutation & gene flow & genetic drift & natural selection + 3.8 billion years = macroevolution

messenger RNA

mRNA = form of RNA that transports the genetic info from the DNA molecule to the site of protein syntesis

Ribosomes

main actors in translation -- specialized cellular structures in which translation takes place. They move along an mRNA strand and assemble the sequence of amino acids indicated by the mRNA, surrounded by small molecules called transfer RNA.

monomorphic

male and females have similar body size

sexual monomorphism

males and females are similar in size and strength associated with equality in relationships

recessive allele

masked by the effect another allele at a given locus

dominant allele

masks the effect of another allele at a given locus

Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium

mathematical statement that relates the allele frequencies in a population to the expected genotype frequencies in the next generation...assumed absence of evolutionary forces and nonrandom mating

what is gametic isolation

mating may occur, but the sperm is incompatible with either the egg or the female reproductive system

genetic distance

measure of overall genetic similarity. the basic steps in calculating genetic distance 1) identify homologous dan segments in the species being compared 2) sequence the segments 3) quantify number of bases at which the sequences differ . Larger the number of difference, the greater the genetic distances!

mutation

mechanism for evolutionary change resulting from a nonrandom change in the genetic code. Mutations are the ultimate source of all genetic variation because they introduce new alleles into a population, and change the frequency of different alleles over time. Mutations can have different effects, depending on the specific type of mutation and the environment. Conventional view of mutations is that they are mostly hardly. Mutations can also be advantageous and lead to changes that improve the survival and reproduction of organisms. Other mutations seem to be neutral. Mutations are vital to evolution because they provide new variations.

Mendel's insights meets the punnett square

mendel showed that genetic info is inherited in discrete units. The Punnett Square can be used to predict genotypes of future generations.

process of inheritence

mendelian genetics -- branch of genetics concerned with the patterns and processes of how genes are passed from one generation to the next

biological adaptations

metabolic changes, skin color, etc.

approaches to population genetics

microevolution and macroeveolution

which of the following statements about the process of DNA replication is false?

mistakes in the copying process are very common occurrences

example of mutation when entire chromosome changes?

monosomy : a condition in which only one chromosome is present AND trisomy : a condition in which 3 chromosomes rather than a pair occur

Several generations into the future, a population of birds currently undergoing stabilizing selection will look

more like the current mean.

gene flow

movement of alleles from one population to another. clearly differentiated from migration, which is the movement of individuals from one place to another. Gene flow promotes genetic similarity (more mixing creates more genetic similarity.) Gene flow strongly acts against speciation, recombining the gene pools of groups. Gene flow also aids the spread of alleles. A new mutation arising in one population can spread throughout the rest of a species by gene flow.

Amino acids specified by mRNA codons

multiple codons can code for the same amino acid. AUG represents amino acid Methionine, which is also known as the start condon. Methionine is the first amino acid to dock in the ribosome during the synthesis of proteins. The codons UAA, UAG, and UGA are the stop codons that signal the termination of translation.

The only regularly predictable source of new genetic material to any species is

mutation

The substitution of one DNA base for another due to a mistake during replication is called a

mutation

rates of mutation

mutations are relatively rare events, but the exact rate of mutations is difficult to determine. Estimated range of mutation in humans : 0.1 to 10 mutations per million genes per generation.

what are point mutations

mutations involving a single base pair

anchrondoplastic dwarfism

natural selection against the dominant homoszygote. 85% of cases are caused by mutation in the sex cells of one parents, typically associated with advanced paternal age. Individuals with one or two of the alleles show the disease. Heterozygotes have the disease and are carriers. Homozygotes do not survive. Low frequency of the disease is result of natural selection acting to remove the harmful allele from the population.

allele frequency

necessary to determine frequencies within a defined population : measure of the relative proportions of alleles within a population

Apes differences monkeys

no tail shape of chest/wide side-side dorsal flat shoulder blade more dorsally placed scapula more robust clavicle (more flexibility) shape of pelvis (broader, bold) shape length front back limbs femur/lemurs forelimbs longer than hind limbs because of bipedalism more flexibility in joints

which of the following parts of a DNA molecule are held together by hydrogen bonds

nucleotide bases on opposite strands of the double helix

which part of a DNA molecule are held together by hydrogen bonds

nucleotide bases on opposite strands of the double helix

what is a spacer DNA?

noncoding DNA that separates one gene from another

what are introns?

noncoding sections of DNA

Refer to Figure 15.10. If the original triplet DNA codon CTC had mutated into CTT instead of CAC as shown, what would have been the consequence for the hemoglobin formed from this alternative mutation?

normal hemoglobin would have been made

the mechanism of evolution

not all individuals in a species survive and reproduce. Some failure to reproduce may be random, but other failures are related to specific characteristics of an individual. Insight of Darwin based on Malthus essay.

what makes DNA and RNA

nucleotides: SUGAR, PHOSPHATE, BASE

codominant allele

one allele variant is not dominant over the other

assume that you chemically label both strands within a molecule of DNA. you then allow this DNA to replicate using unlabeled nucleotides. Which of the following statements about the two resulting DNA molecules would be false?

one molecule would contain the chemical label, the other would not

when a molecule of DNA replicates without error, each of the resulting molecules contains

one new strand and one old strand

allopatric speciation

one species branching into two as a result of geographic and reproductive isolation

how do we group organisms?

organisms are grouped based on characteristics that reflect evolutionary relationships. Places in the same group when they have a more recent common ancestor, than either does with other organisms.

intergenerational time

ourselves, our parents, our grandparents generations

out of africa model

out of africa suggests that modern human anatomy first appeared in Africa and then spread across the old world. While modern humans were appearing in Africa, other more archaic humans were still living elsewhere in the world. When modern humans migrated, they encountered these archaic humans. One scenario suggests that when they migrated they replaced preexisting human populations and another scenario suggests that the transition took place in Africa and these changes spread to other populations through gene flow. Genes of non-AFrican populations were assimilated into the gene pool rather than being replaced.

In which of the following cells from a human would you expect to find the genes that code for both insulin and rRNA expressed at the same time?

pancreatic cell

transmission of genetic info: between generations

passing the genetic code between generations requires that your mother contribute one chromosome from each pair and your rather the other chromosome

population level

patterns of genetic variation within and among populations

population level of studying genetics

patterns of genetic variation within and among populations

Which of the following is an example of rapid evolutionary change in a population?

pesticide resistance in insects

patterns in macroevolution

phylogenics can also depict general patterns across the tree of life. Phylogeny can also depict differences between lineages.

morphology

physical structure

ovum

plural ova, from the latin word ovum meaning egg or egg cell is a female reproductive cell or games, ovum-23 chromosomes in the ovum mtDNA inside

formulation of new species

populations become new species when they have become reproductively isolated and genetically divergent from the parent species

isolation by distance model

predicts that the genetic distance between populations will increase as the geographic distance between them increases : the further two populations are geographically, the more reduced the gene flow. Closer they are together, the greater the exchange of genetic material.

Five digits (classify trait)

primitive trait

priority of access

priority of access to important resources is often granted to males that have outcompeted other males by attaining higher rank or status

A murder has occurred, and you are asked to help solve it. The police bring you a sample from the crime scene of what they believe is the killer's DNA and ask you for a chemical analysis. Your study of this sample reveals the presence of adenine, thymine, ribose, and uracil, leading you to conclude that the sample is

probably a mixture of DNA and RNA

Mitosis

process of cell replication by duplication (produces two identical body cells from one original)

Without the _________ site on a molecule of DNA, ___________ cannot bind to the DNA to begin the process of

promoter; RNA polymerase; mRNA transciption

Without the ________ site on a molecule of DNA, ________ cannot bind to the DNA to begin the process of ________.

promoter; RNA polymerase; mRNA transcription

Multiregional evolution model

proposes that modern humans emerged more or less simultaneously in major regions of the old world and from archaic humans

scientist initialy thought that the genetic material consisted of

proteins.

The evolution of horses, shown in Figure 17.9, is a good example of the evolutionary process because it

provides solid fossil evidence in favor of evolution.

According to S. Carroll the reason why most active genes show few non-synonymous mutations is because of the action of:

purifying selection

Translation requires what in order to carry out its process?

rRNA and tRNA ribosomal and transfer

genetic drift

random change in allele frequency from one generation to the next. The probability of either allele from a parent being passed on is 50%. The greater the number of events, the fewer the deviations from expected frequencies. So larger populations are less subject to deviations in allele frequencies.In large populations, fewer deviations in allele gene frequencies due to drift and less change will occur from one generation to the next. Genetic drift has the greatest evolutionary effect in relatively small breeding populations. In small populations, genetic drift more often results in loss of alleles.

The genetic disorder XP is a tragic example of the failure of DNA repair mechanisms. Specifically, XP patients possess a _____ allele that produces a nonfunctional protein whose job it would normally be to repair DNA damaged by _____

recessive ; ultraviolet light

homology

refers to similarity due to common ancestry

homoplasy

refers to the similarity due to independent evolution. For example, birds and insects independently evolved the ability to fly. These wings all provide the same function, but are structurally different, reflecting independent evolutionary origin. types include parallel evolution and convergent evolution

what is mechanical isolation

reproductive organs of two closely related species may have incompatible sizes or shapes

which of the following represents a type of housekeeping gene that would likely be expressed in a human pancreas cell?

ribosomal RNA(rRNA) gene

taxonomy

science of describing and classifying organisms

Charles Lyell

scottish geologist--provided considerable geological evidence for a slowly changing earth because the earth was shaped slowly over time, it would have taken considerable amount tot time to form the present geological features. Estimated the earth to be much more than 6,000 years old.. Lyell also suggested that small biological processes could produce considerable evolutionary change over time.

James Hutton

scottish geologist. Developed the idea of uniformitarianism.

Directional selection

selection against one extreme is a continuous trait and or selection for the other extreme. Direct relationship exists between 1) value of the trait 2) survival and reproduction of the organism. Result is a change over time in one direction. Individuals closer to other extreme survive and reproduce, passing their genes to the next generation. Result is change over time in one direction.

In eukaryotic cells, histones

serve as structures around which DNA is spooled for packaging

theory

set of hypotheses that have been tested repeatedly and not rejected

Watson and Crick

shared an interest in determining the molecular model of DNA structure.

The rudimentary hind legs of a python and the fully functional legs of other reptiles are

shared characteristics that result from common descent.

shoulder anatomy (classify trait)

shared derived trait

DNA probes are

short, single-stranded segments of DNA used in DNA hybridization experiments.

Imagine a gel through which DNA fragments have moved in response to an applied electrical current. The band on this gel that is farthest from the top (that is, from the place where the DNA fragments were added to the "well") represents the

shortest fragments of DNA

example of balancing selection

sickle cell heterozygotes : heterozygotes have an advantage in areas with malaria . People heterozygous for sickle cell trait have good resistance to malaria because some of their red cells are misshaped and deflated. Prevalence of sickle cell allele varies geographically. Sickle cell frequencies are highest where malaria is most prevalent. Selection for heterozygote involves selection for and against both alleles creating a balance, hence balancing selection.

RNA's structural differences in comparison to DNA

single stranded, ribose, and Uracil (U) instead of Thymine(T)

A population susceptible to genetic bottlenecks would have which of the following characteristics?

small population size

RNA

small relative to DNA, in nucleus and cytoplasm

a sample of DNA from an unknown organism is analyzed and found to contain histone proteins, more than 2 billion base pairs, and large segments of noncoding DNA. From this information, one can conclude that the organism is

some kind of eukaryotic organism

Noncoding DNA includes what

spacer DNA and introns

extinction

species entirely dying out. Extinction rate is also variable. More than 99% of all species that have ever existed have become extinct. Extinction may be due to rapid ecological change. For example, if climate changes too rapidly for a series to adapt. If humans destroy or alter a habitat too quickly for the species to find another suitable habitat or coexist in the altered one.

Locus

specific position of a gene or DNA sequence on a chromosome

Consider the three-dimensional structure of DNA. Which of the following has a structure analogous to a molecule of DNA?

spiral staircase

modern syntehsis

synthesis of evolution and genetics. The modern synthesis bridged the gap between naturalists, plaeontologists, and experimental geneticists. Combines Mendelian principles of inheritance, population-level biology, and mathematics to produce modern framework for understanding evolution.

The anti-codon loop is found on which nucleic acid molecule

tRNA

transfer RNA

tRNA (main function in translation): functions as an adapter between the genetic message and the protein product. Each tRNA molecule consists of two ends: one end binds to a specific amino acid, other binds to a specific codon in the mRNA sequence-- it carries a series of nucleotides called anticodon

Mendel's first experiment

tallness is a dominant trait. First generation, all offspring were tall. Second generation, three quarters were tall and one quarter was short. Mendel's conclusion : inheritance could be explained in terms of simple math principles

Which of the following does not have a direct effect on the process of biological evolution?

techniques for determining the age of fossils

the structure labeled "metaphase chromosome" at the top of the diagram would not be able to undergo successful gene transcription because

the DNA is packed too lightly

example of genetic drift

the Dunkers (as a result of their small population)

In mammals, the male parent's gametes determine the sex of his offspring because:

the Y chromosome determines sex

allele

the alternative forms of a gene at a locus

Biological evolution is best defined as

the change in genetic characteristics of populations over time.

"Microevolution" refers to

the changes in allele or genotype frequencies that occur in a population over time.

assume a cell present in your body has performed a mismatch error during the process of DNA replication. this error has resulted in the generation of a new allele for one of your genes. for this new allele to be inherited by your offspring, which of the following conditions must be true.

the error must occur in the germ line cells responsible for the production of gametes.

Refer to Figure 15.8. The small red triangle represents

the first amino acid added to the new protein.

A gene is said to be cloned if

the gene has been isolated and copied.

currently available genomes

the genomes of more than 180 organisms have been sequences 1) mosquito 2) spotted green pufferfish 3) bacteria that causes meningitis 4) chimpanzee

otheogensis

the idea that evolution will continue in a given direction because of a vaguely defined non physical force. This was posed as an alt to natural selection. It suggests that evolutionary change will continue in some direction until a perfect structure is attained or the species goes extinct. This ideas has been rejected, based on evidence from the fossil record.

intelligent design

the idea that the biological world was created by an intelligent entity and did not arise from natural processes. Proponents suggest that there are certain characteristics of biological organisms that are too complex to explain through natural selection.

Structure of the DNA

the most important scientific discovery of the 20th century: published by James Watson and Francis Crick--double helix or spiral staircase structure which holds the code to life.

Social insects : non-reproductive workers

the neuters or sterile females in insect communities : from being sterile they cannot propagate their kind

An uncorrected mismatch error during human DNA replication can result in

the potential for a disease or genetic disorder

What is translation?

the process by which a protein is synthesized from the information contained in a molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA). mRNA sequence is read and translated into chains of amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. Translation occurs in a structure called the ribosome, which is a factory for the synthesis of proteins.

what is translation

the process by which ribosomes convert the genetic information in mRNA into proteins

The genetic mutations that occur in organisms are

the raw material of evolution.

how to read a phylogenetic tree

the root represents the common ancestor of every organism on the tree. branches represent speciation events. each leaf represents an organism. each node, represents the common ancestor of all the organisms that branch out of it. evolutionary time or change is represented along the length of the tree. species continue to diverge through time, as each lineage evolves independently. in general, more recently diverged species will have more characteristics in common than those which diverged in the distant past.

archeology

the study of cultural behaviors in the historic and prehistoric past. archaeologists deal with remains of past societies. this may include : tools, shelters, remains of animals eaten for food, other objects that have survived.

the human genome project

the total DNA sequence of an organism. In 1990, the human genome project behave to sequence the human genome. The entire sequence was completed in April 2003. In humans, the genome is 3 billion base pairs in length. Took 10 years to sequence plus 3 to analyze and cost 3 billion

# of races

there has never been clear consensus on the number of races or criteria in defining race: the race concept simply doe snot fit human biological variation

Before mutation, a sequence of DNA reads GAGCCTATGCCAGTA. After the mutation, the sequence reads GAGCGTACGCCATTA. Which of the following best explains the change in DNA that has occurred?

there were multiple base substitutions

Anteaters and some whales lack teeth as adults. The presence of teeth in the embryos of these creatures is evidence that

these species share a common ancestry with animals that have adult teeth.

derived homologous trait

trait that has changed from an ancestral state (this concept is relative). Comparing modern apes and monkeys, lack of tail is derived condition because this has changed since the common ancestor of monkeys and apes. Bipedalism is derived because it has changed from the common modern apes.

Codon

three nucleate unit which dictates a particular amino acid. Four nucleotides found in mRNA can produce a total of 64 different combinations. There are only 20 different amino acids, but 64 possible condons. Most amino acids are indicated by more than one codon.

how do DNA double helix unwind

through enzymes called helicases

why do eukaryotic cells need packaging proteins?

to compress a large amount of genetic information into a chromosome

what is the function of RNA

to make proteins

primitive homologous traits

trait that has not changed from an ancestral state. Neither modern apes or humans have tails is primitive because this has not changed from the common ancestor of modern apes and humans. Primitive characters typically 1) appear earlier in organismal development 2)appear earlier in fossil record 3) may be determined using out groups

If you expose a cell to chemicals that specifically disrupt the function of RNA polymerase, which of the following processes will be most directly affected?

transcription

similar to genes that code for proteins, the products of genes that code for rRNA and tRNA must also undergo

transcription.

if you expose a cell to chemicals that specifically disrupt the function of RNA polymerase, which of the following processes will be most directly affected?

transcription. RNA polymerase is the enzyme that binds to promoter site on DNA to begin the process of gene transcription

what is the first step of gene expression

transcription. for a gene to be expressed, it must first be transcribed into RNA

what takes place during gene expression?

translation and transcription and protein funciton

Consider a population that has reached its Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium frequencies. If this population is suddenly subjected to strong directional selection, both the allele and the genotype frequencies are likely to undergo change as a result. true or false

true

In bacteria, genes are typically turned on and off in direct response to short-term changes caused by environmental conditions.

true

Modern evidence strongly supports the evolutionary prediction that organisms should possess signs of their common ancestry with other organisms. true or false

true

Most religious leaders today view evolution and religion as compatible. true or false

true

The impact a mutation has on a population depends largely on the environment in which the mutation occurs. true or false

true

There are two binding sites on a molecule of tRNA—one for the attachment of an amino acid, and the other where the tRNA anticodon binds to the corresponding codon on the mRNA molecule. true or false

true

do Eukaryotes have more DNA per cell than most prokaryotes? true or false

true

he work of Archibald Garrod and William Bateson on inherited human metabolic disorders provided some of the first clues that genes work by controlling the production of proteins. true or false

true

heterozygote

two alleles at a given locus are different

speciation

two processes of evolution: anagensis and cladogeneis

Did we evolve from apes?

we didn't evolve from chimpanzees, but rather diverged from a common ancestor

Consider two different species of turtle. These organisms

were likely formed through natural selection

molecular level

what are genes? how do they produce biological structures?

At the bottom of the diagram is the result of a gel electrophoresis run using the DNA fragments from a sickle-cell allele and a normal allele that were generated using the restriction enzyme DdeI. Which of the fragments (x, y, or z) shown is the largest?

z

LORISES

•13-16 species •Distribution: Africa and Asia •Most are slow climbers

TARSIERS

•5 species •Distribution Islands of South East Asia

PRIMATES CHARACTERISTICS

•Generalized body structure •Pentadacytl •Nails instead Claws developed (broader fingertips made for grasping) •Increased prehensility •Tendency towards erectness in posture •Retention of the clavical •Generalized dentition •Lack specialized diet (omnivorous) •Reduction of the snout •Improved vision Color vision Binocular vision Stereoscopic (depth) vision •Expansion and elaboration of the brain •Improvement in reproduction •Extension of each stage of life •Greater reliance on learned behavior (to avoid predators and food sources)

LEMUR CHARACTERISTICS

•Good grasping ability •Good vision Depth perception and color not as well developed •Nails instead of claws •Single births •Moist rhinarium •Scent glands •Attached upper lip •Reflective layer on retina

MONKEY CHARCTERISTICS

•Monkeys have tails •Size: range from 5 oz to over 100 lbs •Quadrupedalism

PROSIMIAN CHARACTERISTICS

•Most are nocturnal •Insect important in diet •Tend to be smaller than other primates •Tend to be solitary •Greater reliance on olfaction; Moist rhinarium •Vision less developed •Faster maturation rates •More specialized dentition •Vertical-Clinging and leaping •Vision less developed •Faster maturation rates •More specialized dentition •Vertical clinging and leaping •Less elaborate social behavior and organization Lemurs, Lorises, and Tasiers

TARSIERS AS A TAXONOMIC PROBLEM

•Prosimian like characteristics •Small (4.5 oz.) •Nocturnal •Insectivorous •Specialized dentition •Unelaborated social behavior and organization •Anthropoid like characteristics •Decreased snout and olfaction •No moist rhinarium; •Closure of eye socket •More rounded skull •Untethered upper lip

Apes

•Taxonomy: Suborder Anthropoidea, Superfamily, Hominoidea (Hominoids) They include gibbons, siamangs, orangtans, gorillas, chimpanees, and bonobos. They are large, tail-less, wide bodied primates. The mode of locomotion is brachiation and quadrupedal walking. All of these primates except humans and their immediate ancestors possess arms that are longer than their legs. •Species: 14 (including modern humans)