anthropology chapter 7

-finally being sent back out to the local people -being used by officials at the center -being moved from local communities to a central storage point

Redistribution involves goods or services

adaptive strategy

the anthropologist Yehudi Cohen (1974) used the term ________ ___________ to describe a groups main system of economic production-its way of making a living.

anywhere

the products, images, and information we consume each day can come from ___________.

silent trade

one way of reducing the tension is situations of potential negative reciprocity is to engage in "_______ ______." one example is the ______ _______ of the Mbuti "pygmy" foragers of the African equatorial forest and their neighboring horticultural villagers. there is no personal contact during their exchanges. Mbuti hunter leaves game, honey, or other forest product at a customary site. villagers collect it and leave crops in exchange. the parties can bargain silently. if one feels the return is insufficient, he or she simply leaves it at the trading site. if the other party wants to continue trade, it will be increased.

livestock

people use ________ in various ways. natives of north americas Great Plains, for example, didn't eat, but only rode, their horses. (they got those horses after europeans reintroduced them to the Western Hemisphere; the Native American horse had become extinct thousands of years earlier).

federal laws

also important have been _______ _______ that have facilitated corporate decisions to close factories. a trend toward looser regulation began in the 1970s and accelerated during the 1980s. corporations could merge, acquire, and dispose of new companies with little interference. _______ _______ permitted investors to buy up older factories and milk them for profits while neglecting pension funds, and eventually allowing the enterprises to go bankrupt. this is exactly what happened at Wisconsin Steel. With further deregulation under the trump administration, workers are likely to be even more at the mercy of corporate schemes.

Samis

the __________ (also known as Lapps or Laplanders) of Norway, Sweden, and finland domesticated the reindeer, which their ancestors once hunted, in the 16th century. like other herders, they follow their animals as they make an annual trek, in this case from coast to interior.

agricultural horticulture

the __________ strategy makes sense when there are lots of children to raise and adults to be fed. _________, like foraging, is associated with smaller, sparser, and more mobile populations.

control

the range of environments available for cultivation has widened as people have increased their _______ over nature. agriculturalists have been able to colonize many areas that are too arid for non irrigators or too hilly for nonterracers.

kinship marriage

among food producers, rights to the means of production also come through _________ and _________.

gathering

_________ is usually more individualistic than hunting, although collecting teams may assemble when abundant resources ripen and must be harvested quickly. fishing may be done alone (as in ice fishing or spearfishing) or in crews (as with open-sea fishing and hunting of sea mammals).

25 percent

as president, in march, 2018, trump announced that he would impose a tariff on _______ __________ on imported steel. when Christine wallet analyzed electron data from her old neighborhood, she found that trump voters there tended to be swing voters, rather than core trump supporters. she speculates that they may well abandon trump if his policies fail to bring back jobs. the overriding concern of these southeast Chicago voters was to challenge an economic system that had failed them.

animal domestication plant cultivation

________ ________ (initially of sheep and goats) and _________ __________ (of wheat and barley) began 12,000 to 10,000 years ago in the Middle East.

food wealth

at each potlatch, the sponsoring community gave away ______ and ______ items, such as blankets and pieces of copper, to visitors from other villages. the sponsoring community received prestige in return. that prestige increased with the lavishness of the potlatch. some North Pacific tribes still practice the potlatch, sometimes as a memorial to the dead.

online impersonally

economic functions that are spatially dispersed (perhaps continents apart) are coordinated _______ in real time. activities that once involved face-to-face contact are now conducted _________, often across vast distances.

production distribution consumption

economic systems are based on ________, _________, and ________. all these processes now have global and increasingly impersonal dimensions.

profit motive

economists assume that our decisions are guided by the ________ ________-the desire to make monetary profit.

maximizes profit

economists assume that when confronted with choices and decisions, people tend to make the one that ________ ________. this is assumed to be the most rational (reasonable) choice.

economic activity

food producers typically carry out a variety of economic activities. in Cohen's typology, each adaptive strategy refers to the main _______ ________. pastoralists (herders), for example, consume milk, blood, and meat from their animals as mainstays of their diet. however, they also add grain to their diet by doing some cultivating or by trading with neighbors.

tools of the trade

for plains Indians, horses served as "__________ of the ________," means of production used to hunt buffalo, the main target of their economies. so the plains Indians were not true pastoralists but hunters who used horses-as many agriculturalists use animals-as means of production.

sharing

foragers are known for ________ rather than bragging. their status distinctions are not associated with differences in wealth and power, nor are they inherited.

medium-sized smaller species communal hunting

foragers living in the hills and mountains of South Asia focus their hunting on ________-_______ prey (langur monkey, macaque, porcupine). other groups pursue ________ __________ or practice broad-spectrum hunting of bats porcupines, and deer. larger groups use ________ _________ techniques, such as spreading nets over large fig trees to entangle sleeping bats.

egalitarian

foraging societies tend to be __________. that is, they make few status distinctions, and the ones they make are based mainly on age, gender, and personal qualities or achievements. for example, old people-elders-may receive respect as guardians of myths, legends, stories, and traditions. younger people may value the elders' special knowledge of ritual and practical matters. a good hunter, an especially productive gatherer, or a skilled midwife or shaman may be recognized as such.

specialization

however, some tribal societies do promote ________. among the Yanomami of Venezuela and Brazil, for instance, certain villages manufacture clay pots and others make hammocks. they don't specialize, as one might suppose, because certain raw materials happen to be available near particular villages. clay suitable for pots is widely available. everyone knows how to make pots, but not everybody does so.

horticulture pastoralism

if the adaptive strategy is _________, the estate includes garden and fallow land for shifting cultivation. with __________, descent group members have access to animals to start their own herds, to grazing land, to garden land, and to other means of production.

berry-bearing trees

in Botswana in Southern Africa, Ju/'hoansi San women, whose work provided over half the food, habitually used specific tracts of ________-_______ ________. however, when a women changed bands, she immediately acquired new gathering data.

industrial societies

in fully _______ ________, such as the United States and Canada, most cultivation has become large-scale, commercial, mechanized, agrochemical-dependent farming. rather than simple pastoralism, _______ _______ use technologically sophisticated systems of ranch and livestock management.

40 societies

in india, nepal, and sri lanka, about ______ _________ and an estimated 150000 people continue to derive their subsistence from full- or part-time foraging.

means production

in nonindustrial societies, there is a more intimate relationship between the worker and the means of production than there is in industrial nations. ________, or factors, of __________ include land (territory), labor, technology, and capital.

foraging

in some places, people tried food production, only to abandon it eventually and return to __________.

field preparation

many agriculturists attach animals to plows and harrows for ________ __________ before planting or transplanting. also, agriculturists typically collect manure from their animals, using it to fertilize their plots, thus increasing yields. animals are attached to carts for transport as well as to implements of cultivation.

horticulture

more recently, ________ has been-and in many cases still is-the primary form of cultivation in parts of Africa, Southeast Asia, the pacific islands, Mexico, Central America, and the South American tropical forest.

mans

most of the other tasks in Betsileo rice cultivation are done by individual owners and their immediate families. all household members help weed the rice field. it is a ______ job to till the fields with a spade or a plow,

prevented

motivations vary from society to society, and people often lack freedom of choice in allocating their resources. because of obligations to pay rent, peasants may allocate their scarce means toward ends that are not their own but those of landlords or government officials. thus, even in societies where there is a profit motive, people are often _________ from rationally maximizing self-interest by factors beyond their control.

agricultural

the _________ strategy is to put all of one's eggs in one big and dependable basket. of course, even with agriculture, there is a possibility that the single staple crop may fail, and famine may result.

tithing

the custom of ________ encouraged by many religions is a form of redistribution, because what the church receives can be used (redistributed) to benefit the needy.

North Pole southern africa irrigation

the difficulties of cultivating at the ________ ______ are obvious. in ________ ________, the Dome Ju/'hoansi San area studied by Richard Lee and others is surrounded by a huge waterless belt. Farming could not exist in much of California without _________, which is why its native populations were foragers.

cultural adaptive mechanism

the ecological anthropologists Wayne Suttles (1960) and Andre Vayda (1961/1968) viewed potlatching not in terms of its apparent wastefulness but in terms of its long-term role as a ________ _______ ______. this view not only helps us understand potlatching; it also helps explain similar patterns of lavish feasting in many other parts of the world.

exchange

the economist Karl Polanyi (1968) stimulated the comparative study of ________, and several anthropologists followed his lead.

potlatching

the economist Thorsten Veblen (1934) criticized _______, which he saw as an out-of-control form of conspicuous consumption. he emphasized the lavishness and supposed wastefulness, especially of Kwakiutl potlatches to support his contention that in some societies people strive to maximize prestige at the expense of their material well-being. anthropologists have challenged his interpretation.

generalized reciprocity

the exchanges that occur between the most closely related people illustrate _______ _________. there is no expectation of immediate return of a gift or favor.

driving cattle

the first job in the transplanting process is the trampling of a previously tilled and flooded field by young men _______ ________, in order to mix earth and water. the young men yell at and beat the cattle, striving to drive them into a frenzy, so that they will trample the fields properly.

domesticated animals irrigation terracing

the greater labor demands associated with agriculture, as compared with horticulture, reflect its use of ________ _________, ___________, or ___________.

horticulturalists

the strategy of __________ is to have several, smaller baskets, a few of which may fail without endangering subsistence.

horticulture agriculture

the two types of plant cultivation found in nonindustrial societies are __________ (non intensive, shifting cultivation) and ___________ (intensive, continuous cultivation). both differ from the commercially oriented farming systems of industrial nations, which use large lang areas and rely on machinery and petrochemicals. `

correlations

typologies like Cohen's adaptive strategies are useful because they suggest __________-that is, an association or covariation between two or more variables.

herding

unlike foraging and plant cultivation, which existed throughout the world before the industrial revolution, ________ was confined almost totally to the old world.

control water

whereas horticulturists must await the rainy season, agriculturists can schedule their planting in advance, because they _______ _________. like other irrigation experts in the Philippines, the Ifugao irrigate their fields with canals from rivers, streams, springs, and ponds.

exogamous

because bands were _________ (people married outside their own band), one's parents came from two different bands, and one's grandparents might have come from four. people could join any band to which they had kin or marital links. a couple could live in, or shift between, the husbands band and the wife's band.

cultivation continuum

because nonindustrial economies can have features of both horticulture and agriculture, it is useful to discuss cultivators as being arranged along a ________ __________.

cutting down trees staple foods

because tropical horticulturalists typically cultivate dozens of plant species simultaneously, a horticultural plot tends to mirror the botanical diversity found in a tropical forest. agricultural plots, by contrast, reduce ecological diversity by _______ _______ ________ and concentrating on just a few ________ ___________.

South America

before European conquest, the only herders in the americas lived in the Andean region of ________ ________. they used their llamas and alpacas for food and wool and in agriculture and transport.

foraging

Anthropologists believe that until approximately 12,000 years ago, all human societies subsisted by

sociocultural features

Associated (correlated) with each adaptive strategy is a bundle of particular

semiprecious stones

I've witnessed other striking evidence of the new addiction to cash during my most recent visits to Betsileo country. near Ivato's county seat, people now sell _______ _________-tourmalines, which originally were found by chance in local rice fields. we saw an amazing sight: dozens of villagers destroying an ancestral resource, digging up a large rice field, seeking tourmalines-clear evidence of the encroachment of cash on the local subsistence economy.

egalitarian

Foraging societies tend to be

do not use a plot of land continuously; often they farm it for only a year or two.

Horticulturalists who use slash-and-burn techniques

-machinery -land -labor

Horticulture is cultivation that does NOT make intensive use of

-They are influenced to a greater degree by regional forces such as war and international policies. -They all depend to some extent on government assistance. -They maintain contact with neighbors who produce food.

How are today's foraging societies different from those of the past?

-money is used to buy and sell items. -the law of supply and demand dictates value. -the goal is to maximize profit.

In market exchange

-age -gender -personal achievements

In most foraging societies, there were only minor differences in prestige, which was based on

gender age personal achievements

In most foraging societies, there were only minor differences in prestige, which was based on

work and social life are intertwined

In nonindustrial societies

-tree saplings and bushes are cut down to clear a plot of land. -crops are cultivated on a given plot of ground for only a year or two. -grass and weeds are burned in place.

In slash-and-burn horticulture

the old world

Prior to 1492, pastoralism occurred almost exclusively in

economy social life

ethnographic studies in hundreds of societies have revealed many correlations between the _______ and _______ _______.

global competition

examples from other countries demonstrate that industrial decline is not an inevitable result of ________ ________. as American mills and factories were failing, something very different was happening in Canada. government policies were encouraging companies to modernize and funnel profits back into mill upkeep. as a result, not a single Canadian steel mill closed during this period of American industrial decline. germany, too, has managed to maintain a robust industrial economy even with the ________ _________.

invaded

first the women see the spirits; then their bodies are _________. the women become violent and scream abuses. the weretigers send the women into sobbing, laughing, and shrieking fits. to deal with possession, factories employ local medicine men, who sacrifice chickens and goats to fend off the spirits. this solution works only some of the time; possession still goes on. factory women continue to act as vehicles to express their own frustrations and the anger of avenging ghosts.

odd jobs

following his layoff, chuck walley pursued a series of ______ ______, including janitorial work and truck driving. those jobs paid very little, and chucks wife had to start working as well. no longer able to support his family, chuck suffered chronic depression and despair-lying on his couch and smoking cigarettes. he died of lung cancer in 2005, still shaken by his inability to find satisfactory employment. out of the 3,400 men and women who once worked for Wisconsin Steel, about one-quarter were dead just eight years later. they fell victim to addiction, depression, and suicide. around them, the layoffs continued. the nearby U.S. steel south works production plant, which once employed more than 20,000 chicagoans, shut down in 1992.

1 percent

food production has existed less than ______ ______ of the time homo has spent on earth. however, it has produced huge social differences.

pastoralists

herders, or __________, are people whose activities focus on such domesticated animals as cattle, sheep, goats, camels, yak, and reindeer. they live in northern and sub-saharan Africa, the Middle East, europe, and Asia.

trees and forests

intensive agriculture typically spreads at the expense of _______ and ________, which are cut down to be replaced by fields. accompanying such deforestation is a loss of environmental diversity.

ceremonial fund

it is useful to distinguish between a social fund and a ______ ________. the latter term refers to expenditures on ceremonies or rituals. to prepare a festival honoring one's ancestors, for example, requires time and the outlay of wealth.

cash economy

ivato's recent history is one of increasing participation in a ______ _______. that history, combined with the pressure of a growing population on local resources, has made scarcity not just a concept but a reality for ivatans and their neighbors.

labor

like land, _______ is a means of production. in nonindustrial societies, access to both land and ________ comes through social links such as kinship, marriage, and descent. mutual aid in production is merely one aspect of ongoing social relations that are expressed on many other occasions.

age gender

manufacturing often is linked to ________ and ________. women may weave, and men may make pottery, or vice versa. most people of a particular ________ and _________ share the technical knowledge associated with that _______ and ________. if married women customarily make baskets, all or most married women know how to make baskets. neither technology nor technical knowledge is as specialized as it is in states.

social fund

people also have to invest in a _________ _______. they have to help their friends, relatives, in-laws, and neighbors.

replacement fund

people also must invest in a ______ ________. they must maintain their technology and other items essential to production. if a hoe or plow breaks, they must repair or replace it. they also must obtain and replace items that are essential not to production but to everyday life, such as clothing and shelter.

large, permanent

shifting cultivation doesn't mean that whole villages must move when plots are abandoned. horticulture can support _______, _______ villages. among the Kuikuru of the South American tropical forest, for example, one village of 150 people remained in the same place for 90 years.

large animals milking

similarly, among pastoralists, men generally tend ______ _________, but in some cultures women do the __________. tasks that are accomplished through teamwork in some cultivating societies may be carried out by smaller groups or individuals in other societies.

pests ashes

slashing and burning not only gets ride of unwanted vegetation, but it also kills _______ and provides ________ that help fertilize the soil. the farmers then sow, tend, and harvest their crops on the cleared plot. they do not use that plot continuously; often they farm it for only a year or two.

thank you

so strong is the ethic of reciprocal sharing that most foragers lack an expression for "______ _______" to offer thanks would be impolite because it would imply that a particular act of sharing, which is the keystone of egalitarian society, was unusual. among the Semai, foragers of central Malaysia, to express gratitude would suggest a surprise at a hunter's generosity or success

reciprocity continuum

this range, from generalized through balanced to negative, is called the ________ _________.

rainfall-dependent

when food production arose, both in the Middle East and in the americas, the earliest cultivators were ______-_________ horticulturalists.

mental physical

young women typically work just a few years. production quotas, three daily shifts, overtime, and surveillance take their toll in ________ and _________ exhaustion.

died

the hunters stake in an animal being stalked or hit with a poisoned arrow was more important that where the animal finally _________. a person acquired the rights to use a bands territory by being born in the band or by joining it through a tie of kinship, marriage, or fictive kinship.

feasts

the use of _______ to enhance individual and community reputations and to redistribute wealth is not unique to populations of the North Pacific Coast.

agriculture

Cultivation that features more intensive labor demands than horticulture is called

market exchange

"_______ _______ refers to the organizational process of purchase and sale and money price" with ________ ________, items are bought and sold, using money, with an eye to maximizing profit, and value is determined by the law of supply and demand (things cost more the scarcer they are, and the more people want them).

pastoralism

(herding), nomadism and transhumance

foraging

(hunting-gathering), mobility, use of natures resources

industrialism

(industrial production), factory production, capitalism, socialist production.

agriculture

(intensive farming), continuous use of land, intensive use of labor

horticulture

(slash-and-burn, shifting cultivation, swiddening, dry farming), fallow period

redistribution

A farmer raises wheat and pays a portion of it as a tax that is collected by government agents and sent to a central storage facility. Government agents and their families consume some of the wheat. The remaining wheat is portioned out to people living in villages and on farms. The original farmer does not get back as much wheat as he paid in, but he does get some benefit. This is an example of

generalized reciprocity

A father who buys clothing for his daughter is engaging in

exemplified by the potlatch, as practiced by many tribes of the North Pacific Coast of North America.

A regional pattern of hosting and feasting that enhanced reputations while redistributing wealth is

-domesticated animals -irrigation -terracing

Agriculture often involves the use of

-gaining prestige. -sharing surplus wealth with needier people. -linking villages together in a regional economic exchange system.

Among Indian tribes of the Pacific Northwest, the potlatch served the purpose of

reciprocity

An exchange between social equals, often related by kinship or some other personal tie, is called

the Middle East

Animal domestication (initially of sheep and goats) and plant cultivation (of wheat and barley) began 12,000 to 10,000 years ago in

adaptive strategy

Cohen argued that the most important reason for similarities between two (or more) unrelated societies is their possession of a similar _______ ________. for example, there are clear similarities among societies that have a foraging (hunting and gathering) strategy.

foraging horticulture agriculture pastoralism industrialism

Cohen developed a typology of societies based on correlations between their economies and their social features. his typology includes these five adaptive strategies: _________, ____________, ___________, ___________, and ____________.

Karl Marx

Demanding and depleting, labor in these factories illustrates the separation of intellectual and manual activity-the alienation that _______ ______ considered the defining feature of industrial work. one woman said about her bosses "they exhaust us very much, as if they do not think that we too are human beings" nor does factory work bring woman a substantial financial reward, giving low wages, job uncertainty, and family claims on wages.

symbiosis

East African pastoralists, like many others, live in _________ with their herds. (__________ is an obligatory interaction between groups-here, humans and animals-that is beneficial to each). herders attempt to protect their animals and to ensure their reproduction in return for food (dairy products and meat) and other products, such as leather.

regions where there are major obstacles to food production

In what sort of environment is a foraging society most likely to survive into modern times?

-a loss of environmental diversity. -trees and forests being cut down to be replaced by fields. -irrigation ditches and fields becoming repositories for organic wastes, chemicals, and disease microorganisms.

Intensive agriculture has significant environmental effects, including

powerful sponsors

Ivantans were so willing to talk because we had_______ ________, village natives who had succeeded in the outside world, people the Ivatans knew would protect them. the schoolteachers vouched for us, but even more significant as the cabinet minister, who was like a grandfather and benefactor to everyone in town. the Ivatans had no reason to fear us because their influential native son had asked them to answer our questions.

large well made

Kuikuru houses are _______ and _______ ________. because the work involved in building them is great, the kuikuru preferred to walk farther to their fields, rather than construct a new village. they chose to shift their plots rather than their villages.

-sometimes split up for part of the year -consisted of people related by kinship or marriage -consisted of fewer than 100 people

The foraging social unit called a band

6 12

Madagascar's population doubled between 1966 and 1991-from ________ to _______ million people. today, it exceeds 22 million-almost four times as many people to feed as when I first did fieldwork there. one result of population pressure has been agricultural intensification. in ivato, farmers who formerly had grown only rice in their rice fields now were using the same land for cash crops, such as carrots, after the annual rice harvest. another change affecting ivato in recent years has been the breakdown of social and political order, fueled by increasing demand for cash.

capitalist relations

Ong argues that spirit possession expresses anguish at, and resistance to, _______ ________ of production. by engaging in this form of rebellion, however, factory women avoid direct confrontation with the source of their distress.

spirit possession

Ong concludes that _______ ________, while expressing repressed resentment, doesn't do much to modify factory conditions. (other tactics such as unionization, would do more). ______ _______ may even help maintain the current system by operating as a safety valve for accumulated tensions.

work routine supervision

Ong found that, unlike village women, female factory workers had to cope with a rigid _______ _______ and constant _______ by men. the discipline that factories enforce was being taught in local schools, where uniforms helped prepare girls for the factory dress code.

-pay rent to landlords and/or taxes to government -produce food without modern farming technology -live in state-organized societies

Peasants are small-scale agriculturists who

-feed themselves. -pay rent. -sell or exchange their produce.

Peasants typically produce in order to

band

The basic social organization of a foraging society was typically the

-their marginality -that they pose major obstacles to food production -that they are not well-suited to farming or herding using simple technology.

The locations inhabited by foragers today tend to have one thing in common, which is

did not exist before Europeans introduced domesticated sheep.

The pastoral economy of the Navajo in what is now the southwestern United States

-large areas of land -petrochemicals -machinery

The vast farming systems of industrial nations are different from nonindustrial horticulture and agriculture because they use

-large areas of land. -machinery. =petrochemicals.

The vast farming systems of industrial nations are different from nonindustrial horticulture and agriculture because they use

steel-working

Walley was raised in a _______-_______ family in southeast Chicago. as a participant observer of her childhood neighborhood, she has been gathering stories that reveal the trauma that displaced industrial workers have suffered. in her book Exit Zero: family and class in postindustrial Chicago (2013) and her film Exit Zero: an industrial family story (2014), wallet describes how her father, chuck, lost his job at Wisconsin steel when that mill closed in 1980. other mill closures followed, devastating walleys family and the community.

foraging

What type of society consists of people who "live off the land" by hunting and gathering resources from nature instead of cultivating crops or raising domestic animals?

agriculture pastoralism foraging

Which of the following are among the five adaptive strategies identified by Yehudi Cohen?

-Buyers and sellers attempt to obtain the largest possible gain. -Buyers and sellers do not need to meet personally. -Negotiations between buyers and sellers must remain open for a short time.

Which of the following are characteristic of bargaining?

-Tropical foragers tend to hunt and gather a wide range of species. -Northern foragers tend to focus on large game.

Which of the following are true of the world's foraging societies?

jana fortier

______ ________ (2009) summarizes key attributes of foragers in South Asia, which today is home to more full- and part-time hunter-gatherers than any other world area.

intensive agriculture

_______ _______ has significant environmental effects. irrigation ditches and paddies (fields with irrigated rice) become repositories for organic wastes, chemicals (such as salts), and disease microorganisms.

cattle rustling

_______ _______ is a growing threat. cattle thieves (sometimes from neighboring villages) have terrorized peasants who previously felt secure in their villages. some of the rustled cattle are driven to the coasts for commercial export to nearby islands.

pastoralists

__________, by contrast, typically use their herds for food. they consume the animals' meat, blood, milk, from which they make yogurt, butter, and cheese. although some _________ rely on their herds more completely than others do, it is impossible to base subsistence solely on animals. most ___________ therefore supplement their diet by hunting, gathering, fishing, cultivating, or trading.

horticultural systems agriculturalists

___________ ________ stand at one end-the "low-labor, shifting-plot" end. ________ are at the other-the "labor-intensive, permanent-plot" end.

Africa

___________ contains two broad belts of contemporary or recent foraging.

foraging

___________-an economy and a way of life based on hunting and gathering-was humans' only way of making a living until about 12,000 years ago, when people began experimenting with food production.

cultivation

______________ based on different crops, such as corn (maize), manioc (cassava), and potatoes, arose independently in the Americas.

mode of production

a _______ of ________ is a way of organizing production-"a set of social relations through which labor is deployed to wrest energy from nature by means of tools, skills, organization, and knowledge"

5 million

about _____ ________ American manufacturing jobs have disappeared so far in the 21st century, continuing a trend that started in the 1970's and intensified in the 1980's and thereafter. the industrial decline has affected hundreds of towns and cities, particularly in the Rust Belt states of Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, and Pennsylvania. as described by Elizabeth Svoboda, Christine Walley, an anthropology professor at MIT, focuses on the human effects of factory closures on laid-off workers, their families and communities.

common people

after reaching the center, the flow of goods eventually will reverse direction-out from the center, down through the hierarchy, and back to the ________ _________.

annual harvest long-term production

agriculturalists attempt to reduce risk by favoring stability in the form of a reliable ________ ________ and a ______-________ _________. tropical foragers and horticulturists, by contrast, attempt to reduce risk by relying on multiple species and benefiting from ecological diversity.

human labor

agriculture requires _______ ________ to build and maintain irrigation systems, terraces, and other works. people must feed, water, and car for their animals.

labor intensity permanent land

agricultures increased ______ _______ and _____ ______ use have major demographic, social, political, and environmental consequences.

long-term yield

agricultures main advantage is that the __________ ______ per area is far greater and more dependable. because a single field sustains its owners year after year, there is no need to maintain a reserve of uncultivated lang as horticulturalists do. this is why agricultural societies tend to be more densely populated than are horticultural ones.

nonindustrial societies

all three strategies originated in ________ _________, although they may persist as ways of making a living even after some degree of industrialization reaches the nation-sates that include them.

promised pension

along with more than 3000 other Wisconsin steel workers, chuck was laid off in 1980, when Christine wallet was 14 years old. for years, the mills corporate owners had neglected its upkeep, and its final owner was suspected of deliberately squeezing some terminal profits out of the mill before declaring bankruptcy. chuck lost not only his job but his _______ _______. henceforth, the lives of the valley family would be divided sharply into "before" and "after" the mill shut down.

foreign owned

also ______ ______ are such American architectural icons as New York's Plaza hotel, flatiron building, and Chrysler building, along with the Indiana toll road and the Chicago skyway. a Brazilian billionaire now owns a significant share in Burger King, a whopper of a chain with almost 16000 outlets in 100 countries.

capital investment

an irrigated field is a _______ ________ that usually increases in value. it takes time for a field to start yielding; it reaches full productivity only after several years of cultivation. the Ifugao, like other irrigators, have farmed the same fields for generations. in some agricultural areas, including the Middle East, however, salts carried in the irrigation water can make fields unusable after 50 or 60 years.

economic anthropology

anthropologists have broadened understanding of economic principles by gathering data on nonindustrial economies. ________ ________ brings a comparative, cross-cultural perspective to the study of economics.

cross-cultural

anthropologists view both economic systems and motivations in a _______-_______ perspective. motivation is a concern of psychologists, but it also has been, implicitly or explicitly, a concern of economists and anthropologists

automation

as ____________-increasingly powered by artificial intelligence-continues, white-collar workers, too, will face the same displacement and anxiety that blue-collar workers have experienced for decades. a university of Oxford study estimated that almost half (47 percent) of all U.S. jobs may be lost to _____________.

postindustrial demise

as an adult and an anthropologist, Christine Wallet has sought to understand what happened-not just to her family and community but throughout the Rust belt. her exit zero project, which combines film, writing, collaboration, with a local historical museum, and a web presence, tells the story of her family's _________ _______. walley brings in other voices as well; she conversed with and interviewed people in her old neighborhood who shared her family's experience and its sense of displacement and alienation.

environment resource distribution

as is true elsewhere, specific foraging techniques reflect variations in _________ and _______ ________.

sociocultural features

associated (correlated) with each adaptive strategy is a bundle of particular ________ _______. correlations, however, rarely are perfect. some foragers lack cultural features usually associated with foraging, and some of those features are found in groups with other adaptive strategies.

age gender

both transplanting and harvesting feature a traditional division of labor by ________ and _________ that is well known to all betsileo and is repeated across the generations.

globalization

but with _________ over the past few decades, significant changes have affected the betsileo-and most nonindustrial peoples. on my last visit to ivato, in 2006, the effects of cash and rapid population increase were evident there -and throughout Madagascar-where the national growth rate has been about 3 percent per year.

kin-based

by contrast, in nonindustrial societies, labor is not usually bought but is given as a social obligation. in such a _______-_______ mode of production, mutual aid in the production is one among many expressions of a larger web of social relations.

rent fund

citizens of nation-states also must allocate scarce resources to a ______ _______. we think of rent as payment for the use of property. however, the term has a wider meaning. it refers to resources that people must render to an individual or agency that is superior politically or economically. tenant farmers and sharecroppers, for example, either pay rent or give some of their produce to their landlords, as peasants did under feudalism.

linked interrelated

correlated variables are factors that are _________ or _________, such as food intake and body weight, such that when one decreases or increases, the other changes as well).

social political

craft specialization reflects the _______ and _________ environment rather than the natural environment. such specialization promotes trade, which is the first step in creating an alliance with enemy villages. specialization contributes to keeping the peace, although it has not prevented inter village warfare.

global competition automation corporate decisions and government policies

deindustrialization continues today for three main reasons 1. _______ _________, 2. __________, and 3. ________ _______ and _______ _________. some manufacturing jobs have been shifted to other countries, or lost to foreign competition. even more significant is automation, as machines of more and more jobs-a trend that will continue

nature

despite differences caused by such environmental variation, all foraging economies have shared one essential feature: people rely on ________ to make their living. they don't grow crops or breed or tend animals.

schoolteachers

during the 1960's, my wife and I lived among the Betsileo people of Madagascar, studying their economy and social life. soon after our arrival we met two well-educated ________ (first cousins) who were interested in our research. the woman's father was a congressional representative who became a cabinet minister during our stay. their family came from a historically important betsileo village called ivato, which they invited us to visit with them.

sedentary people

during their annual trek, pastoral nomads trade for crops and other products with more ________ ________.

modern nations capitalists systems

economists focus on _______ ______ and _______ ______.

industrial workers

from Walley's work, we learn how ________ _______ and their families have experienced their loss of, and how they wish to recapture, the sense of dignity and self-worth that comes from work that is productive and meaningful. Walley advocates closer scrutiny of laws and policies that have facilitated the wave of mill closures. along with social scientists, policy makers need to pay more concerted attention to what future work should look like, and to mitigating laws and policies that favor corporate interests over workers' well-being.

years generations

given sufficient labor input and proper management, agricultural land can yield one or two crops annually for ________ or even ________.

population size density

growth in _________ _______ and _______ increases contact between individuals and groups. there is more need to regulate interpersonal relations, including conflicts of interest. economies that support more people usually require more coordination in the use of land, labor, and other resources.

slash-and-burn

horticulturalists use simple tools such as hoes and digging sticks to grow their crops. they preserve their ecosystems by allowing their fields to lie fallow for varying lengths and time. horticulturalists typically rely on _____________ techniques. farmers clear land by cutting down (slashing) trees, saplings, and brush. then they burn that vegetation. they also may set fire directly to grasses and weeds on their farm plots before planting.

fluctuate

how did this work? the overall natural environment of the North Pacific Coast is favorable, but resources _____ from year to year. salmon and herring arent equally abundant every year in a given locality. one village can have a good year while another is experiencing a bad one. later their fortunes reverse. in this context, the potlatch cycle had adaptive value; the potlatch was not a competitive display that brought no material benefit

sedentary

how, specifically, does agriculture affect society and environment? because of their permanent fields, agriculturalists tend to be __________. people live in larger and more permanent communities located closer to other settlements.

food production

in both hemispheres, most societies eventually turned from foraging to ________ ________. today most foragers have at least some dependence on food production or on food producers.

categorizing resources

many indigenous groups, especially foragers and horticulturalists, have done a reasonable job managing their resources and preserving their ecosystems. such societies had traditional ways of ________ _________ and regulating their use. increasingly, however these traditional management systems have been challenged by national and international incentives to exploit and degrade the environment.

interview schedules

once we moved to Ivato, the elders established a pattern of visiting us every evening. they came to talk, attracted by the inquisitive foreigners but also by the wine, tobacco, and food we offered. I asked questions about their customs and beliefs. I eventually developed _______ _________ about various subjects, including rice production. I used these forms in ivato and in two other villages I was studying less intensively. never have I interviewed as easily as I did in ivato.

Kalahari Desert equatorial forest

one of the contemporary foraging places in Africa is the _________ _________ of Southern Africa. this is the home of the San ("Bushmen") who include the Ju/'hoansi. The other main African foraging area is the _________ _________ of central and Eastern Africa, home of the Mbuti, Efe, and other "pygmies"

spirit possession

one response to factory relations of production has been _______ _______ (factory women are possessed by spirits). Ong interprets this phenomenon as the women's unconscious protest against labor discipline and male control of the industrial setting.

well-educated

prominent among the rustlers are relatively ______-_______ young men who have studied long enough to be comfortable negotiating with outsiders but who have been unable to find formal work and are unwilling to work the rice fields as their peasant ancestors did. the formal education system has familiarized them with external institutions and norms, including the need for cash. the concepts of scarcity commerce, and negative reciprocity now thrive among Betsileo.

central point

redistribution is a way of moving a variety of goods from different areas to a _____ ________, where they are stored and eventually redistributed to the public.

chiefs

redistribution typically occurs in societies that have ________. to reach the center, where they will be stored, products often move through a hierarchy of officials. along the way, those officials and their dependents may consume some, but never all, of the products.

modes of production

societies representing each of the adaptive strategies just discussed (e.g. foraging) tend to have roughly similar ______ of ________. variation in the _________ of ________ within a given strategy can reflect differences in the resources they target. thus, a foraging mode of production may be based on individual hunters or teams, depending on whether the game is solitary, or a herd or flocking animal.

redistribution

societies with chiefs have _________. the market principle tends to dominate exchanges in state-organized societies.

balanced negative

societies with productive economies based on food production have expanded social and economic networks, which allow for wider and more distant exchanges characterized by ________ and even ______ reciprocity.

honey beeswax

some South Indian foragers focus on such wild plant resources as yams, palms, and taro, in addition to more than 100 locally available plants. harvesting _________ and _______ has been prominent in many south asian foraging societies.

temperate

some ________ areas also offer abundant and varied species. for example, on the North Pacific coast of North America, foragers could draw on varied sea, river, and land species, such as salmon and other fish, sea mammals, berries, and mountain goats.

relocation scheme

some governments have done quite the opposite. for example, between 1997 and 2002, the government of Botswana (in Southern Africa) carried out a _________ _________ affecting about 3,000 Basarwa San Bushmen. the government forced these people to leave their ancestral territory, which became a wildlife reserve. after some of them sued, Botswana's high court eventually ruled that the Basra had been wrongly evicted, and issued a court order allowing them to return, but under very restrictive conditions.

internet

the ______ is a vital organ of our 21st-century global economy. all kinds of products-music, movies, clothing, appliances, this book, you name it-are produced, distributed, and consumed via the __________.

food cultivation

surviving south asian foraging societies are those whose members, despite having lost many of their natural resources to deforestation and spreading farming populations, have been unwilling to adopt _______ ______ and its cultural correlates. these hunter-gatherers share features with other foragers worldwide: small social groups, mobile settlement patterns, sharing of resources, immediate food consumption, egalitarianism, and decision making by mutual consent.

transplanting harvesting

the Betsileo of Madagascar have two stages of teamwork in rice cultivation: _________ and __________. team size varies with the size of the field.

scarcity

the Betsileo weren't unusual for nonindustrial people. strange as it may seem to an American consumer, those rice farmers actually believed they had all they needed. the lesson from the Betsileo of the 1960s is that ________, which economists view as universal, is variable. although shortages do arise in nonindustrial societies, the concept of scarcity (insufficient means) is much less developed in stable subsistence-oriented societies than in the societies characterized by industrialism, particularly as the reliance on consumer goods increases.

long-term

the ______-_______ adaptive value of potlatching becomes clear when we consider what happened when a formerly prosperous village had a run of bad luck. its people started accepting invitations to potlatches in villages that were doing better. the tables were turned as the temporarily rich became temporarily poor and vice versa. the newly needy accepted food and wealth items. they were willing to receive rather than bestow gifts and thus to relinquish some of their stored-up prestige. they hoped their luck would eventually improve, so that resources could be recouped and prestige regained.

international

the national has become the _________. consider a few familiar "American" brands: Good humor, french's mustard, frigidaire, Adidas, caribou coffee, church's chicken, Trader Joe's, holiday inn, dial soap, T-Mobile, and Toll House Cookies. all of them have foreign ownership. as well, the following iconic brands have been bought by foreign companies: Budweiser, Alka-Selzer, Hellmann's, IBM ThinkPad, Ben and Jerry's, 7-Eleven, Popsicle, Woman's Day, Purina, Gerber, Vaseline, Firestone, and Car and Driver magazine.

fishing hunting gathering

the native populations of the North Pacific coast of North America (Northern California, Oregon, washington, British Columbia, and southern Alaska) all were foragers, as were those of inland subarctic Canada and the Great Lakes. for many native Americans, _________, _________, and _________ remain important subsistence (and sometimes commercial) activities. considering South America, there were coastal foragers along that continent's southern tip, in Patagonia. additional foragers inhabited the grassy plains of Argentina, southern Brazil, Uruguay, and Paraguay.

horticulture agriculture

the one key difference between horticulture and agriculture is that _______ always has a fallow period, whereas ________ does not.

regional alliance exchange network

the potlatch linked local groups along the North Pacific Coast into a _______ _______ and _______ ________. potlatching and inter village exchange had adaptive functions, reguardless of the motivations of the individual participants. the anthropologist who stressed rivalry for prestige were not wrong. they were merely emphasizing motivations at the expense of an analysis of economic and ecological systems.

emigration

throughout the Betsileo homeland, population growth and density are propelling _________. locally, land, jobs, and money are all scarce. one woman with ancestors from ivato, herself now a resident of the national capital (Antananarivo), remarked that half the children of Ivato now lived in that city. although she was exaggerating, a census of all the descendants of Ivato reveals a substantial emigrant and urban population.

foragers food producers

ties between people and land were less permanent among __________ than among ______ _________. although many bands had territories, the boundaries usually were not marked, and there was no way they could be enforced.

foragers

to be sure, environmental differences did create substantial contrasts among ____________ living in different parts of the world. Some, like the people who lived in Europe during the ice ages, were big-game hunters. today, hunters in the arctic still focus on large animals. Those far northern foragers have much less vegetation and variety in their diets than do tropical foragers.

-canals must be dug to divert spring water throughout the terraces. -the retaining walls must be maintained each year. -building the terraces requires great effort.

Terracing is a labor-intensive form of agriculture because

cutting laterally into a steep hillside to form level plots of ground that resemble steps.

Terracing is an agricultural technique that involves

export-oriented

for decades, the Malaysian government has promoted ______-_______ industry, allowing transnational companies to install labor-intensive manufacturing operations in rural Malaysia.

capitalist

in the _______ mode of production, money buys labor power, and there is a social gap between the people (bosses and workers) involved in the production process

cultural adaptations

here is the ecological interpretation: customs like the potlatch are _______ ______ to alternating periods of local abundance and shortage.

shifting cultivation

horticulture also is known as _________ _________, because farmers shift back and fourth between plots, rather than using any one of those plots continuously. with ________ _________, horticulturalists farm a plot for a year or two, then abandon it, clear another plot, cultivate it for a year or two, then abandon it, then so on. after the original plot lies fallow for several years (the duration varies in different societies), It can be farmed again.

modern technology

today's samis use _________ ________, such as snowmobiles and four-wheel-drive vehicles, to accompany their herds on their annual nomadic trek, and they market reindeer products to outsiders, including tourists. some of them probably use reindeer management software on their laptops, tablets, personal digital assistants (PDA's) or smartphones. although their environment is harsher, the samis, like other herders, live in nation-states and must deal with outsiders, including government officials, as they follow their herds and make their living through animal husbandry, trade, and sales.

nation-states

today, all foragers live in ________-_______. typically, they are in contact with food-producing neighbors as well as with missionaries and other outsiders.,

crops

transhumants dont have to trade for _______. because only part of the population accompanies the herds, transhumants can maintain year-round villages and grow their own __________

nomadism transhumance

two patterns of movement occur with pastoralism: __________ and _________. both are based on the fact that herds must move to use pasture available in particular places in different seasons.

flexibility mobility

typical characteristics of the foraging life are _______ and _______. in many San groups, as among the Mbuti of Congo, people shifted band membership several times in a lifetime. one might be born, for example, in a band in which one's mother had a kin. later, ones family might move to a band in which the father had relatives.

potlatching

_______ is a form of competitive feasting among villages that participate in a regional exchange network.

economy economics

an _________ is a system of production, distribution, and consumption of resources; ________ is the study of such systems

-there is more need to regulate interpersonal relations, including conflicts of interest. -growth in population size and density increases contact between individuals and groups. -permanent fields tend to keep farmers tied to their land.

In agricultural societies,

sees that product as belonging to someone else, rather than to the man or woman whose labor actually produced it.

In industrial economies, the term alienation is used to describe a situation in which a worker has produced something but

descent groups

_______ ________ (groups whose members claim common ancestry) are common among nonindustrial food producers, and those who descend from the founder share the groups territory and resources.

oil producing

_______ ________ countries, china and Japan have invested their profits in U.S. treasury securities because of their liquidity and safety. by 2009 and continuing today, foreigners were financing almost half the total publicly held U.S. national debt, which totaled 14.7 trillion in 2017. as of august 2017, china owned 1.2 trillion of that total, and is the largest foreign holder of U.S. treasury securities. the second largest holder is Japan at 1.1 trillion.

trampling

_______ breaks up clumps of earth and mixes irrigation water with soil to form a smooth mud, into which women will soon transplant seeds. once the tramplers leave the field, older men arrive. with their spades, they break up the clumps that the cattle missed. meanwhile, the owner and other adults uproot rice seedlings and take them to the field, where women transplant them.

balanced reciprocity

________ ________ characterized exchanges between people who are more distantly related than are members of the same band or household. in a horticultural society, for example, a man presents a gift to someone in another village. the recipient may be a cousin, a trading partner, or a brothers fictive kinsman. the giver expects something in return. this may not come immediately, but the social relationship will be strained if there is no eventual reciprocation.

generalized reciprocity

________ ________ is the most widespread form of exchange, because it exists in every kind of society, from foraging bands to industrial nations.

hill kharias yanadis

________ _________ and _________ are the largest contemporary south asian foraging populations, with about 20,000 members each. several other ethnic groups are highly endangered, with fewer than 350 members still doing subsistence foraging.

peasants

________ are small-scale agriculturalists who live in state-organized societies and have rent fund obligations. they produce to feed themselves, to sell their produce, and to pay rent

terracing terraced

________ is another agricultural technique the Ifugao have mastered. their homeland has small valleys separated by steep hillsides. because the population is dense, people need to farm the hills. however, if they simply planted on the steep hillsides, fertile soil and crops would be washed away during the rainy season. to prevent this, the Ifugao cut into the hillside and build stage after stage of ________ fields rising above the valley floor

horticulture

________ is cultivation that does not make intensive use of land, labor, or machinery.

irrigation

________ makes it possible to cultivate a plot year after year. _________ enriches the soil, because the irrigated field is a unique ecosystem with several species of plants and animals, many of them minute organisms, whose wastes fertilize the land.

ecological anthropology

_________ _______, also known as cultural ecology, is a theoretical school in anthropology that attempts to interpret cultural practices, such as the potlatch, in terms of their possible long-term role in helping humans adapt to their environments.

foraging economies

_________ ________ survived into modern times in certain forests, deserts, islands, and very cold areas-places where cultivation was not practicable with simple technology. Posing major obstacles to food production, these environments did not attract farmers or herders.

cultivation

_________ is even more intensive in certain densely populated areas of Papua New Guinea, where plots are planted for two or three years, allowed to rest for three to five, and the recultivated. after several of these cycles, the plots are abandoned for a longer fallow period. such intermediate economies, which support denser populations than does simple horticulture, also are found in parts of West Africa, and in the highlands of Mexico, Peru, and Bolivia.

reciprocity

_________ is the act of reciprocating-giving back, returning a favor, repaying a debt. more specifically, economic anthropologists use the term ________ to refer to exchanges between social equals, people who are related by some kind of personal tie, such as kinship or marriage, because it occurs between social equals, ________ is the dominant exchange principle in more egalitarian societies-among foragers, cultivators, and pastoralists.

generalized balanced negative

__________ and ________ reciprocity are based on trust and a social tie. _______ reciprocity, however, involves an attempt to get something for as little as possible, even if it means being cagey or deceitful or cheating.

bargaining

__________ is characteristic of market principle exchanges. the buyer and seller strive to maximize to get their "money's worth." in bargaining, buyers and sellers don't need to meet personally, but their offers and counteroffers usually take place within a fairly short time period.

redistribution

__________ operates when products, such as a portion of the annual harvest, move from the local level to a center from which they eventually flow back out. that center may be a capital, a regional collection point, or a storehouse near a chiefs residence.

subsistence items

a village enjoying an especially good year had a surplus of _______ _______, which it could trade for more durable wealth items, such as blankets, canoes, or pieces of copper. such wealth, in turn, could be given away and thereby converted into prestige. members of several villages were invited to any potlatch and got to take home to resources that were distributed. in this way, potlatching linked villages together in a regional economy- an exchange system that distributed food and wealth from wealthy to needy communities.

state-organized elaborate technology

all peasants have two things in common: 1. they live in _______-_________ societies 2. they produce food without the _______ _________-chemical fertilizers, tractors, airplanes to spray crops, and so on-of modern farming or agribusiness.

189

although 3000 people had been moved out, only the ______ people who actually filed the lawsuit were granted an automatic right of return with their children. the many other Basarwa San who wanted to return to their ancestral territory would need to apply for special permits. even the _________ favored people would be allowed to build only temporary structures and to use just enough water for subsistence needs. water would be the major obstacle, because the government had shut down the main well. furthermore, anyone wishing to hunt would have to apply for a permit. this case illustrates how contemporary governments can limit the independence of indigenous people and restrict their traditional lifestyle.

economizing

although anthropologists know that the profit motive is not universal, the assumption that individuals try to maximize profits is basic to the capitalist world economy and to much of Western economic theory. in fact, the subject matter of economics often is defined as _________, or the rational (profit-oriented) allocation of scarce means (resources) to alternative ends (uses)

women mens

although some kind of division of economic labor related to age and gender is a cultural universal, the specific tasks assigned to each gender and to people of different ages vary. many horticultural societies assign a major productive role to _________, but some make ________ work primary.

generalized reciprocity

among foragers, ______ __________-unselfish giving with no immediate expectation of return-is the norm. people routinely share with other band members. a study of the Ju/'hoansi san found that 40 percent of the population contributed little to the food supply. children, teenagers, and people over 60 depended on other people for their food. despite the high proportion of dependents, the average worker spent less than half as much time hunting or gathering (12 to 19 hours a week) as the average American works. nonetheless, there was always food, because different people worked on different days.

same split regrouped

among some foragers, band size stayed about the _______ all year-round. in others, the band _____ up for part of the year. families left to gather resources that were better exploited by just a few people. later, they _______ for cooperative work and ceremonies.

distant pastures

among the Turkana of Uganda, men and boys take the herds to ________ ________, while much of the village stays put and does some horticultural farming.

plains indians

among the most extreme and "negative" examples of reciprocity was 19th-century horse thievery by North American ______ _______. men would sneak into camps and villages of neighboring tribes to steal horses. such thefts were likely to be reciprocated. a similar pattern of cattle raiding continues today in East Africa, among tribes such as the Kuria. in these cases, the party that starts the raiding can expect reciprocity-a raid on their own village-or worse. the Kuria hunt down cattle thieves and kill them. its still reciprocity, governed by "do unto others as they have done unto you"

yield

an agriculture field does not necessarily produce a higher single-year________than does a horticultural plot. the first crop grown by horticulturists on long-idle land may be larger than that from an agricultural plot of the same size. furthermore, because agriculturists have to work more hours than horticulturalists do, agricultures ________ relative to the labor time is also lower.

oldest

at harvest time, four or five months later, young men cut the rice off the stalks. young women carry it to a clearing above the field, where older women arrange and stack it. the ________ men and women then stand on the stack, stomping and compacting it. three days later, young men thresh the rice, beating the stalks against a rock to remove the grain. older men then attack the stalks with sticks to make sure all the grains have fallen off.

small villages

by contrast, other horticulturists in the montaña (Andean foothills) of Peru maintained ________ ________ of about thirty people. their houses were small, simple, and easy to rebuild so that they would stay a few years in one place, then move on to a different site near their fields where they would build new homes. they preferred rebuilding to walking even a half mile to their fields.

specialized

compared with horticulture, agricultural economies are more ___________. they focus on one or a few caloric staples, such as rice, and on the animals that are raised and tended to aid the agricultural economy.

nonindustrial

competitive feasting is widely characteristic of ____________ food producers. but among most foragers, who live, remember, in marginal areas, resources are too meager to support feasting on such a level. among foragers living in marginal areas, sharing rather than competition prevails.

blue-collar

during the 2016 U.S. presidential primaries and election, both the eventual winner, Donald trump, and Vermont senator Bernie sanders, who has described himself as a democratic socialist, Drew significant support from Rust Belt _____-_______ workers. trump mainly faulted trade agreements and immigrants, promising to bring back jobs and "make america great again." sanders blamed "millionaires and billionaires," including corporations and Wall Street, for the country's ills. both promised more radical solutions than their rivals.

systems individuals

economic anthropologists have been concerned with two main questions: 1. how are production, distribution, and consumption organized in different societies? this question focuses on the _________ of human behavior and their organization. 2. what motivates people in different cultures to produce, distribute or exchange, and consume? here the focus is not on the systems of behavior but on the motives of the __________ who participate in those systems.

negative reciprocity

exchanges in nonindustrial societies also may illustrate _______ ________, mainly dealing with people outside or on the fringes of their social systems,. to people who live in a world of close personal relations, exchanges with outsiders are full of ambiguity and distrust. exchange is one way of establishing friendly relations with outsiders, but especially when trade begins, the relationship is still tentative. often, the initial exchange is so close to being purely economic; people want to get something back immediately. just s in market economies, but without using money, they try to get the best possible immediate return for their investment.

reciprocity

exchanges of gifts, cards, and invitations exemplify _______, usually balanced, everyone has heard remarks like "they invited us to their daughter's wedding, so when ours gets married, we'll have to invite them" and "they've been here for dinner three times and haven't invited us yet. I don't think we should ask them back until they do." such precise balancing of reciprocity should be out of place in a foraging band, where resources are communal (common to all) and sharing is normal and essential to social life and survival.

pastoral nomadism

in ________ ________, the entire group-women, men, and children-moves with the animals throughout the year. the Middle East and North Africa provide numerous examples of pastoral nomads. in Iran, for example, the Basseri and the Qashqai ethnic groups traditionally followed a nomadic route more than 300 miles long.

electronic plants

in _________ ________ in rural Malaysia, thousands of young women from peasant families now assemble microchips and micro components for transistors and capacitors. Aihwa Ong (1987, 2010) did a study of electronics assembly workers in an area where 85 percent of the workers were young, unmarried females from nearby villages.

nonindustrial societies economic aspects

in _________ _________, the economic relation between coworkers is just one aspect of a more general social relation. they arent just coworkers but kin, in-laws, or celebrants in the same ritual. in such settings, the relations of production, distribution, and consumption are social relations with _________ ________. economy Is not a separate entity but is embedded in the society.

nonindustrial

in ___________ societies, by contrast, people usually see their work through start to finish and have a sense of accomplishment in the product. the fruits of their labor are their own, rather than someone else's.

unavoidable duty

in addition to paying rent to landlords, peasants must satisfy government obligations, paying taxes in the form of money, produce, or labor. the rent fund is not simply an additional obligation for peasants. often it becomes their foremost and ________ ________. sometimes, to meet the obligation to pay rent, their own diets suffer. the demands of paying rent may divert resources from subsistence, replacement, social, and ceremonial funds.

horticulture agriculture pastoralism

in cohens typology, the three adaptive strategies based on food production in nonindustrial societies are _________, _________, and _________.

market principle redistribution reciprocity

in contemporary North America, the _______ ______ governs most exchanges, from the sale of property to the sale of consumer goods. we also have _________. some of our tax money goes to support the government, but some also comes back to us in the form of social services, education, health care, and infrastructure. we also have __________. generalized reciprocity characterizes the relationship between parents and children. however, even here the dominant market mentality surfaces in comments about the high cost of raising children and in the stereotypical statement of the disappointed parent "we gave you everything money could buy"

perceptions motivations

in the realm of cultural diversity, _________ and ________ can change substantially over time. consider some changes among the Betsileo of Madagascar during the decades of study. initially, compared with modern consumers, the Betsileo had little perception of scarcity. Now, with population increase and the spread of a cash-oriented economy, their perceived wants and needs have increased relative to their means. their motivations have changed, too, as people increasingly seek profits, even if it means stealing from their neighbors or destroying ancestral farms.

market principle

in todays world capitalist economy, the _______ _______ dominates. it governs the distribution of the means of production: land, amor, natural resources, technology, knowledge, and capital

teamwork communal labor

individual men repair the irrigation and drainage systems and the earth walls that separate one plot from the next. among other agriculturalists, however, repairing the irrigation system can be a task involving _________ and _________ _____________.

impersonal separated

industrial workers tend to have more __________ relations with their employers, coworkers, and products. if coworkers are friends or neighbors, that relationship usually develops because of their common employment. work life and family tend to be spatially ________. workplaces include factories, offices and other outside places (including, increasingly, other people's houses); family life takes place in one's own home.

production transport manure

many agriculturists use animals as means of _________-for _________, as cultivating machines, and for their _________. asian farmers typically incorporate cattle and/or water buffalo into agricultural economies based on rice production. rice farmers may use cattle to trample pretilled flooded fields, thus mixing soil and water, prior to transplanting.

species increases

moving from colder to hotter areas, the number of _________ _________. the tropics contain tremendous biodiversity, and tropical foragers typically hunt and gather a wide range of plant and animal species.

Navajo

much more recently, the _________ of the southwestern United States developed a pastoral economy based on sheep, which were brought to North America by europeans. the populous _________ became the major pastoral population in the western hemisphere

outsiders

much of America, including half of our national debt, now belongs to _________. the share of the U.S. national debt owned by foreigners has swollen since the 1970s when it was only 5 percent.

technology

nonindustrial societies contrast with industrial nations in regard to another means of production: __________.

Cherokee

one example of redistribution comes from the _______, native Americans who were the original owners of the Tennessee valley. the _________ were productive cultivators of maize, beans, and squash, which they supplemented by hunting and fishing. they also had chiefs. each of their main villages had a central plaza, where meetings of the chiefs council took place, and where redistributive feasts were held. according to ________ custom, each family farm had an area where the family set aside a portion of its annual harvest for the chief. this supply of corn was used to feed the needy, as well as travelers journeying through _______ territory. this store of food was available to all who needed it, with the understanding that it "belonged" to the chief and was dispersed through his generosity. the chief also hosted redistributive feasts held in the main settlements. on those occasions, ordinary people were able to consume some of the produce they had previously given in the chiefs name.

Aborigines of Australia

people still do, or until recently did, subsistence foraging in certain remote forests in Madagascar, south and Southeast Asia, Malaysia, and the Philippines, and on certain islands off the Indian coast. In addition, some of the best-known recent foragers are the _________ of ________. those native Australians lived on their island continent for 65,000 years without developing food production.

mass hysteria

sometimes possession takes the form of ______ ______. spirits have simultaneously invaded as many as 120 factory workers. Weretigers (the Malay equivalent of the werewolf) arrive to avenge the construction of a factory on aboriginal burial grounds. disturbed earth and grave spirits swarm on the shop floor.

oldest mill

southeast Chicago's mills were still churning out steel when Christine wallet was born in 1965. every morning, her dad headed to his job at Wisconsin steel, the areas ______ _______. the work was hazardous, but it paid enough to support the wallet family of five, and it promised chuck a generous pension when he retired.

great

springs located above the terraces supply their irrigation of water. the labor necessary to build and maintain a system of terraces is _______. terrace walls crumble each year and must be partially rebuilt. the canals that bring water down through the terraces also need maintenance.

social psychological

the _______ and ________ impacts of industrial closures have been profound. former workers lost bother their livelihoods (financial security) and the world that gave their lives meaning and value. churches, restaurants, and other local gathering spots closed along with the mills, depriving laid-off workers of familiar networks of social support.

western hemisphere

the ________ _________ also had recent foragers. the eskimos, or Inuit, of Alaska and Canada are well known hunters. these (and other) northern foragers now use modern technology, including rifles and snowmobiles, in their subsistence activities

potlatch

the ________ is a festive event among the tribes of the North Pacific coast of North America, including the Salish and Kwakiutl of Washington and British Columbia and the Tsimshian of Alaska

maximize profit

the idea that individuals choose to _______ ________ was a basic assumption of the classical economists of the 19th century and is one that is still held by many contemporary economists. however, certain economists now recognize that individuals in western cultures, as in others, may be motivated by many other goals. depending on the society and the situation, people may try to maximize profit, wealth, prestige, pleasure, comfort, or social harmony. individuals may want to realize their personal or family ambitions or those of another group to which they belong.

global strategy

the industrialization of Malaysia is part of a ________ ________. in search of cheaper labor, corporations headquartered in Japan, Western Europe, and the United States have been moving labor-intensive factories to developing countries. Malaysia has hundreds of Japanese and American subsidiaries, which produce mainly garments, foodstuffs, and electronics components.

foragers

the potlatching tribes were ________, but not typical ones. rather than living in nomadic bands, they were sedentary and had chiefs. they enjoyed access to a wide variety of land and sea resources. among their most important foods were salmon, herring, candlefish, berries, mountain goats, seals, and porpoises.

traditional habitats

their members cherish their identities as people who forage for a living in biologically rich and diverse environments. they stress their need for ongoing access to rich forest resources to continue their lifestyles, yet many have been evicted from their ________ ________. their best changes for cultural survival depend on national governments that maintain healthy forests, allow forages access to their traditional natural resources, and foster cultural survival rather than assimilation.

alienated alienation

there are some significant contrasts between industrial and nonindustrial economies. when factory workers produce for sale and for their employer's profit rather than for their own use, they may be ________ from the items they make. such __________ means they don't feels strong pride in or personal identification with their products. they see their product as belonging to someone else, rather than to the man or women whose labor actually produced it.

generalized balanced negative

there are three forms of reciprocity: ________, _________, and ________. these may be imagined as areas along a continuum defined by these questions: 1. how closely related are the parties to the exchange? 2., how quickly and unselfishly are gifts reciprocated?

market principle redistribution reciprocity

to study exchange cross-culturally, Polanyi defined three principles orienting exchanges: the ______ _________, _________, and ________. these principles can all be present in the same society, but in that case they govern different kinds of transactions. in any society, one of them usually dominates. the principle of exchange that dominates in a given society is the one that allocates the means of production.

subsistence fund

to what uses do people in various societies put their scarce resources? throughout the world, people devote some of their time and energy to building up a ________ ________. in other words, they have to work to eat, to replace the calories they use in their daily activity.

constrained

village women wore loos, flowing tunics, sarongs, and sandals, but factory workers had to don tight overalls and heavy rubber gloves, in which they felt ________. assembling electronics components requires precise, concentrated labor.

reception mpakafo

we had traveled to many other bestsileo villages, where often we were unhappy with our _______. as we drove up, children would run away screaming. women would hurry inside. men would retreat to doorways, where they lurked bashfully. this behavior expressed the Betsileos great fear of the ________. believed to cut out and devour his victims heart and liver, the _________ is the Malagasy vampire. these cannibals are said to have fair skin and be very tall. because I have light skin and stand well over 6 feet tall, I was a natural suspect. the fact that such creatures were not known to travel with their wives offered a bit of assurance that I wasn't really a _________.

food production

we should not assume that foragers will inevitably turn to _______ ________ once they learn of its existence. in fact, foragers in many areas have chosen to maintain their foraging lifestyle. their traditional economy supported them well enough, lacked the greater labor requirements associated with farming and herding, and provided an adequate and nutritious diet.

national international

we should not view contemporary foragers as isolated or pristine survivors of the Stone Age. modern foragers are influenced by _________ and _________ policies and political and economic events in the world system.

intermediate economies

we speak of a continuum because there are _______ _______, which combine horticultural and agricultural features. in such economies, cultivation is more intensive than with annually shifting horticulture, but less so than with permanent agriculture. the South American Kuikuru, for example, grow two or three crops of manioc, or cassava-an edible tuber-before abandoning their plots.

band

what are some correlates of foraging? foragers often, but not always, lived in band-organizing societies, their basic social unit, the ________, was a small group of fewer than a hundred people, all related by kinship or marriage.

replaced

when you order something via the internet, the only human being you might speak to is the delivery driver. however, even that human contact is in danger of being _______ by a drone. the computers that take and process your order can come from a warehouse anywhere in the world. transnational finance has shifted the economic control of local life to outsiders. greeks, for example, blame germans for their austerity

infinite limited limited

what does that mean? classical economic theory assumes that our wants are _______ and that our means are _________. since means are ________, people must make choices about how to use their scarce resources: their time, labor, money, and capital.

human nature

when considering issues of "________ _______," we should remember that the egalitarian society associated with foraging was a basic form of human social life for most of our history.

friendly hospitable

when we visited ivato, its people were different- ________ and _________. our very first day there we did a brief census and found out who lived in which households. we learned people's names and their relationships to our schoolteacher friends and to each other we met an excellent informant who knew all about the local history. in a few afternoons I learned much more than I had in the other villages in several sessions.

generalized reciprocity

with ________ _______, someone gives to another person and expects nothing concrete or immediate in return. such exchanges (including parental gift giving in contemporary North America) are not primarily economic transactions but expressions of personal relationships. most parents don't keep accounts of all the time, money, and energy they expend on their children. they merely hope that the children will respect their culture's customs involving love, honor, loyalty, and other obligations to parents.

balanced reciprocity negative reciprocity

with ________ ________, social distance increases, as does the need to reciprocate. in ________ _________, social distance is greatest and reciprocation is most calculated.

transhumance

with ___________, part of the group moves with the herds, but most people stay in the home village. these are examples from europe and Africa. in Europes alps, it is just the shepherds and goatherds-not the whole hamlet, village, or town-who accompany the flocks to highland meadows in summer.

plant cultivation herding

with horticulture and agriculture, ______ _____ is the mainstay of the economy, where as with pastoralism, _______ is key