Anthropology Exam 2

List the four factors that determine how much food primates require/briefly describe each

(1) basal metabolic rate: rate at which an animal expends energy in order to maintain life while Resting (2) active metabolism:when animals become active, their bodies need to raise above baseline, number of calories require depends on how much energy animals expend. (3) growth rate: juveniles/infants require more energy than that which is expected from body weight and activity levels alone (4) reproductive effort: energy costs of reproduction are substantial 25% more calories needed when pregnant and 50% more when lactating

Provide 2 reasons why primates may be territorial

(1)Resource defense-protecting outsiders from exploiting limited resources within a territory and it occurs when the benefits of protecting area outweigh costs (2) mate defense-makes defending females against incursions by other males

Know 2 examples of new world monkeys

**Capuchin monkeys-very large brains in relation to body size, display tool use, social learning, etc -multi male multi female groups -fruit leafs and insects **tamarins-very small, -single pair breeding (usually have triplets) -other members help raise offspring

Know 2 examples of old world monkeys

**Colobus-live in Africa, white and black. -leaf and seed eaters -mostly spend time in trees, one male and several females **oranguntans-Sumatra and Borneo (Asia) Largest and most solitary group of primates. -mostly eat fruit and some leaves and bark Adult females associate mainly with offspring and adult males spend most of time alone

Know 2 examples of strepsirrhines

**Lemurs-found in Madagascar and Comoro Islands off South Eastern Coast of Africa, evolved in isolation from the rest of world -vertical clinging and leaping -females dominate over males, they live in social groups, mostly forage for fruit **lorises-small and nocturnal and arboreal. Africa and Asia (galagos)-active, agile, run along tops of branches and leap through trees. They travel alone, and eat fruit, gum, and insects

What behavioral and lift history traits are common in primates

-Females have small litters and gestation and juvenile periods are longer than in mammals of similar size -brain is larger than brain of similarly sized animals -these behaviors described above reflect a progressive trend toward increased dependence on complex behavior, learning, and behavioral flexibility within the primate order.

How can primates defend themselves against predation

-alarm calls and special focalization -associate with members of another primate species

What dictates the amount of time primates spend foraging?

-availability of a primates preferred food varies widely in space and time -food supplies of folivorious species are usually more uniform and predictable than those of frugivores and insectivores

What is the quantity quality trade off in reproduction

-because females have finite amount of effort to devote to offspring, they cannot maximize both the quantity and quality of the offspring they produce

What are hominids? How do they locomote

-differ greatly from cerpithecoids. Lack tails, broad noses, broad palates, and large brains. -relatively unspecialized molars. -animals like gibbons and siamongs use brachiation (swing hand over hand through canopy) and orangutans travel on ground mostly

What four factors influence female reproductive success?

-dominance rank (high ranking females tend to have priority of best access to feeding sites) -quality of social bonds (better protection from predation/less stress) -group size-more males Longevity-longer female lives=more offspring

Define "strategy" (in terms of natural selection) and give one example of a mating strategy

-evolved behaviors that are a product of natural selection -gestation, long pregnancies, lactation

What is a factor limiting reproductive success in males and females?

-females are limited by access to food not mates -males are limited by access to females

Know differences between intrasexual or intersexual selection -provide examples for sexually selected traits of each

-intrasexual-completion among males for access to females and body size. Large canine teeth -intersexual-competing between sexes, female choice, color etc

Define reciprocal altruism, is it really alruism?

-this theory relies on the basic idea that altruistic individuals can evolve if altruistic behavior is balanced between partners (pairs of interacting individuals) over time -individuals take turns being actor and recipient -individuals eventually receive benefits that outweigh costs of actions, so no

What is sexual dimorphism? (3 types)

-when two sexes consistently differ in size and appearance (Size color ornamentation, weaponry) -peacocks feathers -orangutans larger face -colorful faced baboons

What are 3 hypothesizes to explain why primates have large brains

1. Social intelligence hypothesis-the larger a group becomes, the more difficult it is to sustain social bonds/keep track of relationships within the group. The ability to operate affectively in this complicated social world may reward great flexibility in behavior parts of the brain linked to learning and planning 2. Ecological challenge hypothesis-the ability to innovate and learn from others might enhance an animals ability to cope with ecological challenges 3. Behavioral flexibility hypothesis-natural selection has favored changes in the primate brain that enhance behavioral flexibility/enable animals to invent appropriate solutions to novel problems and learn new behaviors

What is the dental formula of old and new world monkeys and apes

2123

What % of primates are threatened with extinction?

50%

What is inclusive fitness?

Being altruistic to those who have genes similar to you, things benefit kin=passing on of your genes

What are costs and benefits of territoriality?

Benefit -protects resources -cost-defend area

What are costs and benefits of grooming one another?

Benefits-affiliative context and reinforced social relationships, also hygiene purposes Costs-actor expends time and energy

What are costs and benefits of coalitions

Benefits-beneficiary is more likely to win contest or be less injured Costs-supporter expends time and energy and risks defeat by injury being involved

Suggest 4 lines of evidence suggesting primates are intelligent

Big brains, long life spans, (brain size causing the life span) long childhood, behavioral flexibility

Where are old world monkeys/apes found

Catarrhini old world monkeys/apes are found in Africa and Asia Orangutans-Asia chimps/bonobos and gorillas-africa

Which apes form multi male multi female groups?

Chimps and bonobos

Provide example of mutualism in nonhuman primates

Coalitions among male baboons, two middle ranking males band together for better chance to reproduce

Provide an example of a folivore

Colobus

What female counter strategies are there to defer infanticide?

Confuse males of paternity Aborted pregnancy

What are the costs and benefits of sociality for primates?

Costs-more competition over resources and mates, more vulnerable to disease and face hazards such as canabalism and infanticide Benefits-protect food and resources, mates

How does (3 ways) increasing group size protect primates against predation?

Deterrence (active mobbing and chasing) Detection Dilution

What evidence does and doesn't support the social intelligence hypothesis

Does-deception is used by all families of monkeys and apes but not by all strepsirrhines, and monkeys and apes have larger brains Doesn't: correlation not robust when monkeys and apes compared

Know general characteristics of a fast life history vs slow and give 2 examples

Fast-reproduce early, small body, small brain, short gestation, large litters, high mortality, Slow-reproduce late, large body, large brain, long gestation, small litters, low mortality rate, long life span.

What other activities do wild primates engage in?

Feed on fruit, travel, rest, other feeding

Which ape is strong female bonding? Male? Which is pair bonding?

Female-bonobo Male-chimps Pair-humans

How do male/females establish rank in baboon/Maque troops?

Females defend offspring/close kin more than others Maternal support contributes to dominance hierarchies Rank determined by parental rank/rank of parents

Most NWM spend most of their day engaged in what?

Foraging for insect

Provide an example of a frugivore

Gibbon

Provide 2 examples of a territorial primate

Gibbon and howler monkey

Which apes are knuckle walkers

Gorilla, chimp, bonobo

Which ape is vegetarian?

Gorilla, oragnutan

Which apes live in one male multi female groups

Gorillas

3 types of cooperative behaviors observed in primates?

Grooming, coalitions, cooperative breeding

According to the life history theory what are three energy allocation trade offs?

Growth, maintenance, and reproduction

What is altriusm

Helping others to benefit them, at cost to you

Define mating system

How animals find mates/care for offspring, basic rules of mammals, sexual reproduction, female gestation, female locomotion.

Under which circumstances will a primate be less territorial?

If the costs outweigh benefits, there are plentiful females and resoudces

Under which circumstances will primates invest energy in finding new mates

If they can't raise baby on their own

What's difference between mutualism and altruism

In mutualism both parties benefit

How do nonhuman primates recognize kin?

Infants are in constant contact with mothers and siblings are connected through mother. Phenotypic matching-kin recognize through smell and likeness

Which has the smallest digestive system? Frugivore, insectivore, gumnivore, or folivore?

Insectivore

What is infanticide and why might it evolve as a sexually selected strategy?

It's a male reproductive strategy where males kill offspring of other males -death of infant accelerated return to sexual reproduction for females

What are some morphological characteristics of hominids?

Lack tails, broader palates, and nose, bigger brain

What are the two strepsirhine infraorders

Lemuriformes (lemurs) Lorisiformes (lorises)

Provide and example of a gumnivore

Lemurs

What are two criteria needed for reciprocal altruism to occur?

Long life span, frequent interactions, ability to keep track of actions given and received

Which explains the majority of variance in female reproductive success?

Longevity

What is mate guarding? 3 examples

Male gibbons grooming females more than is returned, titi monkeys share food with, carry and groom offspring and protect them from predation

Why does sexual selection usually act more strongly on males?

Male reproductive success varies more because males can easily bear many offspring while females must carry offspring to term

Provide 2 examples of a non territorial primate

Marmosets, capuchins

Is sperm production more pronounced in pair bonded one male multi female or multi male multi female?

Multi male multi female because males who deposit most sperm into females have best chance of impregnating them.

What is the neocortex ratio? Why is this a better measurement of brain size than actual size?

Neocortex ratio=size in brain of most substantial evolutionary changes in size/complexity -part of brain closely associated with problem solving/behavioral flexibility

How do old world monkeys and new world monkeys differ

New world monkeys: are platyrrhines from south and Central America. -they live in arboreal and tropic Forests. They are quadrupedal and suspensory climbers, most of them live in large groups and most are diurnal. -they have tails (titi monkeys, capuchin, owl monkeys) Old world monkeys/apes: catarrhini and from Africa and Asia. They have larger bodies, more diverse habitats and diets. They are diurnal. ***Big differences: new world: more arboreal, forward facing nostrils, wide septum, more teeth. Old world: more terrestrial, downward facing nostrils, narrow septum, fewer teeth (2123)

Do we expect a gene for altruism to evolve in a random assortment of individuals? Why or why not

No because behavior must be ultimately favored individually not for the group, to evolve, and group expansions don't fit into our understanding of evolutionary theory

What evidence supports the ecological challenges hypothesis?

No matter the diet type, species subsisting off exposed foods rather than hidden foods that need extraction have smaller brain sizes

Which apes live in multi female groups?

None

What is the geographic distribution of primates?

Nonhuman primates are found in many tropical areas where fluctuations in temperature from day to night greatly exceed fluctuations in temperature during the year -some species extend into temperate areas of Africa/Asia where they manage to cope with substantial seasonal fluctuations. (Tropical forests, mangroves, savanna woodlands, grasslands, high altitude plains, deserts) ALMOST ALL are found in a forested area where they sleep socialize and live in a largely arboreal world. (Central America, South America, Africa and Asia)

Define cooperative breeding. What primates are cooperative breeders?

One dominant pair and helpers of both sexes. Presence of multi male helpers enhances female fertility. -marmosets and tamarins

Is sexual dimorphism more pronounced in pairbonded one male multi female or multi male multi female?

One male multi female because there is more competition in groups with few males and multiple females

Which ape is solitary?

Orangutan

List the great apes

Orangutan, gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, humans

Be able to categorize apes by mating system (solitary, pair bonded, one male multi female, or multi male multi female?)

Orangutan-solitary gorilla-one male multi female Chimp-multi male multi female Bonobos-multi male multi female Human-matched pairs Gibbons/siamangs-pair

Which ape is arboreal?

Orangutang, gibbon

In polygenous species do juveniles interact more with maternal or paternal kin

Paternal

How does testosterone affect senescence?

Pleiotropic effects of genes that favor early fertility —>this means genes with pleiotropic effects that enhance early fertility but reduce fitness at later ages may be favored by natural selection because they increase individual fitness

3 reasons primates are at risk?

Poaching, habitat destruction, pet trade

When did the primate lineage emerge? What was the first major phylogenic split?

Primates emerged about 50 million years ago. Two orders were Haplorrhini and Strepsirrhini

What morphological traits are common to primates?

Primates have grasping hands (and usually feet) nails instead of claws, hindlimb dominated locomotion, forward facing eyes incased in bone, binocular vision and reduced olfaction (smell)

How do gestation and lactation constrain female reproductive success?

Primates have large brains and energy costs occur for developing fetuses -because these costs take toll on female she rear relatively few offspring

From which food sources do primates obtain protein, carbs, fats/oils?

Protein—animals, seeds, young leaves, woody stems, gum Carbs-(animals), fruit, flowers, sap, gum, underground plants Fats/oil-animals and flowers

According to the life history theory what are the two main trade offs in reproduction?

Quality/quantity of offspring=investment in one infant limits investment in other offspring -current/future reproduction=all other things being equal, fast maturation and early reproduction are advantageous because they increase the length of the reproductive lifespan & reduce generation time, However energy dedicated toward current reproduction diverts energy from growth/maintenance =juvenile phase

What happened in a Japanese study when semi wild maques were provisioned?

Rapid increases in group size

What extrinsic factor drives the evolution of life history strategies?

Reproduction

Why hasn't natural selection designed organisms to live and reproduce forever?

Senescence (aging ->selection pressures much stronger on traits only affecting old ->consequence of genes that increase fitness at younger ages and decrease it at older age is favored by selection because traits that increase fertility at a younger age are favored at the expense of traits that increase longevity

List 3 characteristics of mammals that constrain primate mating systems

Sexual reproduction Female gestation Female lactation

Social organization, mating system, dietary niche and locomotion of orangutan?

Social organization-adult females associate with offspring and do not meet or interact with other orangutans -diet-fruit mainly and leaves and bark -mating system—adult males solitary and a single adult males may defend a home range that encompasses several females -locomotion-brachiation

Social organization, mating system, dietary niche and locomotion of chimpanzees?

Social-females disperse from natal group males retain natal group, strong male male social bonds, usually they form small groups -diet-fruit and vegetation -locomotion-knuckle walking

Social organization, mating system, dietary niche and locomotion of bonobos?

Social-females females bond -multimale multfemale groups -diet-fruit, vegetation some meat -locomotion-knuckle walking and some brachiation

Social organization, mating system, dietary niche and locomotion of gorillas?

Social-small groups that contain one or two males several females; and their young -diet-herbs, shrubs, bamboo -mating-most males leave natal group and aquire females by drawing them away from other males Locomotion-knuckle walking

Social groups are organized based on mating systems, what are the 4 main types of social groups to form

Solitary, monogamy(pair bonds), polyandry (one male multi female), polygyny (multi male multi female)

How strepsirrhine, monkey, and ape life history strategies compare s

Strepsirrhines—> monkeys -> apes

Which 3 primates practice cooperative breeding? Why are marmosets so cooperative?

Tamarins, marmosets, humans -marmosets-chimeras and fraternal twins, passing on siblings genes instead of their own

Provide an example of an insectivore

Tarsier

Know 2 examples of haplorrhines

Tarsiers-live in places like Borneo and Philippines -they are small, nocturnal, and arboreal -vertical leaping and climbing -some live in pair bonded groups but many groups have more than one breeding female -they eat insects Howler monkeys- platyrrhini they use long distance roars for group interaction. They live in small one male multi female groups, defend their home ranges, and mainly eat leaves.

What kind of teeth do primates have?

Teeth in primates are necessary for processing food and are also used in conflict with other animals. We can use primate's teeth to observe developmental patterns, dietary preferences, and social structure.

What are lesser apes? How do they locomote? What is their social organization?

The family hylobatidae, including gibbons and siamangs in Asia. -long arms in relation to body size, arboreal animals who use brachiation to get around, -social organization is bonded pairs and they viciously defend homes

Under what circumstances will primate males invest in offspring?

They don't have to expend energy elsewhere -resources, etc

Tarsiers are nocturnal insect eaters. Why are they classified as haplorhines?

They have an overall similarity in morphology and behavior to monkeys and apes (small, nocturnal, arboreal, and move by vertical leaping and climbing)

Why are very large gorillas able to sustain themselves on leaves? While very small primates consume energy dense foods?

They have smaller home range/more food available so they don't have to expend as much every foraging

Know 3 examples of pair bonded primates

Titi monkeys, gibbons, owl monkeys, Humans

Is rank associated with increased reproductive success?

Yes high ranking males have more offspring

Why might very young or very old mothers have compromised offspring survival?

Young females not fully developed

What is kin selection?

the process by which evolution selects for individuals who cooperate with their relatives -some genes shared by individuals of the same species due to descent