AP English Composition: Logical Fallacies

Example: Despite the fact that our Q4 numbers are much lower than usual, we should push forward using the same strategy because our CEO Barbara says this is the best approach.

Appeal to Authority Fallacy

Red Herring

Attempting to redirect the argument to another issue to which the person doing the redirecting can better respond. It is a deliberate diversion of attention with the intention of trying to abandon the original argument.

Example: The rights of the criminal are just as important as the rights of the victim. Everyone's rights are equal.

Begging the Question Fallacy

Example: Barbara believes the marketing agency's office is haunted since no one has ever proven that IT isn't haunted.

Burden of Proof Fallacy

Example: Ms. Ng said to tell you I'm not reading enough. But I don't think you should worry. She's a teacher, so she has reading on her mind.

Circumstantial a hominem

Example: I have the right to speak. What is right ought to be done. So I ought to speak.

Equivocation

Example: The Soviet Union collapsed after taking up atheism. Therefore, we must avoid atheism for the same reasons.

False Cause

Example: How do you like those developers trying to raise the sales tax to pay for the new stadium? They say it's going to be profitable for the city. If it's so profitable, why don;t they build it out of their own money and really get rich?

False Dilemma

Example: Ladies and gentlemen of the jury: My client's civil rights are at stake. It's true that he pointed at the victim and told the other men with him, "That's the one who cost you your jobs. Get him!" But that was only his expression of his opinion. you have to either let a man speak his mind, or admit that we're living in a police state.

False Dilemma

The Burden of Proof Fallacy

If a person claims that X is true, it is their responsibility to provide evidence in support of that assertion. It is invalid to claim that X is true until someone else can prove that X is NOT true. Similarly, it is also invalid to claim that X is true because it's impossible to prove that X is false. In other words, just because there is no evidence presented against​ something, that doesn't automatically make that thing true.

Begging the Question

Is a fallacy in which a claim is made and accepted to be true, but one must accept the premise to be true for the claim to be true. This is also known as CIRCULAR REASONING. Essentially, one makes a claim based on evidence that requires one to already accept that the calm is true.

The Bandwagon Fallcy

Just because a significant population of people believes a proposition is true, doesn't automatically make it true. Popularity alone is not enough to validate an argument, though it's often used as a standalone justification of validity. Arguments in this style don't take into account whether or not the population validating the argument is actually qualified to do so, or if contrary evidence exists.

Example: What do you mean, I broke my curfew? All I did was walk to the curb. you wouldn't cite me if I stood on the porch, would you? And if I'd just stepped off the porch, that wouldn't be any different. So what's so magical about the curb?

Line-drawing Fallacy

The "No True Scotsman" Fallacy

Often used to protect assertions that rely on universal generalizations (like "all Marketers love pie") this fallacy inaccurately deflects counterexamples to a claim by changing the positioning or conditions of the original claim to exclude the counterexample.

Example: Madam President, I don't see how we can go ahead with this curricular revision. The committee is worried about students not getting a good liberal arts education; but when you look closely at the details of the proposal, you see that a shrewd student can still work through with the right course selections and wind up uneducated.

Perfectionist Fallacy

Example: My child broke her leg after she was vaccinated, so vaccines cause broken legs.

Post hoc Fallacy

Example: "I have worked hard to help eliminate criminal activity. What we need is economic growth that can only come from the hands of leadership."

Red Herring

Example: "If I fail English 101, I won't be able to graduate. If I don't graduate, I probably won't be able to get a good job, and I may very well end up doing temp work or flipping burgers for the next year."

Slippery Slope Fallacy

Example: Do I want the police department to take charge of writing parking tickets? You mean, do I want to get shot if I pull up next to a fire hydrant? What do you think?

Strawman

Example: The majority of people believe advertisers should spend more money on billboards, so billboards are objectively the best form of advertisement.

The Bandwagon Fallacy

Example: "If you want better public schools, you have to raise taxes. If you don't want to raise taxes, you can't have better schools."

The False Dilemma Fallacy

Example: We can either agree with Barbara's plan or just let the project fail. There is no other option.

The False Dilemma Fallacy

Example: Two members of my team have become more engaged employees after taking public speaking classes. That proves we should have mandatory public speaking classes for the whole company to improve employee engagement.

The Hasty Generalization Falcy

Example: John- No marketer would ever put two call-to-actions on a single landing page. Barbara: Lola, a marketer, actually found great success putting two call-to-actions on a single landing page for our last campaign. John: Well, no true marketer would put two call-to-actions on a single landing page, so Lola must not be a true marketer.

"No True Scotsman" Fallacy

The Tu quoque Fallcy

(Latin for "you also") is an invalid attempt to discredit an opponent by answering criticism with criticism -- but never actually presented a counterargument to the original disputed claim. In the example below, Lola makes a claim. Instead of presenting evidence against Lola's claim, John levels a claim against Lola. This attack doesn't actually help John succeed in proving Lola wrong since he doesn't address her original claim in any capacity.

ad hominem Fallacy

- Ad hominem is a Latin word that means "against the man." As the name suggests, it is a literary term that involves commenting on or against an opponent, to undermine him instead of his arguments. - There are cases in which, whether consciously or unconsciously, people start to question the opponent or his personal associations, rather than evaluating the soundness and validity of the argument that he presents. THese types of arguments are usually mistaken for personal insults, but they are somehow different in nature and the distinction is very subtle. - Arguers who are not familiar with the principles of making logical arguments commonly end up saying something that would draw the audience's attention to the distasteful characteristics of the individual. Such people use this fallacy as a tool to deceive their audiences. Making such a blatant personal comment against somebody makes it hard for people to believe it isn't true. Typically, even the arguer himself believes that such personal traits or circumstances are not enough to dispose of an individual's opinion or argument. However, if looked at rationally, such arguments even if true never provide a valid reason to disregard someone's criticism.

post hoc Fallacy

- Also known as the post hoc fallacy, post hoc ergo propter hoc is a Latin phrase, literally translated as "after this, therefore because of this." - It is a fallacious argument that states that because a second event follows the first, the first event must be the cause of the second. Many superstitions are based on this type of argument, because the observer may notice that performing one action seems to lead to another.

The False Dilemma Fallacy

- Also, know as the False Dichotomy Fallacy, this common fallacy misleads by presenting complex issues in terms of two inherently opposed sides. Instead of acknowledging that most (if not all) issues can be thought of on a spectrum f possibilities and stances, the false dilemma fallacy asserts that there are only two mutually exclusive outcomes. Dichotomies are often are expressed with the words "either" and "or" as in a statement like this: "Either the test is wrong, or the program is wrong." However, plenty of false dilemma/ dichotomies does not use those two tip-off words. - This fallacy particularly problematic because it can lend false credence to extreme stances, ignoring opportunities for compromise or chances to re-frame the issue in a new way.

Line-Drawing Fallacy

- Arises when discussing vague concepts: if you can't draw a line to demarcate the edge of a concept, the concept must be dismissed as hopelessly unclear. - Example: What's wrong with calling Queen Elizabeth a "girl"? She was a girl when she was 12, and she was a girl when she was 13, and she was a girl when she was 14. Just when exactly did she stop being a girl?

Genetic Fallcy

- Is committed when an idea is either accepted or rejected because of its source, rather than its merit. This is sort of like an appeal to authority or an ad hominem fallacy. - Example: My mommy told me that the tooth fairy is real. Therefore; the tooth fairy is real. - Example: Eugenics was pioneered in Germany during the war. Therefore: Eugenics is a bad thing.

Perfectionist Fallacy

- Rejecting a decent solution while holding out for a perfect one, which will probably never arise. It uses a false dilemma in a special way; it first assumes that the only two options for action are the PERFECT success for that action; then it rejects any proposed action that will not work perfectly. - Example: What's the point of legislating a law for the minimum age to drink? Kids still manage to get drinks anyway. - Example: What's the point in voting? All political parties are anyway corrupt.

Red Herring

- Shows an argument for an irrelevant topic with the intention of distracting the audience - Example: "I know I cheated on the test, Mrs. Holburn. But what am I going to do, my parents will kill me1"

Circumstantial Ad Hominem

- This fallacy occurs when someone uses unsound reasoning to support a claim or argument, reducing what someone says to the beliefs of some group that person belongs to. It occurs when someone attacks a claim by saying that the person making the claim is only making it because it's in his/her interest or because of his/her circumstances. This actually has no bearing on whether or not the claim is true or false. - Example: Paula argues that more girls should serve on the student council. Nate says that she only believes that because she is a girl. - Example: Mrs. Jones says that she thinks the Teacher of the Year should get a special parking place. Mr. Bullins says that Mrs. Jones thinks that because she is the Teacher of the Year this year. - Example: Taylor tells the teacher that the most recent quiz should not be counted in the grade. Heather says that Taylor only feels that way because he didn't do well on the quiz.

Non sequitur

- This is a Latin phrase meaning "it does not follow", meaning the conclusion reached doesn't have a legitimate relation to the premise. - Example: Buddy Burger has the greatest food in town. Buddy Burger was voted #1 by the local paper. Therefore, Phil, the owner of Buddy Burger, should run for president of the United States. - Example: If Chewbacca lives on Endor, you must acquit. - Example: Morgan Freeman has cotton candy, I have a crab hat, and this baloney is smiling. Your argument is invalid.

Poisoning the Well

-Occurs when negative information that is irrelevant is present ahead of time to discredit the argument. - Example: Principal Marks, I have told you my side of the story. Now, I am sure that Mr. Jones is going to come and tell you some lie about how I was disrespectful when really he was the one who was rude to me. - Example: "Only a moron will believe this story."

Circular Reasoning (Kind of like Begging the Question)

A defective argument, : Is a logical fallacy in which the reasoner beings with what they are trying to end with.

Equivocation

A single word or short phrase has two different meanings, and this meaning shifts at least once in the course of the argument. A person may actually use this device to accuse you of inconsistency when in all actuality, they are the one who is being inconsistent with the way they define their word(s).

Example: A- "All murderers are criminals, but a thief isn't a murderer, and so can't be a criminal." B- "Well, you're a thief and a criminal, so there goes your argument."

Ad Hominem Fallacy

Example: John- I think we should hire someone to redesign our website. Lola- You're saying we should throw our money away on external resources instead of building up our in-house design team? That's going to hurt our company in the long run.

The Straw man Fallacy

Slippery Slope Fallacy

The slippery slope is a series of statements that have a superficial connection with one another, and which leads into what is often a rather far-fetched conclusion.

The Hasty Generalization Fallacy

This fallacy occurs when someone draws expansive conclusions based on inadequate or insufficient evidence. In other words, they jump to conclusions about the validity of a proposition with some -- but not enough -- evidence to back it up, and overlook potential counterarguments.

The Straw Man Fallacy

This fallacy occurs when your opponent over-simplifies or misrepresents your argument (i.e., setting up a "straw man") to make it easier to attack or refute. Instead of fully addressing your ACTUAL argument, speakers relying on this fallacy present a superficially similar -- but ultimately not equal -- version of your real stance, helping them create the illusion of easily defeating you.

Appeal to Ignorance

This is the view that an absence of evidence against a claim counts as evidence for that claim. Just because you can't prove that unicorns don't exist doesnt, thereby, mean that they do. You could, however, argue the POSSIBILITY of their existence. Just because we don't know something doesn't mean we KNOW its opposite.

Example: Lola- I don't think JOhn would be a good fit to manage this project because he doesn't have a lot of experience with project management. John- But you don't have a lot of experience in project management either!

Tu quoque Falacy

Example: Wife- "I see Mr. Smith is cooking out on his new barbecue grill" Husband- "So his wife finally got fed up with his unfaithfulness!"

Vagueness

The Appeal to Authority Fallacy

While appeals to authority are by no means always fallacious, they can quickly become dangerous when you rely too heavily on the opinion of a single person -- especially if that person is attempting to validate something outside of their expertise.

Begging the Question (a better definition)

You are not doing anything logically invalid; rather, you simply are not giving any new information. Reasons must point toward the conclusion, but if the reasons point back to themselves then there is no substantive support of the conclusion. In essence, you are restating what was said in different words. (tautology)