Anthro Final (Other Important Things)

what do the terms Preneanderthal and Neanderthal refer to?

Grades of Evolution, meaning that they have reached a certain level of organization. It says nothing about the ability of these groups to interbreed.

compassion

Here we get into a very gray area: what constitutes evidence of compassion in the archaeological record? - The question of when humans started showing compassion for others has had a long history. It was initially suggested that a Neanderthal individual from Shanidar Cave, Iraq was evidence of compassion. This individuals had lost a portion of his arm during life and it was suggested that he could not live without help from others. Further examples of compassion have included various traumatic injuries and dental infections. - A recent reanalysis of the St. Cesaire Neanderthal showed it to have a healed cranial injury that was suggested to have been made by a stone tool. Researchers said this was evidence of intragroup, interpersonal violence. They said that this showed Neanderthals already understood the use of tools as weapons of aggression; they were not just for getting food. This evidence was also said to show that the use of tools for intraspecific aggressive behaviors was well established in the human lineage and represents a significant aspect of the evolution of social tool

best ancestor to Homo erectus is?

Homo habilis

first evidence for the manufacture of stone tools occurred with which individual?

Homo habilis (and with "Zinjanthropus boisei")

*Zhoukoudian Cave*

*Franz Weidenreich* takes over excavations at the Peking Cave (where *Sinanthropus pekinensis* is found by *Davidson Black*), and is now called __________.

evidence of early cut-smashed bone comes from...?

*Kada Gona* and the *Middle Awash River* region of Ethiopia • hominins have NOT been found at Kada Gona in association with the tools, but tools are found in the Middle Awash and Gona at the time when only Australopithecus garhi remains are found

Devisovans, Neanderthals, Preneanderthals, and modern humans

- An extinct group in genus Homo that inhabited the Altai Mountains in Siberia ≈ 41,000 year ago. - mtDNA and nuclear DNA analysis indicates: 1. A unique mtDNA (i.e. not similar to Neanderthals or Modern human). 2. They share a common divergence time with Neanderthals (≈640,000 y) from African branch leading to modern humans. 3. Two individuals show more genetic diversity than all Eurasian Neanderthals. 4. Have a contribution of nuclear DNA from Neanderthals and modern humans. 5. Their genes are found in many modern humans, especially in Southeast Asia. 6. Preneanderthal DNA is more similar to that of Devisovans than to Neanderthals!

structures and the use of fire

- Extensive use of caves as living sites by both Preneanderthals and Neanderthals with clear evidence of the use of fire in the latter. - Cave at Vindija, Croatia; skull embedded in cave wall at Lamalunga Cave, Spain; caves at Mt. Carmel, Israel.

*grades of Homo sapiens*

1. *First migration*: Geographically limited (?): Currently known in Africa and the Middle East (Israel) but may be more widespread. If the latter, it is suggested they do not go north, moving mostly along the southern coast and into Southeast Asia and China. Most will die out and only a limited number of African populations will give rise to modern Homo sapiens. then, *anatomically modern Homo sapiens* 2. *Second migration*: Stay in Eastern Africa till around 60,000 y and then leave to Asia and Europe. These are now classified as modern Homo sapiens. The origins of anatomically modern humans is just beginning to be unraveled. Although it appears that there are two "waves" of migration out of Sub-Saharan Africa into northerly regions. It is unclear what happens to the members of the first migration. Only members of the last migration and those that stayed in Africa would be called modern Homo sapiens

To determine if hominins were acquiring meat/fat from bones one needs to look at...?

1. Body part representations. 2. Cuts and percussion marks on the bones. 3. Geological setting the bones are located within.

order of what Java and Chinese materials are placed in....?

1. first, Weidenreich and von Koenigswald suggest that it should be considered a single species in the genus, "Pithecanthropus" 2. then, in mid 1950s Mayr and Le Gros Clark suggest that they should be placed in the genus Homo 3. not until mid 1960s that everything is placed in Homo erectus

reasons bone and stone can be associated?

1. natural deaths that are scavenged by hominins 2. animal accumulation of bone at a central place, maybe then followed by hominins. 3. hominins stealing animals killed by other animals. 4. stream flow concentrations causing coincidental association of artifacts and bones at watering points

neanderthal skeleton vs. modern human

1. platycephalic vs. high, rounded skull 2. large nasal cavity vs. small nasal cavity. 3. long vs. short clavicle. 4. thick-walled long bones vs. thin-walled long bones. 5. barrel chested vs. narrow chest. 6. flaring ilium vs. narrow ilium. 7. robust hands vs. slender hands. 8. lower leg short vs. long lower leg.

biggest problems with understanding Homo erectus?

1. the lack of complete individuals or those w/ relatively complete skeletons from multiple sites 2. the long time range over which the species existed. interpretation of the time range for this species is complicated by problems in dating the specimens (is the Modjokerto subadult really 1.8 my?) 3. the wide geographic distribution (massive migrations w/ little populations are genetically linked) 4. the tempo and mode by which the species arose from H. habilis (recall that the time range for H. habilis is 2.0 - 1.6 my, while that for H. erectus starts at around 1.8 my) 5. the tempo and mode by which the transition from H. erectus to H. sapiens occurred

origins of clothing

Clothing and head lice in humans are separate species but they once shared a common ancestor - used nuclear DNA and mtDNA to determine the timing of the split between head and clothing lice - Estimated timing for the loss of body hair is around 1.2 my. - Divergence of head and body lice is around 170 kya - First evidence of "tailored" clothing is around 40 kya.

*Wadjak*

When *Eugene Dubois* goes to *Java*, he first finds a fossilized modern human skull here, but he moves his efforts to the site of *Trinil*

*Homo neanderthalensis*

William King stated that these (European) remains represented a new species, _____________. this work started a controversy that has not subsided as of today.

*Marcellin Boule*

a French scientist that studied the Neanderthal remains from La Chapelle aux Saints • this individual was an aged male who suffered from numerous conditions associated with old age, such as collapsed vertebrae caused by osteoarthritis • Boule's reconstruction led to the predominant view that Neanderthals were brutish, bent-kneed, not fully erect bipeds

*Kada Gona*, Ethiopia

a complete pelvis found here • used for comparison of pelvic girdle of A. afarensis, _________ *Homo erectus*, and Homo sapiens. additional new H. erectus material found here

until 1970s, Australopithecus africanus thought to be...

a direct ancestor to humans

*Gibraltar*

a second skull found on the island of ______ in 1848 (after first fragmentary child's skull at *Engis Cave*) • European material!!

*Olorgesailie*, Kenya

a small cranium found here additional new H. erectus material found here

*Illeret*, Kenya

a very small cranium found here (juvenile?) • cranium may be that of a juvenile or a small female additional new H. erectus material found here

*F. Clark Howell*

found early stone tools at *Omo, Ethiopia*

*SK-847*

from *Swartkrans* Cave, South Africa _______ *dated between 1.8 - 1.5 my* • what to know is that it's Homo erectus from South Africa

*Spy* in *Belgium*

in 1886, more skeletons were found at the site of *Spy* in *Belgium*. these remains were in primary contexts and removed in a controlled excavation, leaving little doubt as to their antiquity.

*Nick Toth and Kathy Schick*

noted that almost all Oldowan tools were made by right-handed people

*Movius* and the *Movius Line*

observed in 1948 that the Acheulean tradition does not appear to have spread to Asia (Oldowan-like tools used in Asia) • so, they named the boundary between the two traditions after ________. it is known as the __________. • the ________ is approximately northern and eastern limit of the Acheulean Cultural Tradition (image in slides).

Dinaledi Chamber, South Africa

parts of 15 individuals additional new H. erectus material found here

*Sileshi Semaw*

recovered the earliest recorded evidence of stone tool manufacture from *Kada Gona, Ethiopia*

"archaic Homo sapiens"

refers to a broad group of fossils from various geographic localities. These individuals are highly variable but share a morphology that is too derived (advanced) for them to be Homo erectus but is too primitive for them to be considered as modern Homo sapiens. This group would include the Neanderthals, Preneanderthals, and all other fossils humans of a similar age, essentially everything that comes after Homo erectus and before modern humans.

*Homo antecessor*

remains currently dated at 1.2 my (Lower Pleistocene) that have been assigned to a new species, ____________. These bones appear to be similar to modern humans and are suggested to be a direct ancestor. In this case, it would eliminate an African origin for modern humans and move the date at which a • one of the two groups of fossils of interest from the *Gran Dolina* portion of the *Atapuerca* site

*Chatelperronian*

shifting evidence on Neanderthals manufacturing ornamentation - Mousterian Cultural Tradition has numerous subdivisions, the last being the ________. elements of the _________ show similarities with the *Upper Paleolithic Cultural Tradition* in Europe associated with modern humans. - last phase of Mousterian cultural sharing before the Neanderthals go extinct - evidence for the use of bone for tools or the production of ornamentation by Preneanderthals is nonexistent. traditionally, it is not until the ___________- that we start to see more widespread use of bone and the production of ornaments.

*Taung*; *Sterkfontein*; and *Makapansgat*, South Africa

sites where *Australopithecus africanus* was discovered, important for Australopithecus

*Gran Dolina*

the oldest & most recently found group of fossils produced by the site of *Atapuerca*, Spain derived from a portion of the cave complex called the _________. two groups of fossils are of interest from this portion of the site. - remains currently dated at 1.2 my (Lower Pleistocene) that have been assigned to a new species, *Homo antecessor*. These bones appear to be similar to modern humans and are suggested to be a direct ancestor. In this case, it would eliminate an African origin for modern humans and move the date at which a - The most recent find form the *__________, Atapuerca* Cave Complex comprises the anterior portion of a mandible. This fragment clearly shows some evidence of a chin and the corresponding lack of a "simian shelf." Lacks a simian shelf and has an incipient chin formation. - *Fossils assigned to Homo antecessor based on their greater similarity in facial structure (i.e., they lack a Neanderthal face) to modern.*

humans are distinguished from other primates by...

their extensive use of tools, their mastery of fire, and the extensive amount of meat in their diet

*advanced Homo erectus*

this grade of evolution refers to the transitional form between Homo erectus and Homo sapiens

*Homo heidelbergensis*

this is a *type specimen* • the *Mauer Jaw* from Germany mandible fossil is placed in the genus Homo but as a separate species ________.

major australopithecine localities

• *Hadar* • *Middle Awash* • *West Turkana* • *Olduvai Gorge* • *Laetoli* • Makapansgat, Malpa • Strerkfortein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai • Taung

*Australopithecus africanus*

• *Raymond Dart* names this the first human ancestor FROM AFRICA • subadult skull derives from site of *Taung*, South Africa • controversy... some confirm or deny that it is an ancestor

*Paranthropus robustus*

• *Robert Broom* found fossils at the site of *Kromdraai*, South Africa • named a new genus for them... • further remains of this taxon found at the site of *Swartkrans* • later review put these fossils in the genus Australopithecus (Australopithecus africanus and Australopithecus robustus)

after 1970s, Australopithecines lineage changes to...

• Australopithecus afarensis = more primitive than Australopithecus africanus and not as specialized as Australopithecus robustus/boisei, it was placed at the base of the hominin lineage. • Australopithecus africanus now considered to be part of the evolving lineage of "robust" australopithecines. SEE IMAGES IN LECTURE 15... SHOWS LINEAGE

*Trinil*

• Dubois first finds a fossilized modern human skull at *Wadjak*, but moves his efforts to the site of _______, where he finds a skull cap and a femur (in different spots). • although these are not directly associated in their deposits, Dubois considers them to be from the same or similar individual(s)` • he formally names the first fossil human ancestor in 1894 based on remains from ________. he gives the species name as "*Pithecanthropus erectus*" (erect ape-man)

Neanderthals

• Represent the "Classic Neanderthals." • Occur in a limited geographic range that comprises much of Europe and the Middle East, although now suggested to have ranged well into Siberia at the site of Okladnikov. • Are limited to the time period between 130,000 to approximately 27,000 years ago. bc there is only a small amount of genetic data indicating interbreeding, many people prefer to separate __________ from the lineage leading to "modern humans." In this case they would be called Homo neanderthalensis. This species would go extinct when modern humans appear in Europe around 40-30,000 years ago. evidence for use of caves as living sites by both Preneanderthals and ________ with clear evidence of the use of fire in the latter. associated with the Mousterian Cultural Tradition when did we start showing compassion? initially suggested from a _______ individual from Shanidar Cave, Iraq that had lost a portion of it arm and couldn't live without help from others. also, analysis of St. Cesaire _______ suggested to be evidence of use of tools as weapons of aggression. practice of burying the dead has been somewhat controversial but is not clearly associated with ________. only know the practice of burial in a grave pit. burials generally show that a pit was dug and that objects, "*grave goods*" were placed with the dead. cannibalism vs. defleshing ______ were clearly primary hunters, although they also engaged in killing trapped animals. clear they exploited this situation to great advantage.

*Louis and Mary Leakey*

• ________ discovered evidence of early hominids in other parts of Africa in 1959 • found at *Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania* • originally named the specimen "*Zinjanthropus boisei*" but was later placed in the genus Australopithecus • Homo habilis was originally described by _______. • ______ was responsible for developing the typology for these early tools from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania which forms the basis of the "*Oldowan Industrial Complex*." tools from Koobi Fora, Kenya were also included in _______'s work.

the first evidence for early stone tools...

• comes from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania • *Mary Leakey* was responsible for developing the typology for these early tools which forms the basis of the "*Oldowan Industrial Complex*"

*C.K. Brain*

• credited with starting formal taphonomic studies • first studied how bones become distributed across the landscape... he did this by observing animals eating other animals • he determined that the bones Dart was interpreting as tools could more easily be explained as the remains of animals eaten, in this case, by leopards.

bone tools locations

• early suggestions of use of bone by australopithecines comes from Raymond Dart's "Osteodontokeratic Culture" which is now known to be untrue. • other suggested bone tools have been found at Makapansgat (3.0-2.5 my) and Swartkrans and Sterkfontein (2.0-1.5 my) • next oldest potential use of bone comes from Olduvai Gorge (however not many believed to have actually been used) BUT not until 60,000-40,000 years ago in the African Later Stone Age and European Upper Paleolithic that flaked, polished, and ground bone appears with systematic and repetitive patterns of use

*Java*

• following on Darwin's suggestion that primitive man would be found in the tropics, Dubois travels to _______ in 1887 in search of human ancestors • first finds a fossilized modern human skull at *Wadjak*, but he moves his efforts to the site of *Trinil* where he finds a skull cap and a femur (in dif. spots). • more Homo erectus crania are found at *Sangiran and Modjokerto* (Perning) between 1936-1941 • excavations are now handled by *G.H.R. von Koenigswald* (1937-1940)

earliest use of wood for tools?

• from Germany in the form of wooden spears, dated around 400,000 years ago • earliest African evidence comes from *Klasies River Mouth Cave* and *Boomplaas Cave*, South Africa at 75-55,000 years ago.

*Umm el Tlel*, Israel

• how food was obtained is still a problem as evidenced by the finding of a spear pointed in the neck of a wild ass (donkey ancestor). • this evidence comes from the site of _______. it is associated with Neanderthals and dates to around 50,000 years ago.

*Australopithecus afarensis*

• in the 1970s, Donald Johanson finds a new species of hominin at *Hadar, Ethiopia* • reconstructed skull and 40% complete skeleton of ____________ (3.8-2.8 mya) • discovered that _________ is way more primitive but now think it is the ancestor to Homo instead of africanus • in ___________, there is a very small brain size (no increase)... ape size brain. they are fully bipedal (makes sense bc first thing that evolves is bipedality). lost the canine honing complex. • *Mary Leakey finds further evidence of bipedality in _____________- at *Laetoli, Tanzania* (3.7 mya)

Australopithecus sediba

• investigators suggest that Aust. sediba shares numerous features with Homo erectus (the first well known and clear member of the Homo lineage) • because it is Homo-erectus like, has an age similar to fossils assigned to Homo habilis, and bc of disagreement about the relationship of Homo habilis and later Homo erectus, Aust. sediba has been suggested as a possible direct ancestor to Homo erectus. this would eliminate Homo habilis as a direct human ancestor. • however, people involved in the analysis of sediba are quick to point out that maybe similarities are due to homoplasy (another example of parallel evolution) • Aust. sediba is NOT direct ancestor to Homo erectus, it is another branch that died off. Homo habilis is the best ancestor.

Homo

• it is during the 1st of these major cooling events that we see the first evidence for our own genus, ________ • the earliest accepted evidence comes from the site of Hadar, Ethiopia and is dated at 2.3 my. • palate (upper jaw) differs by being shorter, lacking facial pillars, and having teeth that are all reduced in size • first species in our lineage is *Homo habilis* • see Homo habilis for rest of the origins of the genus, Homo

Neanderthal remains from La Chapelle aux Saints

• studied by *Marcellin Boule* • this individual was an aged male who suffered from numerous conditions associated with old age, such as collapsed vertebrae caused by osteoarthritis • Boule's reconstruction led to the predominant view that Neanderthals were brutish, bent-kneed, not fully erect bipeds

*Olduvai Gorge*, Tanzania

• the remains of Homo habilis originally described by *Louis Leakey* are derived from here. dates for these stratigraphic levels range between 2.0 - 1.6 my. • OH-62, OH-13, and OH-24 all come from here. • *Louis Leakey* assumed that the tools found here were made by the larger brained Homo habilis and not Australopithecus boisei. • next oldest potential use of bone comes from here

CONTINUED AUSTRALOPITHECUS LINEAGE IN NOTES

LOOK AT THIS BECAUSE THEY ADD A LOT

evidence of fire?

fire use is not easily determined and evidence comes in the form of burned-heated sediments and stones • Koobi Fora; Oldowan artifacts as Chesowanja, Swartkrans; Zhoukoudian Cave, China; Tabun Cave; *Gesher Benot Ya-agov, Israel*

early 1800s means...

first evidence of fossil humans recovered

*Vitamin D is produced by interaction of UV radiation and skin cells*

- If you lack Vitamin D in your diet and you are not getting enough light through you skin, this creates problems. - UV radiation stimulates the body to produce Vitamin D-3. Without Vitamin D-3, calcium and phosphates cannot be properly absorbed in the intestines. The first stage in bone growth is to deposit osteoid (a thick fluid-like substance). Without calcium the osteoid does not harden and the growing bone is unable to withstand the pressure exerted by the weight of the body, so it deforms. In heavily pigmented peoples, Vitamin D production in the skin is reduced by as much as 95%. So, darker skinned peoples living in Northern latitudes where solar radiation is less and the daylight hours are reduced run the risk of Vitamin D related diseases, such as Ricketts. An excess of UV radiation penetrating the skin, due to its being light in color, results in an overproduction of Vitamin D, the potential for severe sunburn, and an increased risk of skin cancer. Further, UV radiation entering the skin breaks down folate in the blood. Folate is derived from your diet and an insufficiency is linked to a number of birth defects, including cleft lip/palate and neural tube (spinal cord) defects. So, the slight variations in skin color found in human populations are related to a fine balancing act between the skin admitting enough UV light to produce sufficient Vitamin D but not destroy folate, necessary for health infants. Natural selection acts on these variants to produce the wide range of skin colors seen in modern humans. Skin color, like many other variations of humans such as brain size, are distributed geographically. This is called clinal variation. An ecocline or cline occurs in species that exhibit gradual phenotypic and/or genetic variation as a result of environmental heterogeneity.

what about other characteristics besides skin color?

- Most are not well understood in terms of their adaptive significance. - Many are most likely not adaptive at all, they are simply phenotypic variants. - When did the current distribution of phenotypic features of humans that we associate with "races" appear in their current configuration? - If the current evidence from the fossil record and the genetic studies are correct it means that variation we see across EuroAsia arose and became "fixed" in populations within the last 40,000 years.

Neanderthal skull features

- big brains, like H. sapiens - reduced Occipital torus - occipital "bun" - wide point of brain case is mid-vault - more shallow sulcus - double-arched torus - mid-facial prognathism - retromolar sulcus - face is v-shaped

*parallel evolution*

Most of the evidence for Homo habilis comprises crania and mandibles. Remains of the postcranial skeleton are known but most of the bones are not associated with the heads and are difficult to distinguish from those of australopithecines. this is called ________.

*Homo habilis*

The first species in our lineage (earliest member of the genus Homo?) Recently published mandible from Ledi-Geraru, Ethiopia Dates to 2.8-2.75 my Mandible is similar to Australopithecus mandibles but has small teeth more like Homo Between 2.3 - 2.0 my, evidence for even a restricted presence of ______ is lacking. it is not until after 2.0 my that significant and widespread fossil evidence for this species appears. Given a reasonably extensive fossil record for ________, it is still difficult to characterize as a species due to the extreme level of variation present in the individual fossils. However, there is no question that this species was a biped and possessed the defining characters of our genus, reduction of the face and dentition and a significant increase in brain size. Originally described by Louis Leakey. Remains derive from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Dates for these stratigraphic levels range between 2.0-1.6 my. Numerous crania have been found... - Two crania delimiting the problem of _____ derive from the site of Koobi Fora, Kenya. These are KNM-ER 1470 and KNM-ER 1813. ______ was geographically widespread, being found in Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa. - STW-53 - Most of the evidence comprises crania and mandibles. Remains of the postcranial skeleton are known but most of the bones are not associated with the heads and are difficult to distinguish from those of australopithecines (parallel evolution). - An exception is OH-62. The first evidence for the manufacture of stone tools occurred with this individual. However, the first stone tools were not only associated with ______, but also with "Zinjanthropus boisei" cranium. Australopithecus sediba provides a twist in this story.

Preneanderthal

a widespread precursor to the "Classic Neanderthals" of the late Middle to early Upper Pleistocene of Europe. Where one divides this evolving clade is arbitrary as Preneanderthals seamlessly transitions into the classic Neanderthals. • the third series of fossils from Atapuerca share a morphological complex with other Middle Pleistocene European hominins. This group of fossils is assigned variously to either a grade of evolution, the _____________, or to a species Homo heidelbergensis. • fossils in this group include those from the Sima de los Huesos portion of the Atapuerca cave complex; Steinheim, Germany; Arago, France; and Petralona, Italy. Further, since __________ are clearly ancestral to Neanderthals and distinct from other such "archaic Homo sapiens" populations in other parts of the world, people have suggested using the name *Homo heidelbergensis* for this group. This would mean that Homo heidelbergensis give rise to Homo neanderthalensis, who then disappear at around 27,000 years ago. It also means that this evolving lineage traces its roots back to Homo erectus or advanced Homo erectus populations of >700,000 years ago, eliminating any connection to archaic Homo sapiens populations that arise later in other parts of the world. evidence for the use of bone for tools or the production of ornamentation by Preneanderthals is nonexistent. evidence for use of caves as living sites by both ______ and Neanderthals with clear evidence of the use of fire in the latter.

*1st migration or dispersal event*

anatomically modern humans arose in Africa between 400 - 300,000 years ago • early populations currently are only known from East Africa (Herto and Omo, Ethiopia) • they migrated throughout Africa. their remains are found in North, East, and South Africa between 200,000 - 60,000 years ago. • *this is the 1st migration or dispersal event* • questions remain as to the extent of this event... was it further? modern human teeth from Daoxian Cave in Southern China indicates a much broader extent of the 1st migration than originally envisioned

2nd migration of anatomically modern humans

as Africa returns to pre-drought conditions, a 2nd migration of anatomically modern humans will occur. as these migrants move out of Africa to areas north of the Sahara desert, they do not interbreed with any remnants of the 1st migration. this second wave of migrants would first travel along the southern coast, eastward through Indo-Pakistan and into Southeast Asia and China. Only at around 40,000 years ago would these modern humans have started to migrate into Europe, by both a Northern and a Southern route.

*Mauer Jaw*

at the end of the 60s, the only potential for the existence of Homo erectus outside of Asia was the _______ from Germany. • this mandible, found in the 20s, was placed in the genus Homo but as a separate species... *Homo heidelbergensis* (*type specimen*)

cultural tradition of Preneanderthals vs. Neanderthals

basically Acheulean vs. the Mousterian Cultural Tradition

earliest use of stone tools is associated with the presence of...?

cut and smashed bone

*Mega Drought*

documented in Africa that spans the time range of 135 - 70,000 y.