ap environmental science ch 18, 19, and 20

Marine Mammal Protection Act (1972)

- A 1972 US act to protect declining populations of marine mammals. - Prohibits the killing of all marine mammals in the United States and prohibits the import or export of any marine mammal body parts. - Only the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service are allowed to approve any exceptions to the act.

Endangered Species Act (1973)

- A 1973 law designed to protect species from extinction. - This act authorizes the US Fish and Wildlife Service to determine which species can be listed as threatened species or endangered species and prohibits the harming of such species, including prohibitions on the trade of listed species, their fur, or their body parts. - To assist in the conservation of threatened and endangered species, the act authorizes the government to purchase habitat that is critical to the conservation of these species and to develop recovery plans to increase the population of threatened and endangered species. - This is often one of the most important steps in allowing endangered species to persist.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) (1973)

- A 1973 treaty formed to control the international trade of threatened plants and animals. - An international agreement among 182 countries throughout the world.

Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)

- A 1992 international treaty to help protect biodiversity. - The treaty had three objectives: conserve biodiversity, sustainably use biodiversity, and equitably share the benefits that emerge from the commercial use of genetic resources such as pharmaceutical drugs. - The nations that signed this agreement recognized both the instrumental and intrinsic values of biodiversity.

Lacey Act (1900, 1981)

- A US act that prohibits interstate shipping of all illegally harvested plants and animals. - Originally only prohibited the transport of illegally harvested game animals, primarily birds and mammals, across state lines in 1900.

greenhouse warming potential

- An estimate of how much a molecule of any compound can contribute to global warming over a period of 100 years relative to a molecule of CO2. - In calculating this potential, scientists consider the amount of infrared energy that a given gas can absorb and how long a molecule of the gas can persist in the atmosphere. - Because greenhouse gases can differ a great deal in these two factors, greenhouse warming potentials span a wide range of values. - For example, water vapor has a lower potential compared with carbon dioxide. - The remaining greenhouse gases have much higher values, either because they absorb more infrared radiation than a molecule of CO2 or because they persist longer in the atmosphere than CO2.

some declines in genetic diversity have nonhuman causes

- Cheetahs, for example, possess very low genetic diversity. - Researchers have determined that this condition is the result of a population bottleneck that occurred approximately 10,000 years ago. - Other declines in genetic diversity have human causes. - For example, the Florida panther once roamed throughout the southeastern United States. - Because of hunting and habitat destruction, the population of the Florida panther shrank to only a small group in south Florida and this led to inbreeding. - This inbreeding caused a number of harmful defects that caused the population to decline even further. - After scientists released 8 panthers from Texas into Florida to add genetic diversity, the Florida panther population increased from 20 to nearly 100 individuals.

Populations of large terrestrial animals, such as African elephants and snow leopards, are in decline around the world. Many of these large animals are now on the verge of extinction. (c) The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) estimates that the elephant population will decline by 20 percent between 2015 and 2022. Use this estimate to calculate how many elephants will be left in Africa in 2022. Show all work.

0.80 x 600,000 = 480,000 elephants OR 0.20 x 600,000 = 120,000, then 600,000 - 120,000 = 480,000 elephants

In 2014, the convention evaluated the current trends in biodiversity around the world and concluded that the goal had not been met. - They identified the following trends:

1.) Habitat loss has been slowed in some regions of the world, but remains high in other regions. 2.) Many fish species continue to be overharvested. 3.) On average, species at risk of extinction have moved closer to extinction. 4.) There is high variation around the world in the preservation of ecosystem services. 5.) Natural habitats are becoming smaller and more fragmented. - From the perspectives of genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem services, all of the trends continue to move in the wrong direction.

global change factors

Global change - Includes a wide variety of factors that are changing over time. - Rising sea levels, increased extraction of fossil fuels, increased contamination, altered biogeochemical cycles, decreased biodiversity, emerging infectious diseases, overharvesting/exploitation of plants and animals. Global climate change - Refers to those factors that affect the average weather in an area of Earth. - Increased storm intensity, altered patterns of precipitation and temperature, altered patterns of ocean circulation Global warming - Refers to changes in temperature in an area. - The warming of the planet's land, air, and water, increased heat waves, reduced cold spells

history of atmosphere

I.) 4.6-4 billion years ago - Rock core H + He atmosphere - Sun heats up ⇒ boils off/blows away H + He - No atmosphere II.) 4-2.5 billion years ago - Volcanoes spew out gases - Mostly CO2, H2O, other stuff S, N - CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 (carbonic acid) → rain - CaCO3, chalk (limestone) → oceans III.) 2.5 billion years ago - Cynobacteria - CO2↓, O2↑ - Algae - Mass extinction (killed anaerobic organisms that didn't hide), O2 holocaust/catastrophe - 570 million years ago — Cambrian period - Vascular land plants

pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca)

- A bird that provides an interesting example. - In the Netherlands, the pied flycatcher has evolved to synchronize the time that its chicks hatch with the time of peak abundance of caterpillars, a major source of food for the newly hatched birds. - In 1980, the date of hatching preceded the peak in caterpillar abundance by a few days, so there was plenty of food for the new chicks. - Twenty years later, warmer spring temperatures have caused trees to produce leaves earlier in the spring. - Because the caterpillars feed on tree leaves, the peak abundance of caterpillars now occurs about 2 weeks earlier than it did in 1980. - However, the hatching date of the pied flycatcher has not been affected by temperature change. - Thus, by the time the chicks hatch, the caterpillars are no longer abundant and the hatchlings lack a major source of food, causing flycatcher populations in these areas to decline by 90 percent.

metapopulations

- A collection of smaller populations connected by occasional dispersal of individuals along habitat corridors. - Each population fluctuates somewhat independently of the other populations and a population that declines or goes extinct, due to a disease for example, can be rescued by dispersers from a neighboring population. - So if we set aside multiple protected areas, and recognize the need for connecting habitat corridors, a species is more likely to be protected from extinction by a decimating event such as a disease or natural disaster that could eliminate all individuals in a single protected area.

greenhouse

- A glass building that traps infrared.

United Nations (UN)

- A global institution dedicated to promoting dialogue among countries with the goal of maintaining world peace. - Four of the many UN organizations relating to the environment are the United Nations Environment Programme, the World Bank, the World Health Organization, and the United Nations Development Programme.

World Health Organization (WHO)

- A global institution dedicated to the improvement of human health by monitoring and assessing health trends and providing medical advice to countries. - It is the group within the UN responsible for human health, including combating the spread of infectious diseases, such as those that are exacerbated by global climate changes. - This organization is also responsible for health issues in crises and emergencies created by storms and other natural disasters. - The five key objectives of the WHO are: (1) promoting development, which should lead to improved health of individuals; (2) fostering health security to defend against outbreaks of emerging diseases; (3) strengthening health care systems; (4) coordinating and synthesizing health research, information, and evidence; and (5) enhancing partnerships with other organizations.

World Bank

- A global institution that provides technical and financial assistance to developing countries with the objectives of reducing poverty and promoting growth, especially in the poorest countries. - With headquarters in Washington, D.C., cites four goals for economic development: (1) educating government officials and strengthening governments; (2) creating infrastructure; (3) developing financial systems, from microcredit to much larger systems; and (4) combating corruption. - Critics of the World Bank maintain that there is too little consideration of environmental and ecological impacts when projects are evaluated and approved.

provisions

- A good that humans can use directly. - Examples include lumber, food crops, medicinal plants, natural rubber, and furs. - Of the top 150 prescription drugs sold in the United States, about 70 percent come from natural sources. - For example, Taxol, a potent anticancer drug, was originally discovered by a botanist in the bark of the Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), a rare tree that grows in forests of the Pacific Northwest. - There is no way to estimate the potential value of natural pharmaceuticals that have yet to be discovered, but currently more than 800 natural chemicals have been identified as having potential uses to improve human health. - Therefore, our best strategy may be to preserve as much biodiversity as we can to improve our chances of finding the next critical drug.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

- A group of more than 3,000 scientists from around the world working together to assess climate change. - Created by the United Nations and the World Meteorological Organization in 1988. - Their mission is to understand the details of the global warming system, the effects of climate change on biodiversity and energy fluxes in ecosystems, and the economic and social effects of climate change. - The IPCC enables scientists to assess and communicate the state of our knowledge and to suggest research directions that would improve our understanding in the future. - This effort has produced an excellent understanding of how greenhouse gases and temperatures are linked.

genuine progress indicator (GPI)

- A measure of economic status that includes personal consumption, income distribution, levels of higher education, resource depletion, pollution, and the health of the population. - For the country of Finland, while GDP rose steadily from 1945 through 2010, GPI reached a maximum in the early 1990s and has decreased since then. - They have found that their overall wealth, when human and environmental welfare are included, has remained constant or declined over the last 3 decades. - While GDP continues to rise with time, GPI flattens out or decreases.

human development index (HDI)

- A measurement index that combines three basic measures of human status: life expectancy; knowledge and education; and standard of living. - HDI was developed in 1990 by economists from Pakistan, England, and the United States, and it has been used since then by the UNDP in its annual HDR. - As an index, HDI serves to rank countries in order of development and determine whether they are developed, developing, or underdeveloped. - As you might expect, most of the developed countries have the highest HDI values.

ecocentric worldview

- A worldview that places equal value on all living organisms and the ecosystems in which they live. - Earth-centered and it demands that we consider nature free of any associations with our own existence. - This worldview takes various forms. - The environmental wisdom school, for example, believes that since resources on Earth are limited, we should adapt our needs to nature rather than adapt nature to our needs. - The deep ecology school, meanwhile, insists that humans have no right to interfere with nature and its diversity.

ecosystem requirements

- Abiotic and biotic factors - Energy Source - Trophic levels for energy flow and storage in organic compounds - Chemical cycling

silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix)

- A new threat to the Great Lakes, a fish that is native to Asia but has been transported around the world in an effort to consume excess algae that accumulates in aquaculture operations and the holding ponds of sewage treatment plants. - After being brought to the United States, some of the fish escaped and rapidly spread through many of the major river systems, including the Mississippi River. - Over the years, the carp population has expanded northward, and by 2010 it approached a canal where the Mississippi River connects to Lake Michigan. - Although researchers detected the DNA of the carp in water samples from the Great Lakes from 2009 to 2011, substantial netting efforts in the spring of 2013 failed to find any of the fish in the lakes. - As of 2018, it appeared that the carp had not yet found its way into the Great Lakes. - There are two major concerns about this invading fish. First, scientists worry that it will outcompete native species of fish that also consume algae. - Second, the silver carp has an unusual behavior; it jumps out of the water when startled by passing boats. - Given that the carp can grow to 18 kg (40 pounds) and jump up to 3 m (10 feet) into the air, this poses a major safety issue to boaters.

Paris Climate Agreement (Paris Climate Accord) (2016)

- A pledge by 195 countries to keep global warming less than 2 C above pre-industrial levels. - In 2015, the nations of the world gathered once again, this time in Paris, to discuss what actions could be taken to combat global climate change. - To achieve this goal, each country individually decides how it will help in the global effort and reports on its progress periodically. - The agreement goes into effect in 2020 and there is no enforcement of each country's targets by the United Nations. - In 2017, the Trump administration announced that the United States would pull out of this agreement, citing President Trump's desire to promote the increased use of coal in the United States.

United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP)

- A program of the United Nations responsible for gathering environmental information, conducting research, and assessing environmental problems. - Headquartered in Nairobi, Kenya, UNEP is also the international agency responsible for negotiating certain environmental treaties. - In particular, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), and the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer are three important international treaties UNEP negotiated. - The Global Environment Outlook (GEO) reports are prepared under the auspices of UNEP.

endangered species

- A species that is in danger of extinction within the foreseeable future through all or a significant portion of its range. - As you can see, the U.S. definition of endangered is similar to the international definition for threatened and the U.S. definition of threatened is similar to the international definition of near-threatened.

invasive species

- A species that spreads rapidly across large areas and causes harm. - Rapid spread of invasive species is possible because invasive species, which have natural enemies in their native regions that act to control their population, often have no natural enemies in the regions where they are introduced. - Around the world, invasive exotic species pose a serious threat to biodiversity by acting as predators, pathogens, or superior competitors to native species. - A number of efforts are currently being used to reduce the introduction of invasive exotic species, including the inspection of goods coming into a country and the prohibition of wooden packing crates made of untreated wood that could contain insect pests.

incentive-based approach

- A strategy for pollution control that constructs financial and other incentives for lowering emissions based on profits and benefits. - A combination of both command-and-control and incentive-based approaches is likely to generate the maximum amount of desired changes.

command-and-control approach

- A strategy for pollution control that involves regulations and enforcement mechanisms.

environmental economics

- A subfield of economics that examines the costs and benefits of various policies and regulations that seek to regulate or limit air and water pollution and other causes of environmental degradation.

green tax

- A tax placed on environmentally harmful activities or emissions in an attempt to internalize some of the externalities that may be involved in the life cycle of those activities or products. - Taxation is a major deterrent used to discourage companies from producing pollution and generating other negative impacts. - However, a tax alone may not be sufficient to achieve the desired results. - Sometimes rebates or tax credits are given to individuals and businesses purchasing certain items such as energy-efficient appliances or building materials such as windows and doors.

environmental worldview

- A worldview that encompasses how one thinks the world works; how one view one's role in the world; and what one believes to be proper environmental behavior. - Three types of environmental worldviews dominate: human-centered, life-centered, and Earth-centered. - Our worldviews determine the decisions we make about our lives, our work, and the way we treat the planet. - Environmental worldviews can play a significant role in the policies a nation considers and how it implements them. - For example, a nation or community that operates on an anthropocentric worldview might not concern itself with how economic activity affects the natural environment. - A country with an ecocentric worldview might carefully regulate economic activity in order to protect ecosystems and the species within them. - In practice, the policies and regulations of most nations represent a variety of worldviews depending on the particular nation and the specific resource or region of the biosphere that is being affected.

anthropogenic worldview

- A worldview that focuses on human welfare and well-being. - There are variations on this human-centered worldview. - For example, those who favor a free-market approach to economics are optimistic about the results of unlimited competition and minimal government intervention. - The planetary management school, while optimistic that we can solve resource depletion issues with technological innovations, believes that nature requires protection and that government intervention is at times necessary to provide this protection.

biocentric worldview

- A worldview that holds that humans are just one of many species on Earth, all of which have equal intrinsic value. - At the same time, this worldview considers that the ecosystems in which humans live have an instrumental value. - There are various positions within the life-centered approach. - While some consider that it is our obligation to protect a species, others consider that it is our obligation to protect every living creature.

greenhouse effect

- Absorption of infrared radiation by atmospheric gases and reradiation of the energy back toward Earth. - As radiation from the Sun travels toward Earth, about one-third of the radiation is reflected back into space. - Although some ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by the ozone layer in the stratosphere, the remaining ultraviolet radiation, as well as visible light, easily passes through the atmosphere. - Once it has passed through the atmosphere, this solar radiation strikes clouds and the surface of Earth. - Some of this radiation is reflected from the surface of the planet back into space. - The remaining radiation is absorbed by clouds and the surface of Earth, which become warmer and begin to emit lower-energy infrared radiation back toward the atmosphere. - Unlike ultraviolet and visible radiation, infrared radiation does not easily pass through the atmosphere. - It is absorbed by gases, which causes these gases to become warm. - The warmed gases emit infrared radiation out into space and back toward the surface of Earth. - The infrared radiation that is emitted toward Earth causes Earth's surface to become even warmer.

threatened species

- According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), species that have a high risk of extinction in the future. - According to US legislation, any species that is likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range.

agricultural practices

- Agricultural practices can produce a variety of greenhouse gases. - Agricultural fields that are overirrigated, or those that are deliberately flooded for cultivating crops such as rice, create low oxygen environments similar to wetlands and therefore can produce methane and nitrous oxide. - Synthetic fertilizers, manures, and crops that naturally fix atmospheric nitrogen—for example, alfalfa—can create an excess of nitrates in the soil that are converted to nitrous oxide by the process of denitrification. - Raising livestock can also produce large quantities of methane. - Many livestock such as cattle and sheep consume large quantities of plant matter and rely on gut bacteria to digest this cellulose. - As we saw in the case of termites, gut bacteria live in a low-oxygen environment and digestion in this environment produces methane as a by-product. - Manure from livestock operations will decompose CO2 to under high-oxygen conditions, but in low-oxygen conditions, for example in manure lagoons that are not aerated, it will decompose to methane.

manufactured capital

- All goods and infrastructure that humans produce.

exotic species

- Also known as alien species, species living outside its historical range. - For example, honeybees (Apis mellifera) were introduced to North America in the 1600s to provide a source of honey for European colonists. - During the past several centuries, humans have frequently moved animals, plants, and pathogens around the world. - Other movements of exotic species are intentional, such as exotic plants that are sold in greenhouses for houseplants and outdoor landscape plants, or exotic animals that are sold as pets or to game ranches that raise exotic species of large mammals for hunting. - In most cases, exotic species fail to establish successful populations when they are introduced to a new region.

storm intensity

- Although it is impossible to link any single weather event to climate change because of the multiple factors that are always involved, ocean warming may be increasing the intensity of Atlantic storms. - For example, in 2005, hurricanes Katrina and Rita devastated coastal areas in Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi. - These hurricanes appear to have become as powerful as they did because waters in the Gulf of Mexico were unusually warm. - Scientists at the National Center for Atmospheric Research concluded that climate change was responsible for at least half of this warming. - As temperatures increase, such conditions should become more frequent, and hurricanes are likely to become more common farther north. - The devastation in New Orleans did not come as a surprise; for many years scientists had warned that a strong hurricane could flood the city because of its position below sea level. - Unfortunately, scientists caution that New Orleans is not the only American city that could be devastated by a powerful storm. - Other cities at risk include New York, Miami, and Tampa. - In 2017, the hurricane season was the most expensive in history for the United States, including hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria that caused devastation in Texas, Florida, and Puerto Rico. - As in 2005, these strong hurricanes were caused by unusually warm ocean waters.

Red List

- An IUCN list of worldwide threatened species. - Each member country assigns a specific agency to monitor and regulate the import and export of animals on the list. - For example, in the United States, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service conducts this oversight.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

- An agency of the US Department of Labor, responsible for the enforcement of health and safety regulations. - Its main mission is to prevent injuries, illnesses, and deaths in the workplace. - OSHA conducts inspections, workshops, and education efforts to achieve its goals. - Limiting exposure to chemicals and pollutants in the workplace is one way that OSHA is involved in environmental protection.

carbon sequestration

- An approach to stabilizing greenhouse gases by removing CO2 from the atmosphere. - The second option of the Kyoto Protocol. - Methods of carbon sequestration might include storing carbon in agricultural soils or retiring agricultural land and allowing it to become pasture or forest, either of which would return atmospheric carbon to longer-term storage in the form of plant biomass and soil carbon. - Researchers are also working on cost-effective ways of capturing CO2 from the air, from coal-burning power plants, and from other emission sources. - This captured CO2 can then be compressed and pumped into abandoned oil wells or the deep ocean. - Such technologies are still being developed, so their economic feasibility and potential environmental impacts are not yet known.

triple bottom line

- An approach to sustainability that considers three factors—economic, environmental, and social—when making decisions about business, the economy, and development. - There are many organizations and businesses that place one of these three factors at the top of a priority list. - Some businesses strive for economic well-being—a sound financial bottom line—to the exclusion of human welfare or the environment. - They may be regarded as successful within certain communities, but the triple bottom line concept emphasizes that to be a true success, there must be adequate treatment of both humans and environment. - Paul Hawken, the author of Natural Capitalism, states the objective as, "Leave the world better than you found it, take no more than you need, try not to harm life or the environment, and make amends if you do."

Kyoto Protocol (1997)

- An international agreement that sets a goal for global emissions of greenhouse gases from all industrialized countries to be reduced by 5.2 percent below their 1990 levels by 2012. - Due to special circumstances and political pressures, countries agreed to different levels of emission restrictions, including a 7 percent reduction for the United States, an 8 percent reduction for the countries of the European Union, and a 0 percent reduction for Russia. - Developing nations, including China and India, did not have emission limits imposed by the protocol. - These developing nations argued that different restrictions on developed and developing countries are justified because developing countries are unfairly exposed to the consequences of global warming that in large part came from the developed nations. - Indeed, the poorest countries in the world have only contributed to 1 percent of historic carbon emissions but are still affected by global warming. - Thus, the approach was to have the countries that have historically emitted the most CO2 into the atmosphere pay most of the costs of reducing CO2 emissions into the atmosphere.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

- An international program that works in 170 countries around the world to advocate change that will help people obtain a better life through development. - Headquartered in New York City, UNDP has a primary mission of addressing and facilitating issues of democratic governance, poverty reduction, crisis prevention and recovery, environment and energy issues, and prevention of the spread of HIV/AIDS. - UNDP prepares an annual Human Development Report (HDR) that is an extremely useful measurement tool for the status of the human population.

global multidimensional poverty index (MPI)

- An internationally, comparable measurement index that measures education, health, and living standards. - Developed by the United Nations Development Program in conjunction with the University of Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative to measure acute poverty in over 100 developing countries. - The Global MPI Index is updated yearly.

negative feedback in oceans

- As CO2 concentrations increase in the atmosphere, more CO2 is absorbed by the oceans. - Although this is beneficial because it reduces CO2 in the atmosphere, it causes harmful effects to the oceans. - When CO2 dissolves in water, much of it combines with water molecules to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). - Since this is an equilibrium reaction, an increase in ocean CO2 causes more CO2 to be converted to carbonic acid, which lowers the pH of the water in a process known as ocean acidification. - Ocean acidification is of particular concern for the wide variety of species that build shells and skeletons made of calcium carbonate, including corals, mollusks, and crustaceans. - As pH decreases, the calcium carbonate in these organisms can begin to dissolve and the ocean's saturation point for calcium carbonate declines, which makes it harder for organisms to acquire the material they need to build their shells and skeletons.

Kyoto Protocol as of 2018

- As of 2018, 192 countries have ratified the Kyoto Protocol, including most developed and developing countries, although more than 100 developing countries are exempt from any limits on CO2 emissions including China and India. - The United States is the only developed country that has not yet ratified the agreement. - Globally, total greenhouse gases increased by 19 percent between 1991 and 2014. - Changes in CO2 emissions in various countries have been mixed. - For example, according to the World Bank, the total emissions of greenhouse gases from 1991 to 2014 have decreased by 24 percent for Germany, 15 percent for Russia, and 13 percent for the United States. - Emissions in the United States have been declining sharply since 2007 for a variety of reasons including a slower economy, increased fuel efficiency, and an increase in the use of natural gas rather than coal for power generation. - In contrast, 2014 greenhouse gas emissions in Canada have returned to their earlier 1991 levels, but emissions in Australia have increased by 80 percent.

heat waves

- As temperatures increase, long periods of hot weather—known as heat waves—are likely to become more frequent. - Heat waves cause an increased energy demand for cooling the homes and offices where people live and work. - For people who lack air conditioning in their homes, especially the elderly, heat waves increase the risk of death. - Heat waves also cause heat and drought damage to crops, prompting the need for greater amounts of irrigation. - The increased energy required for irrigation would raise the cost of food production.

permafrost

- As warmer temperatures cause ice caps and glaciers to melt, it is perhaps not surprising that areas of permafrost are also melting. - Permafrost is permanently frozen ground that exists in the cold regions of high altitudes and high latitudes, which include the tundra and boreal forest biomes. - About 20 percent of land on Earth contains permafrost; in some places it can be as much as 1,600 m (1 mile) thick. - Melting of the permafrost causes overlying lakes to become smaller as the lake water drains deeper down into the ground. - Melting can also cause substantial problems with human-built structures that are anchored into the permafrost, including houses and oil pipelines. - As the frozen ground melts, it can subside and slide away. - Melting permafrost also means that the massive amounts of organic matter contained in the tundra will begin to decompose. - Because this decomposition would be occurring in wet soils under low-oxygen conditions, it would release substantial amounts of methane, increasing the concentration of this potent greenhouse gas. - This chain of events could produce a positive feedback in which the warming of Earth melts the permafrost, releasing more methane that causes further global warming.

Kyoto Protocol modifications as of 2001

- At that time, the United States, under the administration of President George W. Bush (2001-2009), argued that there was too much uncertainty in global warming predictions to justify ratification of the protocol. - The administration also argued that the costs of controlling carbon dioxide emissions would unfairly disadvantage businesses in the United States while businesses in China and India—two developing countries that were not significant emitters of greenhouse gases prior to 1990 but are significant emitters today—would have no reduction requirements. - Ultimately, the United States argued that efforts to limit greenhouse gases should wait until there is more scientific evidence for global warming and the effects it produces before accepting the costs that the protocol would entail. - Furthermore, the United States argued that all countries should be subject to emissions limits. Otherwise, polluting factories in developed countries could simply relocate to the developing countries, and little good would have been accomplished. - Based on similar arguments, Canada, Russia, and Japan have since withdrawn adopting new targets for reduced CO2 emissions beyond 2012. - Proponents of reducing greenhouse gas emissions argue that profits gained from manufacturing new pollution-control technologies and savings in fuel costs through greater efficiency will offset any costs or decrease in short-term profits.

conservation efforts

- Awareness of a potential sixth mass extinction in which humans have played a major role has brought a growing interest in the ecosystem approach to conserving biodiversity. - This approach recognizes the benefit of preserving particular regions of the world, such as biodiversity hotspots. - Protecting entire ecosystems has been one of the major motivating factors in setting aside national parks and marine reserves. - In some cases, these areas were originally protected for their aesthetic beauty, but today they are also valued for their communities of organisms. - When protecting ecosystems to conserve biodiversity, a number of factors must be taken into consideration including the size and shape of the protected area. - We must also consider the amount of connectedness to other protected areas and how best to incorporate conservation while recognizing the need for sustainable habitat use for human needs.

decline of ecosystem services

- Because species help determine the services that ecosystems can provide, we would expect declines in species diversity to be associated with declines in ecosystem function. - In the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment conducted by the United Nations, scientists from around the world examined the current state of 24 ecosystem functions, including food production, pollination, water purification, and the cycling of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. - Of these 24 different ecosystem functions, 15 were found to be declining or used at a rate that cannot be sustained. - If we want to improve ecosystem functions, we need to improve the fate of the species and ecosystems that provide these services.

cradle-to-cradle system

- Because the responsibility for the object rests with the consumer, there is no incentive for the manufacturer to make it easy to reuse or recycle the object. - It is unfortunate that a can of a chemical oven cleaner purchased for $5, if unused, becomes hazardous waste when disposed of and may cost $25 for disposal. - This type of situation has led to the cradle-to-grave and cradle-to-cradle analysis. - Because the system includes human capital, resource, and energy inputs as well as a redirection of the waste stream, it gains even greater importance when we consider the entire economic system. - In this case, while there is some waste disposal, a good fraction of materials that are used up contribute to the raw materials for new items. - The ultimate goal is to produce a good that at the end of its useful life—as it approaches its "grave"—can be easily reused to make a new product. That is, most or all of the parts of an old product will become the "cradle"—the beginning of life—for the same or other products. - An automobile would be ideal for a cradle-to-cradle system because each individual car contains a ton or more of steel and other metals as well as rubber, plastic, and a host of other materials that can be reused or recycled.

precipitation patterns

- Because warmer temperatures should drive increased evaporation from the surface of Earth as part of the hydrologic cycle, global warming is projected to alter precipitation patterns. - climate models do not make consistent predictions about precipitation. - Current models predict that some areas will experience increased rainfall, but the models differ in predicting which regions of the world would be affected. - Regions receiving increased precipitation would benefit from an increased recharge to aquifers and higher crop yields, but they could also experience more flooding, landslides, and soil erosion. - In contrast, other regions of the world are predicted to receive less precipitation, making it more difficult to grow crops and requiring greater efforts to supply water.

anthropogenic GHG sources

- Burning of fossil fuels - Agricultural practices - Deforestation - Landfills - Industrial production

six anthropogenic greenhouse gas sources

- CO2, CH4, CFC-12 (CF2Cl2), O3, N2O, CFC-11 (CFC13).

The zebra mussel, a mollusk native to Eurasia, was first discovered in the Great Lakes of North America in 1988. Zebra mussels attach to solid substrates and are filter feeders. Adult zebra mussels can survive for several days or even weeks out of water if the temperature and humidity are favorable. An adult female zebra mussel can produce as many as one million eggs per year. The recent range of occurrence of zebra mussels in the United States is indicated by shading in the map above. (d) Identify another invasive species, either terrestrial or aquatic, and describe one negative impact it has had.

- Cane toads — toxins kill native predators. - Rats — eat bird's eggs; spread disease. - Purple loosestrife — crowds out native plant species in wetlands. - (Eurasian) water milfoil — crowds out native plants, clogs waterways. - Snakehead fish — preys on native fish, reducing populations. - Rabbits — clear vegetation. - Kudzu vine — smothers other vegetation. - Emerald ash borer — burrowing and feeding kill trees. - Sea lamprey — predation harms other fish. - Nutria — eats marsh vegetation, destroying wetlands. - (Brazilian) pepper tree — tissues are toxic; shades out other plants. - Pythons, constrictors — eat native species, lowering populations. - Japanese/Asian beetles — eat native plant species. - Pigeon/rock dove — nuisance in cities; vectors of disease. - (European) starlings — compete with native birds for nest sites. - Feral domestic animals (e.g., boar, coat) — predators of native species. - Ice plant — competes with native plant species. - Africanized ("killer") bees — attacks people/animals; displaces honeybees. - Boll weevil — important crop pests.

global change

- Change that occurs in the chemical, biological, and physical properties of the planet. - Some types are natural and have been occurring for millions of years. - Global temperatures, for example, have fluctuated over millions of years. - During periods of cold temperatures, Earth has experienced ice ages. - In modern times, however, the rates of change have often been much higher than those that occurred historically. - Many of these changes are the result of human activities, and they can have significant, sometimes cascading, effects. - Emissions from coal-fired power plants and waste incinerators have increased the amount of mercury in the air and water, with concentrations roughly triple those of preindustrial levels.

global climate change

- Changes in the average weather that occurs in an area over a period of years or decades (greater than or equal to 30 years). - One type of global change of particular concern to scientists. - Changes in climate can be categorized as either natural or anthropogenic. - For example, El Niño events, which occur every 3 to 7 years, alter global patterns of temperature and precipitation. - Anthropogenic activities such as fossil fuel combustion and deforestation also have major effects on global climates.

effects of each greenhouse gas depend on both its warming potential and its concentration in the atmosphere

- Compared with CO2, the greenhouse warming potential is 25 times higher for CH4, nearly 300 times higher for N2O, and up to 13,000 times higher for CFCs. - Although carbon dioxide has a relatively low warming potential, it is much more abundant than most other greenhouse gases, except for water vapor, which can have a concentration similar to carbon dioxide. - While human activity appears to have little effect on the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere, it has caused substantial increases in the amount of the other greenhouse gases. - Among these, carbon dioxide remains the greatest contributor to the greenhouse effect because its concentration is so much higher than any of the others. - As a result, scientists and policy makers focus their efforts on ways to reduce carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. - Given what we now know about how greenhouse gases work, the concentrations of each gas, and how much infrared energy each gas absorbs, we can understand how changes in the concentrations of greenhouse gases can contribute to global warming. - Increasing the concentration of any historically present greenhouse gas should cause more infrared radiation to be absorbed in the atmosphere, which will then radiate more energy back toward the surface of the planet and cause the planet to warm. - Likewise, producing new greenhouse gases that can make their way into the atmosphere, such as CFCs, should also cause increased absorption of infrared radiation in the atmosphere and further cause the planet to warm.

According to atmospheric temperature and CO2 concentration records derived from Antarctic ice cores, Earth's climate has undergone significant changes over the past 200,000 years. Two graphs are shown below. The upper graph shows the variation in atmospheric CO2 concentration, and the lower graph shows the variation in air temperature. Both graphs cover the same time period from approximately 200,000 years ago up until the year 1950, which is represented as year 0 on the graphs. (b) Identify and describe two major causes for the predicted 200 ppm increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration between 1950 and 2050.

- Continuing burning of fossils fuels by a growing population. - Increased per capita usage of fossil fuels. - Increased fossil fuel use for energy production. - Increased fossil fuel use for transportation. - Increased fossil fuel use for industry. - Increased ocean temperature results in release of dissolved CO2. - Land-clearing and burning for increasing food production. - Deforestation (even though this involves the cycling of existing carbon, deforestation is indicated as a CO2 sink in the texts and is accepted). - Lack of development of alternative energy solutions.

law of supply

- Conversely, the supply curve slopes upward. - This reflects the law of supply, which states that when the price of a good rises, the quantity supplied of that good will rise and when the price of a good falls, the quantity supplied will fall.

negative feedbacks in climate change

- Dampen change. - One of the most important is how plants respond to increases in atmospheric carbon. - Because carbon dioxide is required for photosynthesis, an increase in CO2 can stimulate plant growth. - The growth of more plants will cause more CO2 to be removed from the atmosphere. - This negative feedback, which causes carbon dioxide and temperature increases to be smaller than they otherwise would have been, appears to be one of the reasons why only about half of the CO2 emitted into the atmosphere by human activities has remained in the atmosphere.

deforestation

- Each day, living trees remove CO2 from the atmosphere during photosynthesis, and decomposing trees add CO2 to the atmosphere. - This part of the carbon cycle does not change the net atmospheric carbon because the inputs and outputs are approximately equal. - However, when forests are destroyed by burning or decomposition and not replaced, as can happen during deforestation, the destruction of vegetation will contribute to a net increase in atmospheric CO2. - This is because the mass of carbon that made up the trees is added to the atmosphere by combustion or decomposition. - The shifting agriculture, which involves clearing forests and burning the vegetation to make room for crops, is a major source of both particulates and a number of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide.

Charles David Keeling - what cause the seasonal variation of CO2?

- Each spring, as deciduous trees, grasslands, and farmlands in the Northern Hemisphere turn green, they increase their absorption rates of CO2 to carry out photosynthesis. - At the same time, bodies of water begin to warm and the algae and plants also begin to photosynthesize. - In doing so, these producers take up some of the CO2 in the atmosphere. - Conversely, in the fall, as leaves drop, crops are harvested, and bodies of water cool, the uptake of atmospheric CO2 by algae and plants declines and the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere increases.

market-driven system

- Economic tools can be used to incorporate the dollar cost of the externalities in the price of goods and services. - Typically, a tax or regulation calls for reducing externalities through a market-driven system. - This system calls for the incorporation of negative environmental impacts of a commodity or service in its cost of production. - For example, a car manufacturer would include in the cost of production for each car not only the cost of labor and natural resources, such as steel and water, but also the cost of the air pollution caused by the manufacturing process. - Viewed this way, the cost of production of a car will immediately increase. - Typically, the manufacturer would want to pass along at least part of this additional cost to the consumer by raising the price of the car. - Calculating the full costs of a commodity or service by internalizing externalities will likely cause consumers to buy fewer items with high negative impacts because those impacts will be reflected in higher prices. - The most obvious way for the costs of externalities to be included is by requiring the producer to pay them. - This could be achieved through regulation, imposition of a tax, or some sort of public action mandating reparation for externalities or making it difficult for the company to produce its product in a way that pollutes. - Much of the debate in environmental and ecological economics revolves around how best to impose the dollar cost on the producer.

gross domestic product (GDP)

- Economists use different national economic measurements to gauge the economic wealth of a country in terms of its productivity and consumption. - Most of them do not take externalities into account, such as pollution. - The most common of these measurements is GDP, which refers to the value of all products and services produced in a year in a given country. - GDP includes four types of spending: consumer spending, investments, government spending, and exports minus imports. - As a measure of well-being, GDP has been criticized for a number of reasons. - Because costs for health care contribute to a higher GDP, a society that has a great deal of illness would have a higher GDP than an equivalent society without a great deal of illness. - Such an inclusion does not appear to be an accurate reflection of the "wealth" or "well-being" of a society. - And because externalities such as pollution and land degradation are not included in GDP, measurement of GDP does not reflect the true cost of production.

Species such as the dusky seaside sparrow, the passenger pigeon, and the woolly mammoth are extinct. Populations of other species have declined to the point where they are designated as threatened or endangered. (c) Present three arguments in favor of the maintenance of biodiversity.

- Ecosystem function and/or stability based on a specific reason, such as organism's role in food web (e.g., keystone species, predator-prey relationships), organism's role as a pollinator, organism's role in nutrient cycles (e.g., decomposer, nitrogen-fixer) - Future medical resources - Future food resources - Economic potential (ecotourism, future products with market value) - Genetic bank (species diversity to allow continued evolution) - Recreation (hiking, camping, hunting, fishing, etc.) - Scientific value for research/natural lab - Scenic/aesthetic value - Symbolic/religious value - Intrinsic value/ethical reasons (organism have inherent right to live, ecological wealth) - Provides resources for indigenous human population - Minimizes spread of infectious diseases

cultural services

- Ecosystems provide cultural or aesthetic benefits to many people. - The awe-inspiring beauty of nature has instrumental value because it provides an aesthetic benefit for which people are willing to pay. - Similarly, scientific funding agencies may award grants to scientists for research that explores biodiversity with no promise of any economic gain. - Nevertheless, the research itself has instrumental value because the scientists and others benefit from these activities by gaining knowledge. - While intellectual gain and aesthetic satisfaction may be difficult to quantify, they can be considered cultural services that have instrumental value.

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 1970

- Enhances environment; monitor with a tool, the Environmental Impact Assessment. - For example, protection of coral formation and sea turtles has occurred.

resilience

- Ensures an ecosystem will continue to exist in its current state, which means it can continue to provide benefits to humans. - Depends greatly on species diversity. - For example, several different species may perform similar functions in an ecosystem but differ in their susceptibility to disturbance. - If a pollutant kills one plant species that contains nitrogen-fixing bacteria, but does not kill all plant species that contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria, the ecosystem can still continue to fix nitrogen.

eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), as outlined in the United Nations' Millennium Declaration, by 2015

- Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger - Achieve universal primary education - Promote gender equality and empower women - Reduce child mortality - Improve maternal health - Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases - Ensure environmental sustainability - Develop a global partnership for development

species diversity has declined around the world

- Extinction occurs when the last member of a species dies. - These major extinction events are characterized as a loss of at least 75 percent of all species within a period of 2 million years. - Scientists estimate that as a result of these multiple mass extinctions and many minor extinctions, nearly 99 percent of the 4 billion species that have existed on Earth have gone extinct. - However, because each of these mass extinction events has been followed by high rates of speciation that produced new species over millions of years, we still have millions of species on Earth. - To understand the current loss of species around the world, we can look at how particular groups of species are declining. - When considering the status of a species, we use one of five categories defined by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). - Data-deficient species have no reliable data to assess their status; they may be increasing, decreasing, or stable. - Species for which we have reliable data are placed in one of four categories. - Extinct species are those that were known to exist as recently as the year 1500 but no longer exist today.

rise in global temperatures affects sea levels in two ways

- First, the water from melting glaciers and ice sheets on land adds to the total volume of ocean water. - Second, as the water of the oceans becomes warmer, it expands. - This could endanger coastal cities and low-lying island nations by making them more vulnerable to flooding, especially during storms, with more saltwater intrusion into aquifers and increased soil erosion. - Currently, 100 million people live within 1 m (3 feet) of sea level. - The actual impact on these areas of the world will depend on the steps taken to mitigate these effects. - For example, some countries may be able to build up their shorelines with dikes to prevent inundation from rising sea levels. - Countries possessing less wealth are not expected to be able to respond as effectively to coastal flooding.

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA, also called Superfund) (1980)

- Forces and/or implements the cleanup of hazardous waste sites. - For example, dozens of Superfund sites have been cleaned up around the United States.

critics of the precautionary principle

- Maintain that economic progress and human well-being will be hindered if we delay the use of a compound or implementation of an action until we verify that it is completely safe for the environment. - There may also be an additional economic cost to waiting, or for choosing alternative means of achieving a goal.

evaporation and evapotranspiration

- Water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere and the greatest natural contributor to global warming. - Water vapor is produced when liquid water from land and water bodies evaporates and by the evapotranspiration process of plants. - Because the amount of evaporation into water vapor varies with climate, the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere can vary regionally.

greenhouse gases

- Gases in the atmosphere that can absorb infrared radiation emitted by the surface of the planet and radiate much of it back toward the surface. - The most common greenhouse gas is water vapor (H2O). - Water vapor absorbs more infrared radiation from Earth than any other compound, although a molecule of water vapor does not persist nearly as long as other greenhouse gases. - Other important greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and ozone (O3). - All of these gases have been a part of the atmosphere for millions of years, and have kept Earth warm enough to be habitable. - In the case of ozone, we have seen that its effects on Earth are diverse. - Ozone in the stratosphere is beneficial because it filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation. - In contrast, ozone in the lower troposphere acts as a greenhouse gas and can cause increased warming of Earth. - It also is an air pollutant in the lower troposphere because it can cause damage to plants and human respiratory systems. - There is one other type of greenhouse gas, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which does not exist naturally. - It occurs in the atmosphere exclusively due to production of CFCs by humans.

The zebra mussel, a mollusk native to Eurasia, was first discovered in the Great Lakes of North America in 1988. Zebra mussels attach to solid substrates and are filter feeders. Adult zebra mussels can survive for several days or even weeks out of water if the temperature and humidity are favorable. An adult female zebra mussel can produce as many as one million eggs per year. The recent range of occurrence of zebra mussels in the United States is indicated by shading in the map above. (f) Discuss two specific characteristics of invasive species that enable them to thrive in new environments.

- Generalist species - Excellent dispersal mechanisms, allowing it to spread - R-selected or r-strategist - Large clutch size/many offspring produced - Early onset of reproduction/early maturation - Frequent reproduction - Superior defenses against predators in new environment - Superior skills as a predator in new environment

ocean currents

- Global ocean currents may shift as a result of more fresh water being released from melting ice. - Ocean currents have major effects on the climate of nearby continents. - If the currents change, the distribution of heat on the planet could be disrupted. - Scientists are particularly concerned about the thermohaline circulation, which is a deep ocean circulation driven by water that comes out of the Gulf of Mexico and moves up to Greenland where it becomes colder and saltier and sinks to the ocean floor. - This sinking water mixes with the deep waters of the ocean basin, resurfaces near the equator, and eventually makes its way back to the Gulf of Mexico. - This circulating water moves the warm water from the Gulf of Mexico up toward Europe and moves cold water from the North Atlantic down to the equator. - However, increased melting from Greenland and the northern polar ice cap could dilute the salty ocean water sufficiently to stop the water from sinking near Greenland and thereby shut off the thermohaline circulation. - If this occurs, much of Europe would experience significantly colder temperatures.

glaciers

- Global warming has caused the melting of many glaciers around the world. - Glacier National Park in northwest Montana, for example, had 150 individual glaciers in 1850 but has only 25 glaciers today. - It is estimated that by 2030 Glacier National Park will no longer have any glaciers. - The loss of glaciers is not simply a loss of an aesthetic natural wonder. - In many parts of the world the melting of glaciers starting each spring provides a critical source of water for many communities. - Historically, these glaciers partially melted during the spring and summer and then grew back to their full size during the winter. - However, as summers become warmer, glaciers are melting faster than they can grow back in the winter, which leaves some people without a reliable water supply.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) (1976)

- Governs tracking and disposal of solid and hazardous waste. - For example, numerous brownfields and contaminated lands have been cleaned up.

nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) that work on worldwide environmental issues

- Greenpeace, the International Union for Conservation of Nature, World Wide Fund for Nature (formerly World Wildlife Fund), and Friends of the Earth International.

edge habitat

- Habitat that occurs where two different communities come together, typically forming an abrupt transition, such as where a grassy field meets a forest. - A final consideration regarding the size and shape of protected areas is the amount of edge habitat that an area contains. - While some species will live in either field or forest, others, like the brown-headed cowbird, specialize in living at the forest edge. - So another challenge of protecting many small areas is the comparatively larger amount of edge habitat. - When we protect several small forests, for example, the proliferation of species such as the cowbird in this larger amount of edge habitat can have a detrimental effect on songbirds that typically live farther inside a forest.

The city of Fremont has a large brownfield located along the Fremont River. The brownfield is a former industrial site where contamination by hazardous chemicals impede redevelopment. The city council is considering two options for reclaiming the brownfield. The first option is to excavate and remove the contaminated soil, and the second option is to decontaminate the soil on the site using vegetation. (a) Assume that the city council choose the first option. Describe two problems that result from removing the contaminated soil from the brownfield.

- High cost of removing/cleaning/replacing large amounts of soil. - Need to find a place to dispose of contaminated soil—may only move the problem from one site to another. - Erosion at the site. - Ecological disturbance of the area. - Risks from transporting contaminated soil. - Exposure of workers or residents to contaminants (airborne). - Groundwater contamination remains a problem.

human capital

- Human knowledge and abilities.

overharvesting causes declines in populations and species

- Hunting, fishing, and other forms of harvesting are the most direct human influences on wild populations of plants and animals. - Most species can be harvested to some degree, but a species is overharvested when individuals are removed at a rate faster than the population can replace them.

Clean Water Act (CWA) (1972)

- Promotes clean water. - For example, swimmable and fishable rivers across the United States have increased.

US government has taken stronger steps to regulate CO2 emissions

- In 2007, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency not only had the authority to regulate greenhouse gases as part of the Clean Air Act, but that it was required to do so. - As a result, in 2009 the EPA announced it would begin regulating greenhouse gases for the first time. - In 2010, the U.S. EPA began to look more closely at possible ways to regulate emissions of carbon dioxide. - One proposal embraced by auto manufacturers has been to increase the fuel efficiency of vehicles. - In 2012, the Obama Administration announced that the average fuel efficiency of cars and light trucks would increase from the current 12 km per liter (29 miles per gallon) to 16 km per liter (37 miles per gallon) by 2017 and 23 km per liter (55 miles per gallon) by 2025. - This increase in efficiency is projected to cause a 50 percent reduction in CO2 and other greenhouse gases from vehicles by 2025. - The more fuel-efficient cars are expected to cost an extra $1,000, but the reduced consumption of gasoline is expected to save the average driver $3,000 over the lifetime of the vehicle. - This would allow the United States to reduce greenhouse gases, invest in new automotive technology, reduce its consumption of fossil fuels, and save money. - In 2017, the Trump Administration announced that it was going to review the fuel economy goals in response to auto manufacturers that were lobbying for lower fuel efficiency standards.

Santa Barbara oil spill (1969)

- In January 1969, offshore oil platforms 10 kilometers (6 miles) from Santa Barbara, California, began to leak oil. - Roughly 11.4 million liters (3 million gallons) of oil spilled out over the next 11 days and the leak continued throughout the year. - This was not the first oil spill during the 1960s, nor the largest, but its proximity to the southern California coast resulted in something new—vast media attention. - Daily television news reports of dead seabirds, fish, and marine mammals, as well as large stretches of oil-soaked beaches, shocked the American public and government officials. - The Santa Barbara oil spill caused a major shift in federal policy toward incorporating an awareness of how human society affects the environment.

Kyoto Protocol and developing countries

- In developed countries, reductions in CO2 emissions would require major changes to manufacturing, agriculture, or infrastructure at significant expense and economic impact. - In 1997, before the Kyoto Protocol was finalized, the U.S. Senate voted unanimously (95-0) that the United States should not sign any international agreement that lacked restrictions on developing countries or any agreement that would harm the economy of the United States. - Since it was never ratified by the U.S. Senate, the Kyoto Protocol is not legally binding on the United States.

habitat loss is the major cause of declining species diversity

- In modern times, the primary cause of habitat loss is human development that removes natural habitats and replaces them with homes, industries, agricultural fields, shopping malls, and roads. - Many species can only thrive in a particular habitat within a narrow range of abiotic and biotic conditions. - Species requiring such specialized habitats are particularly prone to population declines, especially when their favored habitat is limited, which restricts their distribution to a specific geographic area suitable only for a small population. - Altering distinctive characteristics of a habitat, such as removing trees or damming streams, has an effect on the organisms that live in that habitat. - A species may decline in abundance or become extinct even without complete habitat destruction since a reduction in the size of critical habitat also can lead to extinctions through a variety of processes. - Less habitat also reduces the variety of physical and climatic options available to individuals during periods of extreme conditions. - The presence of cooler, high-altitude areas in a habitat, for example, allows animals a place to move during periods of hot weather. - Also, loss of habitat can restrict the movement of migratory or highly mobile species. - While many species can thrive in small habitats, other species, such as mountain lions, wolves, and tigers, require large tracts of relatively uninhabited, undisturbed land.

The zebra mussel, a mollusk native to Eurasia, was first discovered in the Great Lakes of North America in 1988. Zebra mussels attach to solid substrates and are filter feeders. Adult zebra mussels can survive for several days or even weeks out of water if the temperature and humidity are favorable. An adult female zebra mussel can produce as many as one million eggs per year. The recent range of occurrence of zebra mussels in the United States is indicated by shading in the map above. (c) Identify and explain one impact that zebra mussels can have on aquatic ecosystems.

- Increased water clarity/transparency — mussels are filter feeders, removing solids from water as they feed. - Increased light penetration in water column — remove suspended matter from water. - Increase photosynthesis/primary productivity — results from increased water clarity. - Increased population of other species (certain fish, waterfowl, etc.) — results either from greater primary productivity (base of trophic pyramid) or greater ability of fish that are visual feeders to see their prey. - Competition from zebra mussels for available resources — decreased populations of other species (mollusks, insects, etc.). - Decreased populations of other species (mollusks, insects, etc.) — competition from zebra mussels for available resources. - Altered water chemistry — mussels change biogeochemistry through filtering and digestion of food; shells sequester/store minerals. - Disrupts food chains/trophic dynamics — eats food required by other species.

Endangered Species Act controversy

- It can restrict certain human activities in areas where listed species live, including how landowners use their land. - For example, some construction projects have been prevented or altered to accommodate threatened or endangered species. - Organizations whose activities are restricted by the Endangered Species Act often try to pit the protection of listed species against the jobs of people in the region. - In the 1990s, for example, logging companies wanted to continue logging the old-growth forest of the Pacific Northwest. - These forests are home to the threatened northern spotted owl and many other species that depend on old-growth forest. - Automation had caused a large decline in the number of logging jobs over the preceding several decades, and many loggers perceived the Endangered Species Act as a further threat to their livelihood. - They denounced the act because they said it placed more value on the spotted owl than it did on the humans who depended on logging. - In the end, a compromise allowed continued logging on some of the old-growth forest while the rest became protected habitat.

landfills

- Landfills receive a great deal of household waste that slowly decomposes under layers of soil. - When the landfills are not aerated properly, they create a low-oxygen environment, like wetlands, in which decomposition causes the production of methane as a by-product.

evaluating the status of different plant and animal groups presents several challenges

- Many species fall under the category of data-deficient. - At the same time, we are still discovering many new species, particularly in remote areas of the world. - Since the number of species known to science constantly increases, it is not possible to evaluate every species and our estimates of what fraction of species are declining will constantly change. - Finally, the work is expensive. - Making an assessment for even one group of species, such as birds or mammals, requires thousands of scientists and millions of dollars. - Of the estimated 10 million species that currently live on Earth, ranging from bacteria to whales, only about 50,000 have been assessed to determine whether their populations are increasing, stable, or declining. - Across all groups of organisms that have been assessed, nearly one-third are threatened with extinction. - Some of the best data are for conifers, birds, reptiles, mammals, amphibians, and fish.

global climate change may be affecting the environment

- Melting of polar ice caps, Greenland, Antarctica, glaciers, and permafrost. - Rising sea levels due to the melting of glaciers and ice sheets and as water warms, it expands. - An increased frequency of heat waves, fewer and less-intense cold spells, altered precipitation patterns and storm intensity, and shifting ocean currents.

Populations of large terrestrial animals, such as African elephants and snow leopards, are in decline around the world. Many of these large animals are now on the verge of extinction. (e) Identify and discuss two conservation strategies that could be implemented to prevent the extinction of large terrestrial mammals, such as the African elephant or snow leopard.

- More laws limiting hunting — less poaching, greater animal survival. - Better enforcement of animal or habitat protection laws — less poaching, greater animal survival. - Laws restricting or prohibiting trade of these species or their parts — no market, less poaching. - Establishment/expansion of preserves/parks — safe habitat in which to live and reproduce, reduce poaching. - Education about ecological value of animals — increased public support. - Development of ecotourism industry — creation of market for tourism, less poaching. - Tusk dyeing (elephants), horn removal (rhinos) — devalue animal parts, less poaching - Captive breeding programs aimed at reintroduction — increased population or genetic diversity. - Armed protection (guards) for animals — less poaching. - Movement of threatened species to new location — greater survival, increased genetic diversity.

monetary value of ecosystem services

- Most economists believe that the instrumental values of an ecosystem can be assigned monetary values, and they are beginning to incorporate these values into their calculations of the economic costs and benefits of various human activities. - They considered replacement value—the cost to replace the services provided by natural ecosystems. - They also looked at other factors, such as how property values were affected by location relative to these services—for example, oceanfront housing. - Finally, they considered how much time or money people were willing to spend to use these services—for example, whether they were willing to pay a fee to visit a national park. - Using this method, researchers estimated that ecosystem services were worth over $125 trillion per year, which is about twice the entire global economy.

limitations of feedbacks

- Most of the feedbacks we have discussed are limited by features of the systems in which they take place. - For example, the soil-carbon feedback is limited by the amount of carbon in soils. - While warming soils could add large amounts of CO2 to the atmosphere for a time, eventually soil stocks will become so low that biological activity falls back to earlier rates. - The enhanced CO2 uptake by plants is also limited: Studies indicate that only some plants benefit from CO2 fertilization, and often the growth is enhanced only until another factor becomes limiting, such as water or nutrients. - The magnitude and direction of many feedbacks are complex. - For example, water vapor has both positive and negative feedbacks and there are limits to each. - As temperatures increase, water can evaporate into the atmosphere more easily. - Because water vapor is a greenhouse gas, this increased evaporation will lead to further warming. - There is a limit, however, to the amount of water vapor that can exist in the air. - Air can become saturated with water vapor and the amount of saturation changes with temperature. - Increased water vapor in the atmosphere can lead to the formation of clouds that can shield the surface of Earth from solar radiation, leading to a negative feedback. - In short, the net effect of water vapor on global temperatures depends on several simultaneously occurring processes that make predictions difficult.

denitrification

- N2O is a natural component of the nitrogen cycle that is produced through the process of denitrification. - This occurs in the low-oxygen environments of wet soils and at the bottoms of wetlands, lakes, and oceans. - In these environments, nitrate is converted to nitrous oxide gas, which then enters the atmosphere as a powerful greenhouse gas.

kudzu vine (Pueraria lobata)

- Native to Japan and southeast China but was introduced to the United States in 1876. - Throughout the early 1900s, farmers in the southeastern states were encouraged to plant kudzu to help reduce erosion in their fields. - By the 1950s, it became apparent that the southeastern climate was ideal for kudzu, with growth rates of the vine approaching 0.3 m (1 foot) per day. - Because herbivores in the region do not eat kudzu, the species has no enemies and can spread rapidly. - The vine grows up over most wildflowers and trees and shade them from sunlight, causing the plants to die. - Indeed, the vine grows over just about anything that does not move. - Kudzu currently covers approximately 3 million hectares (7.4 million acres) in the United States.

biosphere reserves

- Protected area consisting of zones that vary in the amount of permissible human impact. - While we want to make places of great natural beauty available to everyone, when large numbers of people use an area for recreation, at least some degradation is very likely. - To address this problem, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) developed the innovative concept. - These reserves protect biodiversity without excluding all human activity. - The central core is an area that receives minimal human impact and is therefore the best location for preserving biodiversity. - A buffer zone encircles the core area. - Here, modest amounts of human activity are permitted, including tourism, environmental education, and scientific research facilities. - Farther out is a transition area containing sustainable logging, sustainable agriculture, and residences for the local human population. - Designing reserves with these three zones represents an ideal scenario. - In reality, biosphere reserves can take many forms depending on their location, though all attempt to maintain low-impact core areas.

zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha)

- Native to the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea in eastern Europe and western Asia. - Over the years large cargo ships that traveled in these seas unloaded their cargo in the ports of the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea and then pumped seawater into the holding tanks to ensure that the ship sat low enough in the water to remain stable. - This water that is pumped into the ship is called ballast water. - When the ships arrived in the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes, they loaded on new cargo and no longer needed the weight of the ballast water, which they pumped out of the ship into local waters. - One consequence of transporting ballast water from Asia to North America is that many aquatic species from Asia, including zebra mussels, have been introduced into the aquatic ecosystems of North America. - Because the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes provided an ideal ecosystem for the zebra mussel, and because a single zebra mussel can produce up to 30,000 eggs, the mussel spread rapidly through the Great Lakes ecosystem. - On the positive side, because the mussels feed by filtering the water, they remove large amounts of algae and some contaminants, which helps to counteract the cultural eutrophication that has occurred in the Great Lakes ecosystem. - On the negative side, the zebra mussels physically crowd out many native mussel species and the zebra mussels can consume so much algae that they negatively affect native species that also need to consume the algae. - Moreover, the invasive mussels can achieve such high densities that they can clog intake pipes and impede the flow of water on which industries and communities rely.

regulating services

- Natural ecosystems help to regulate environmental conditions. - For example, humans currently add about 8 gigatons of carbon to the atmosphere annually (1 gigaton = 1 trillion kilograms), but only about 4 gigatons of carbon remain there. - The rest is removed by natural ecosystems, such as tropical rainforests and oceans, which provide us with more time to address climate change than we would otherwise have. - As we have already seen, ecosystems also are important in regulating nutrient and hydrologic cycles.

support systems

- Natural ecosystems provide numerous support services that would be extremely costly for humans to generate. - One example is pollination of food crops. - In addition to providing habitat for animals that pollinate crops, ecosystems offer natural pest control services because they provide habitat for predators that prey on agricultural pests. - Although organic farmers, who rarely use synthetic pesticides, gain the most from these pest controls, conventional agriculture benefits as well. - Healthy ecosystems also filter harmful pathogens and chemicals from water, leaving humans with water that requires relatively little treatment prior to drinking. - Without these water-filtering services, humans would have to build many new water treatment facilities that use expensive filtration technologies.

earth's atmosphere composition

- Nitrogen 78.1% - Oxygen 20.8% - Argon 0.93% - Carbon dioxide 0.04%

law of demand

- Notice that the demand curve slopes downward. - In other words, as the price of T-shirts rises, the demand for them declines. - This illustrates the law of demand, which states that when the price of a good rises, the quantity demanded falls and when the price falls, the quantity demanded rises.

positive feedbacks in climate change

- Often leads to an unstable situation in which small fluctuations in inputs lead to large observed effects. - There are many ways that a rise in temperatures could create a positive feedback. - For example, global soils contain more than twice as much carbon as the amount currently in the atmosphere. - Higher temperatures are expected to increase the biological activity of decomposers in these soils. - Because this decomposition leads to the release of additional CO2 from the soil into the atmosphere, the temperature change will be amplified even more. - A similar, but more troubling, scenario is expected in tundra biomes containing permafrost. - As atmospheric concentrations of CO2 from anthropogenic sources increase, the Arctic regions become substantially warmer and the frozen tundra begins to thaw. - As it thaws, the tundra develops areas of standing water with little oxygen available under the water as the thick organic layers of the tundra begin to decompose. - As a result, the organic material experiences anaerobic decomposition that produces methane, a stronger greenhouse gas than CO2 which should lead to even more global warming.

first Earth day (1970)

- On April 22, 1970, was partially the result of public reaction to the Santa Barbara oil spill and to other environmental problems that surfaced during the 1960s, such as those documented by Rachel Carson in her book Silent Spring. - Earth Day 1970 is the symbolic birthday of the modern expression of the view that the natural environment and human society are inextricably connected. - It also signals the beginning of contemporary environmental policy. - Before 1970, environmental policy focused primarily on biological and physical systems as economic resources for an industrial society. - After 1970, sound environmental policy expanded to include the idea that economic benefits must be balanced by environmental science, environmental equity, and intergenerational equity—the interests of future generations in a healthy environment. - Since the early 1970s, several important U.S. agencies have been created to monitor human impact on the environment as well as to promote environmental and human health.

foraminifera

- One commonly used biological measurement is the change in species composition of a group of small protists. - Foraminifera are tiny, marine organisms with hard shells that resist decay after death. - In some regions of the ocean floor, the tiny shells have been building up in sediments for millions of years. - The youngest sediment layers are near the top of the ocean floor whereas the oldest sediment layers are much deeper. - Fortunately, different species of foraminifera prefer different water temperatures. - As a result, when scientists identify the predominant species of foraminifera in a layer of sediment, they can infer the likely temperature of the ocean at the time the layer of sediment was deposited. - By examining thousands of sediment layer samples, we can gain insights into temperature changes over millions of years.

Endangered Species Act (ESA) (1973)

- Protects animal and plants species from extinction. - For example, bald eagle, peregrine falcon, and gray wolf population have recovered.

greenhouse gases vs. increased solar radiation

- One explanation for warming temperatures during the past century is an increase in solar radiation. - Another possibility is that warming is caused by increased CO2 in addition to warming caused by natural fluctuations in solar radiation. - One way to approach the problem is to look for more detailed patterns in temperature changes. - For example, if increased CO2 concentrations caused global warming by preventing heat loss, then periods of elevated CO2 would be associated with higher temperatures more commonly in winter than in summer, at night rather than during the day, and in the Arctic rather than in warmer latitudes. - These three scenarios are all associated with colder temperatures, so reducing heat loss would have a bigger impact on temperature than in scenarios in which the temperatures were already quite warm. - The Arctic regions are experiencing the greatest amount of warming. - On the other hand, if increased solar radiation were the cause of global warming, periods of elevated solar radiation would be associated with higher temperatures more commonly when the Sun is shining more—namely in the summer, during the day, and at low latitudes. - These times and locations on Earth receive the greatest amount of sunlight, so an increased intensity of solar radiation would cause these times and places on Earth to warm more than other times and places. - When scientists make these types of detailed comparisons, they find that the patterns in temperature change are strongly consistent with increased greenhouse gases such as CO2 and not consistent with increased solar radiation. - This body of evidence led the IPCC to conclude that most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-twentieth century has been the result of increased concentrations of anthropogenic greenhouse gas.

corals

- One group of organisms that are particularly sensitive to global warming because their range of temperature tolerance is quite small. - With an increase in peak summer ocean temperatures of just 1 C corals can experience "bleaching." - Coral bleaching occurs when stressed corals eject their mutualistic algae, which provide corals with energy. - The loss of algae causes the coral to turn white. - The underlying causes of coral bleaching appear to be a combination of warming oceans, pollution, and sedimentation. - While bleaching can be temporary, if it lasts for more than a short time, the corals die. - While new corals should colonize regions at higher latitudes, it will take centuries before major new reef systems can be built. - More coral bleaching is expected from global warming even if climate changes are kept relatively small.

Dr. Wangari Maathai

- One proponent of the UN MDGs was Nobel Peace Prize Laureate from Kenya. - The founder of the Green Belt Movement, a Kenyan and international environmental organization that empowers women by paying them to plant trees, some of which can be harvested for firewood after a few years. - The Green Belt Movement is credited with replanting large expanses of land in East Africa, thereby reducing erosion and improving soil conditions and moisture retention. - In addition, the trees that have been replanted, provided that they are not overharvested, offer a renewable source of fuel for cooking. - The Green Belt Movement is considered a global sustainability success story promoting both individual human and environmental well-being. - Dr. Maathai was also involved in environmental activism to achieve her goals, which sometimes caused her difficulties with certain governmental organizations.

Big Bend National Park, Texas

- One well-known biosphere reserve. - The park itself serves as the core area and receives relatively little human impact, although hikers are permitted to walk through the beautiful desert landscapes and tree-covered mountain peaks. - The park contains several dozen threatened and endangered plant and animal species. - Outside the boundaries of the park is a region of increased human impact including tourist facilities, human settlements, and agriculture.

volcanic eruptions

- Over the scale of geologic time, volcanic eruptions can add a significant amount of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. - Other gases and the large quantities of ash released during volcanic eruptions can also have important, short-term climatic effects. - A volcanic eruption emits a large quantity of ash into the atmosphere. - The ash reflects incoming solar radiation back out into space, which has a cooling effect on Earth.

the Arctic region is experiencing some of the most extreme effects of global warming

- Polar bears live in the Arctic and they play a key role in the ecosystem by hunting for seals on the polar ice cap. - The bears hunt for the holes in the ice and the bears pounce on any seals that come up for air. - In many cases, the bears will consume only seal blubber, which is a concentrated source of the energy critical for an organism living in such a cold environment. - The portion of the seal carcass that remains is a significant food source for other animals, including the Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus). - As the polar ice cap retreats far away from the land each summer, the polar bears can no longer reach the ice to hunt for seals. - The problem for the bears is that today the sea ice melts 3 weeks earlier than it did 30 years ago. - Because of the shorter time they are able to hunt for seals, male polar bears near Hudson Bay in Canada currently weigh 67 kg (150 pounds) less than they weighed 30 years ago. - With less seal predation, there will be fewer seal carcasses for other animals like the Arctic fox to consume, so there is a cascade of effects when polar bears are affected by global warming. - In 2008, the United States classified polar bears as a threatened species because the decline in their ice habitat is expected to cause a decline in their population. - In 2009, the five nations with polar bear populations (Canada, Greenland, Norway, Russia, and the United States) agreed that the polar bear should be classified as threatened throughout its entire global range. - While acknowledging that pollution and hunting contributed to the bears' bleak future, the nations agreed that the effect of global warming on the ice cap poses the greatest threat to polar bears. - In 2013, the United States and Russia went a step further by announcing an agreement to push for a CITES rule to ban the international trade in all products from polar bears including furs and teeth. - While the plight of the polar bear has drawn attention to the effects of global warming, it is only one of many indicators that our world is rapidly changing because of human activity.

global declines in the genetic diversity of wild species

- Population with low genetic diversity are not well suited to surviving environmental change and they are prone to inbreeding depression. - Inbreeding depression by parents that each carry a harmful recessive mutation causes some of their offspring to receive two copies of the harmful mutation and, as a result, causes the offspring to have a poor chance of survival and reproduction. - High genetic diversity ensures that a wider range of genotypes is present, which reduces the probability that an offspring will receive the same harmful mutation from both parents. - In addition, high genetic diversity improves the probability of surviving future change in the environment. - High genetic diversity produces a wide range of phenotypes which increases the chances that at least some individuals can survive and reproduce under changing environmental conditions.

Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) (1970)

- Prevents occupational injury, illness, death from work-related exposure to physical and chemical harm. - For example, worker training and knowledge of toxins has increased.

Clean Air Act (CAA) (1970)

- Promotes clean air. - For example, sulfur dioxide reductions from cap-and-trade have occurred.

Scientific evidence shows a direct relationship between sea level and the global mean atmospheric temperature at Earth's surface. Increases in the global mean atmospheric temperature during the past century have been accompanied by a gradual increase in sea level; currently the average rate of increase in sea level is 3.0 mm/yr. Additional increases in sea level are expected during the next century as global mean atmospheric temperatures continue to rise. These increases in sea level will affect coastal ecosystems as well as human activity along coastal margins. (d) Although sea level has been rising for over a century, human population in coastal areas have increased dramatically during this period. - Describe two viable strategies that governments could use to discourage people from moving to coastal areas.

- Raise premiums or refuse to insure in areas that repeatedly flood/are damaged by storms. - Raise property taxes in coastal areas. - Education campaigns, PSAs, advertising that discourage movement to the coast or encourage movement away from the coast. - Offer incentives to relocate inland, such as jobs, schools, reduced property taxes. - Designate the area as a preserve/reserve making it illegal to build. - Impose stricter penalties for infringements of regulation designed to protect the coastline. - Zone to restrict building in coastal areas, limit distance to coast - Designate the beach as public property. - Ban the practice of beach nourishment. - Pass rolling easements in which property owners agree to abandon building when their properties becomes flooded. - Impose a tax to support beach-area protection. - Prevent the building of infrastructure/services (roads, power lines, water lines) that service coastal areas.

combining data from different biological and physical measurements

- Researchers have created a picture of how the atmosphere and temperature of Earth have changed over hundreds of thousands of years. - Temperatures have changed dramatically over the past 400,000 years. - Most of these rapid shifts occurred during the onset of an ice age or during the transition from an ice age to a period of warm temperatures after an ice age. - Because these changes occurred before humans could have had an appreciable effect on global systems, scientists suspect the changes were caused by small, regular shifts in the orbit of Earth. - The path of the orbit, the amount of tilt on Earth's axis, and the position relative to the Sun all change regularly over hundreds of thousands of years. - These changes alter the amount of sunlight that hits high northern latitudes in the winter, the amount of snow that can accumulate, and the way the albedo effect keeps energy from being absorbed and converted to heat. - These changes could give rise to fairly regular shifts in temperature over a long period of time.

air bubbles in ancient ice

- Scientists can determine changes in greenhouse gas concentrations and temperatures over long periods of time by examining ancient ice. - In cold areas such as Antarctica and at the top of the Himalayas, the snowfall each year eventually compresses to become ice. - Similar to marine sediments, the youngest ice is near the surface and the oldest ice is much deeper. - During the process of compression, the ice captures small air bubbles. These bubbles contain tiny samples of the atmosphere that existed at the time the ice was formed. - Scientists have traveled to these frozen regions of the world to drill deep into the ice and extract long tubes of ice called ice cores. - Samples of ice cores can span up to 500,000 years of ice formation. - Scientists determine the age of different layers in the ice core and then melt the ice from a piece associated with a particular time period. - When the piece of ice melts, air bubbles are released and scientists measure the concentration of greenhouse gases in the air when the bubbles were trapped in the ancient ice. - Oxygen atoms in melted ice cores can also be used to determine temperatures from the distant past. - Oxygen atoms occur in two forms, or isotopes: light oxygen, also known as oxygen-16, contains 8 protons plus 8 neutrons. - In contrast, heavy oxygen, also known as oxygen-18, contains 8 protons plus 10 neutrons. - Ice formed during a period of warmer temperatures contains a higher percentage of heavy oxygen than ice formed during colder temperatures. - By examining changes in the percentage of heavy oxygen atoms from different layers of the ice core, we can indirectly estimate temperatures from hundreds of thousands of years ago.

experiencing global declines in genetic diversity

- Scientists estimate that the world is currently experiencing approximately 50,000 species extinctions per year. - The United Nations Convention of Biological Diversity estimates that the current rate of extinction is 1,000 times higher during the past 50 years than at any other time in human history. - Some declines in genetic diversity have natural causes. The ultimate fate of all species is extinction.

process of removing materials from the atmosphere

- Sedimentation - Rain out - Oxidation - Photodissociation

supply curve (S)

- Shows how many units that suppliers of a given product or service—for example, T-shirts—are willing to provide at a particular price. - Factors that influence the supply of a good include input prices (the cost of the resources used to produce the item), technology, expectations about future prices, and the number of people selling the product. - For example, if you are the only person selling T-shirts and many people want them, you will be willing to make the investment required to produce many T-shirts. - However, if a new T-shirt seller comes along, because you will be concerned that you will not sell as many, you will decrease your production because you now must share the market with another supplier.

demand curve (D)

- Shows how much of a particular good consumers want to buy. - Factors that influence demand include income, prices of related goods, tastes, expectations, and the number of people who want the good. - For example, if your boss gives you a raise, you may feel like you can afford that T-shirt you have been wanting to buy.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

- The US organization that oversees all governmental efforts related to the environment, including science, research, assessment, and education. - In 1970, President Richard Nixon signed the bill authorizing the creation. - Headquartered in Washington, D.C., the EPA also writes and develops regulations and works with the Department of Justice, Department of State, and U.S. Native American governments to enforce those regulations.

effects of global warming and climate change on humans

- Some people may have to relocate from such vulnerable areas as coastal communities and some ocean islands. - Poorer communities close to or along coastlines might not have the resources to rebuild on higher ground. - If these communities do not obtain financial assistance, they will face severe consequences from flooding and saltwater intrusion. - On the other hand, certain areas that have not been suitable for human habitation might become more hospitable if they become warmer, although other factors, such as water availability, might still limit their habitability. - Climate change has the potential to affect human health. - Continued warming of the planet could affect the geographic range of temperature-limited disease vectors. - For example, the mosquitoes that carry West Nile virus and malaria could spread beyond their current geographic range and bring health threats to regions that were once relatively untouched. - As the climate changes, heat waves could cause more deaths to the very young, the very old, and those without access to air conditioning. - Infectious diseases and bacterial and fungal illnesses might extend over a wider range than they do at present. - Climate changes will also have economic consequences. - In northern locations, for example, warmer temperatures and shorter winters would drastically alter the character of northern communities that depend on snow for tourism. - In the Alps, for example, many ski resorts are already adjusting to reduced snow on the mountains by catering to new groups of tourists who are more interested mountain biking than skiing. - In warmer regions, the damage to corals reefs would negatively affect tourism as well. - The economic impact on these types of tourist attractions depends on the rate of climate change and the ability of the tourism industry to adjust.

Species such as the dusky seaside sparrow, the passenger pigeon, and the woolly mammoth are extinct. Populations of other species have declined to the point where they are designated as threatened or endangered. (b) Describe three characteristics of organisms that would make them particularly vulnerable to extinction.

- Specialized feeding behavior/food source - Requires large territory - Preys on livestock/people - Competition with humans (for space/food) - No natural defense (against introduced species) - Fixed migratory patterns - Specialized reproductive behavior, breeding - Low reproductive rate - Limited geographic range, habitat - Specific behavior patterns - Exploited for economic value (specific) - K-strategist - Feed at high trophic level, biomagnification - Large size - Slow speed - Limited range of tolerance - Small population linked to lack of genetic diversity

near-threatened species

- Species that are very likely to become threatened in the future.

least-concern species

- Species that are widespread and abundant.

native species

- Species that live in their historical range, typically where they have lived for thousands or millions of years.

the main argument for the Kyoto Protocol is grounded in the precautionary principle

- States that in the face of scientific evidence that contains some uncertainty we should behave cautiously. - In the case of climate change, this means that since there is sufficient evidence to suggest human activities are altering the global climate, we should take measures to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations either by reducing emissions or by removing the gases from the atmosphere. - The first option includes trying to increase fuel efficiency or switching from coal and oil to energy sources that emit less or no such as natural gas, solar energy, wind-powered energy, or nuclear energy.

precautionary principle

- States that when the results of an action are uncertain—such as the effects caused by the introduction of a compound or chemical—it is better to choose an alternative known to be harmless. - In many situations, scientific uncertainty complicates the estimation of the comparative risks of different actions. - In the United States, environmental law and policy has at times treated scientific uncertainty as a reason to discount or downplay scientific evidence of problems in the environment. - Industrial and business groups have also used scientific uncertainty as a reason to avoid implementing expensive measures that would mitigate future environmental harms. - Those who favor using the precautionary principle argue that if we wait for widespread scientific consensus about the adverse effects of a particular compound or action, we run the risk of creating an environmentally unsustainable and inequitable future. - It does not recommend or require any specific actions, but it does provide a reminder to environmental policy makers and managers that, in many cases, absolute scientific certainty may come too late when dealing with potentially serious environmental harms.

system analysis of the current economic situation

- Suggests that continuing with such a system is not sustainable. - In the current system, large amounts of extracted resources and energy and relatively small amounts of ecosystem services are the inputs, and large amounts of waste are the outputs.

burning fossil fuels

- Tens to hundreds of millions of years ago, organisms were sometimes buried without first decomposing into carbon dioxide. - The process by which the carbon contained in these organisms, called fossil carbon, is slowly converted to fossil fuels deep underground. - When humans burn these fossil fuels, we produce CO2 that goes into the atmosphere. - Because of the long time required to convert carbon into fossil fuels, the rate of putting carbon into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels is much greater than the rate at which producers take CO2 out of the air and both the producers and consumers contribute to the pool of buried fossil carbon. - Because fossil fuels differ in how they store energy, each type of fossil fuel produces different amounts of carbon dioxide. - For a given amount of energy, burning coal produces the most CO2. - In comparison, burning oil produces 85 percent as much CO2 as coal, and burning natural gas produces 56 percent as much. - From the perspective of CO2 emissions, natural is considered better for the environment than coal. - The production of fossil fuels, such as the mining of coal, and the combustion of fossil fuels can also release methane and, in some cases, nitrous oxide. - Particulate matter may also play an important role in global warming. - Although particulate matter, also known as black soot, may reflect solar radiation under some conditions, recent findings suggest that it may be responsible for up to one-quarter of observed global warming during the past century. - Particulates that fall on ice and snow in the higher latitudes absorb more energy of the Sun by lowering the albedo. - As the snow and ice begin to melt, the particulates become more concentrated on the surface. - The increased concentration raises the amount of solar radiation absorbed, which increases melting. - This positive feedback system might help explain warming that occurred early in the last century, when atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases had not yet increased much but soot from the burning of coal was widespread.

Department of Energy (DOE)

- The US organization that advances the energy and economic security of the United States. - In 1977, President Jimmy Carter signed an act authorizing the creation. - Among its top goals are scientific discovery, innovation, and environmental responsibility. - Within the DOE, the Energy Information Agency gathers data on the use of energy in the United States and elsewhere.

natural GHG sources

- Volcanic eruptions: ash, CO2 - Decomposition and digestion: CH4 - Denitrification: N2O - Evaporation and evapotranspiration: H2O

The zebra mussel, a mollusk native to Eurasia, was first discovered in the Great Lakes of North America in 1988. Zebra mussels attach to solid substrates and are filter feeders. Adult zebra mussels can survive for several days or even weeks out of water if the temperature and humidity are favorable. An adult female zebra mussel can produce as many as one million eggs per year. The recent range of occurrence of zebra mussels in the United States is indicated by shading in the map above. (a) Why are zebra mussels located primarily in areas in the eastern United States rather than in the western United States?

- The animal was introduced in the eastern US and is still spreading across the continent. - The eastern states have more surface waters available for colonization and to act as corridors to dispersal; the western states have fewer such habitats. - The western mountain ranges (e.g., the Rockies) serve as a natural barrier to dispersal. - Humans spread the animal, and human population density is general higher in the East.

stewardship

- The careful and responsible management and care for Earth and its resource. - The stewardship school of thought considers that while the natural world requires protection, it is also our ethical responsibility to be good managers of Earth.

single large or several small (SLOSS) debate

- The concepts of island biogeography and metapopulations raise an interesting dilemma for conservation efforts. - If we have limited resources to protect the biodiversity of a region, should we protect a single large area or several small areas? - A single large area would support larger populations, but a species is more likely to survive a disease or natural disaster if it occupies several different areas. - While both approaches have their merits, in reality, human development and other factors often mean that only one of the two strategies is available. - For example, due to human development of a region, there may simply not be a single large area available to protect, so the only available strategy is to protect several small areas.

externality

- The cost of using a resource that is not included in the purchase price. - When we pollute air or water without directly paying for it, that is also an externality. - When we account for the costs of externalities created by manufacturing a good or offering a service, the price changes. - This, in turn, affects demand and supply.

industrial production of new greenhouse chemicals

- The creation of new industrial chemicals often has unintended effects on the atmosphere. - CFCs, the family of chemicals that serves as refrigerants used in air conditioners, freezers, and refrigerators. - CFCs were used in the past until scientists discovered that they were damaging the protective ozone layer. - The nations of the world joined together to sign the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, which phased out the production and use of CFCs by 1996. - Unfortunately, many of the alternative refrigerants that are less harmful to the ozone layer, including a group of gases known as hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), still have very high greenhouse warming potentials. - As a result, developed countries will phase out the use of HCFCs by 2030.

polar ice

- The extent of sea ice fluctuates, but there is an overall trend of a 13 percent decline per decade from 1979 to 2017. - Compared with the average amount of ice present from 1979 to 2000, scientists found that there was 45 percent less ice—a total area twice the size of Texas—during the period of 2006 to 2012. - In addition, the remaining ice is considerably thinner, making it more vulnerable to future melting. - In fact, the 10 years with the smallest areas of summer ice have all occurred during the 11-year span of 2007 to 2017. - Large openings in sea ice will continue to expand and the ecosystem of the Arctic region will be negatively affected. - At the same time, though, there may also be benefits to humans. - For example, the opening in the polar ice cap could create new shipping lanes that would reduce by thousands of kilometers the distance some ships have to travel. - Also, it is estimated that nearly one-fourth of all undiscovered oil and natural gas lies under the polar ice cap and a melted polar ice cap might make these fossil fuels more easily obtainable. - However, the combustion of these fossil fuels would further facilitate global warming, representing another example of a positive feedback. - In addition to the polar ice cap in the Arctic, Greenland and Antarctica have also experienced melting. - Sea ice mass has been measured in Antarctica and Greenland from 2000 to 2017. - During this time, Antarctica has lost nearly 2,000 gigatons (about 4,400 trillion pounds) of ice while Greenland lost nearly 3,800 gigatons (8,378 trillion pounds) of ice. - The polar ice cap in Antarctica is particularly interesting. It has shown a small increase in total area over the past 3 decades. - However, the mass of the ice cap includes both area and thickness. - Because the ice cap is losing thickness due to melting, its overall mass has been reduced. - Current evidence shows that the melting rate of these ice-covered regions is continuing to increase. - Large amounts of melted ice have caused sea levels to rise.

policy cycle

- The five basic steps in a policy cycle are problem identification, policy formulation, policy adoption, policy implementation, and policy evaluation. - This process is a circular or reiterative process. - As a policy is evaluated, the need for amendment might arise. - When an amendment is initiated, it follows roughly the same steps. Many good environmental policies have had numerous amendments. - For example, the Clean Air Act has been amended twice, and even the original Clean Air Act of 1970 was actually a modification of earlier clean air legislation.

plant and animal trade

- The legal and illegal trade in plants and animals represents a serious threat to their ability to persist in nature. - Poaching is the illegal killing for the sale of animal parts. - Despite such international agreements, much illegal plant and animal trade still occurs throughout the world. - Sometimes even when trade in a particular species is legal, it can pose a potential long-term threat to species persistence.

Svalbard Global Seed Vault

- The nations of the world have recognized the problem of declining seed diversity and have responded by storing seed varieties in specially designed warehouses to preserve genetic diversity. - In fact, there are currently more than 1,700 such storage facilities around the world. - However, many of these facilities are at risk from war and natural disasters. - This facility consists of a tunnel built into the side of a frozen mountain on an island above the Arctic Circle of northern Norway. - It was designed to resist a wide range of possible calamities, including natural disasters and global warming. - Should the environment change in future years, either in terms of abiotic conditions or because of emergent diseases, the seed bank will be available to help scientists address the challenge. - The Svalbard facility opened in 2008 with a capacity of 4.5 million seed varieties with each variety represented by more than 500 seeds. - As of 2018, more than 890,000 seed samples had been sent to Svalbard for long-term storage. - Ecoterrorists targeted this center in the past.

technology transfer

- The phenomenon of less developed countries adopting technological innovation developed in wealthy countries. - For example, in many less developed countries, a significant proportion of the population uses cell phones without ever having had access to a network of landline telephones.

leapfrogging

- The phenomenon of less developed countries using new technology without first using the precursor technology. - Occurs whenever new technology develops in a way that makes the older technology unnecessary or obsolete. - This allows the developing nations to take advantage of the expensive research, development, and experience of the more-developed nations. - Photovoltaic (PV) solar electricity is a particularly good example. - In industrialized nations, until recently, solar electricity has not been cost-competitive with gas- or coal-generated electricity. - However, it has been very successful for a number of years in nations in Africa, Asia, and South America that lack the resources to build a reliable electrical distribution grid. - Solar PV electricity is a small-scale energy source not dependent on outside connections to an electrical grid. - In fact, it is possible that many less developed countries will continue to increase their use of solar PV and skip the step of building a nationwide electrical grid, much like what has happened with cell phones versus landlines for telephone service.

valuation

- The practice of environmental and ecological economists attempting to assign monetary value to intangible benefits and natural capital. - For example, they have developed methods for assessing the monetary value of a pristine nature preserve, a spotted owl, or a scenic view. - One method is to calculate the revenue generated by people who pay for the benefit—for example, the amount tourists pay to visit a nature preserve would represent the dollar value of the preserve. - Another method is to use surveys. - They might ask a number of people how much they are willing to pay just to know that spotted owls exist, even if they are unlikely ever to see one. - The most extensive assessments have attempted to determine the value of ecosystem services such as oxygen that plants produce or pollination that insects do. - The multi-organization Millennium Ecosystem Assessment categorized the variety of services that ecosystems provide for the benefit of humans. - In many cases, it is possible to estimate the cost of a particular service if it were provided using technology rather than naturally. - For example, New York City could have constructed a massive water purification system at a known cost. - Instead, it chose to protect watersheds in the Catskill Mountains, a region north of New York City that supplies the city with water, so the water would not need expensive purification. - Accordingly, the ecosystem service of water purification has a known value that can be used to help calculate the total dollar value of ecosystem services.

equilibrium point (E)

- The price of a good will come where the two curves on the graph intersect. - Here the quantity demanded and the quantity supplied are exactly equal. - At this price, suppliers find it worthwhile to supply exactly as many T-shirts as consumers are willing to buy.

climate change affects biodiversity

- The primary concern about climate change is its effect on patterns of temperature and precipitation in different regions of the world. - In some regions, a species may be able to respond to warming temperatures and changes in precipitation by migrating to a place where the climate is well suited to the species niche. - In other cases, this is not possible.

natural capital

- The resources of the planet, such as air, water, and minerals. - While economists usually base their assessment of national wealth on productivity and consumption, environmental scientists point out that all economic systems require a foundation of natural capital. - Without natural capital, humans would not be able to produce very much and would probably not survive.

well-being

- The status of being healthy, happy, and prosperous. - Has caused individuals and nations to exploit and degrade natural resources such as air, land, water, wildlife, minerals, and even entire ecosystems.

ecological economics

- The study of economics as a component of ecological systems. - Is a method of understanding and managing the economy as a subsystem of both natural and human systems.

economics

- The study of how humans allocate scarce resources in the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

size, shape, and connectedness of protected areas

- The theory of island biogeography looks at how the size of islands and the distance between islands and the mainland affect the number of species that are present on different islands. - Larger islands generally contain more species because they support larger populations of each species, which makes them less susceptible to extinction. - Larger islands also contain more species because they typically contain more habitats and, therefore, provide a wider range of niches for different species to occupy. - The distance between an island and the mainland, or between one island and another, is another crucial factor, since more species are capable of dispersing to close islands than to islands farther away. - Although the theory of island biogeography was originally applied to oceanic islands, it has since been applied to islands of protected areas in the midst of less hospitable environments. - For example, we can think of all the state and national parks, natural areas, and wilderness areas as islands surrounded by environments subject to high levels of human activity, including agricultural fields, logged forests, housing developments, and cities. - These areas provide habitats for species and places to stop and rest for migrating species. - Applying the theory of island biogeography from this perspective gives us some idea of the best ways to design and manage protected areas. - For example, when protected areas are far apart, it is less likely that species can travel among them. - This means that when a species has been lost from one ecosystem, it will be harder for individuals of that species from other ecosystems to recolonize it. - So when we create smaller areas, they should be close enough for species to move among them easily.

ranking the anthropogenic sources of greenhouse gases

- The three major contributors of methane in the atmosphere are the digestive processes of livestock, landfills, and the production of natural gas and petroleum products. - The major contributor of nitrous oxide is agricultural soil because it receives nitrogen from synthetic fertilizers, combustion, and industrial production of fertilizers and other products. - Finally, looking at the numbers for carbon dioxide, we see that approximately 93 percent of all CO2 emissions come from industrial processes and the burning of fossil fuels for transportation, residents, businesses, and generating electricity.

capital

- The totality of our economic assets, is typically divided into three categories: natural, human, and manufactured.

sun-earth heating system

- The ultimate source of almost all energy on Earth is the Sun. - In the most basic sense, the Sun emits solar radiation that strikes Earth. - As the planet warms, it emits radiation back toward the atmosphere. - However, the types of energy radiated from the Sun and Earth are different. - Because the Sun is very hot, most of its radiated energy is in the form of high-energy visible radiation and ultraviolet radiation—also known as visible light and ultraviolet light. - When this radiation strikes Earth, the planet warms and radiates energy. - Earth is not nearly as hot as the Sun, so it emits most of its energy as infrared radiation—also known as infrared light. - We cannot see infrared radiation, but we can feel it being emitted from warm surfaces like the heat that radiates from an asphalt road on a hot day. - Differences in the types of radiation emitted by the Sun and Earth, in combination with processes that occur in the atmosphere, cause the planet to warm.

global warming (or cooling)

- The warming (or cooling) of the oceans, land masses, and atmosphere of Earth.

global climate may be already affecting organisms

- The warming of the planet not only is affecting polar ice caps and sea levels but also is affecting living organisms. - These effects range from temperature-induced changes in the timing of plant flowering and animal behavior to the ability of plants and animals to disperse to more hospitable habitats. - The growing season for plants had lengthened by 4 to 16 days in the Northern Hemisphere, with the greatest increases occurring in higher latitudes. - Scientists are finding that in the Northern Hemisphere many species of plants now flower earlier, birds arrive at their breeding grounds earlier, and insects emerge earlier. - Rapid temperature changes have the potential to cause harm if organisms do not have the option of moving to more hospitable climates and do not have sufficient time to evolve adaptations. - Historically, organisms have migrated in response to climatic changes. - This ability to migrate is one reason that temperature shifts have not been catastrophic over the past few million years. - Today, however, fragmentation of certain habitats by roads, farms, and cities has made movement much more difficult. - In fact, this fragmentation may be the primary factor that allows a warming climate to cause the extinction of species.

global declines in the genetic diversity of domesticated species

- There are major concerns about declining genetic variation in the domesticated species of crops and livestock on which humans depend. - In total, humans have bred the 38 species of domesticated animals into approximately 8,800 different varieties. Across the world, these species have been bred by humans for a variety of characteristics including adaptations that allow them to survive local climates. - Unfortunately, livestock producers have concentrated their efforts on the breeds that are most productive in terms of meat or milk production, so much of this genetic variation is being lost. - A century ago, most of the crops that humans consumed were composed of hundreds or thousands of unique genetic varieties. - The green revolution in agriculture focused on techniques that increased productivity. - Farmers planted fewer varieties, concentrating on those with higher yields. - Fertilizers and irrigation helped humans control many of the abiotic conditions, allowing fewer but higher-yielding varieties to be grown across large regions of the world. - Planting only a few varieties leaves us open to crop loss if the abiotic or biotic environment changes.

pollution affects biodiversity

- Threats to biodiversity come from toxic contaminants such as pesticides, heavy metals, acids, and oil spills. - Other contaminants, such as endocrine disrupters, can have nonlethal effects that prevent or inhibit reproduction. - Pollution sources that cause declines in biodiversity also include the release of nutrients that cause algal blooms and dead zones as well as thermal pollution that can make water bodies too warm for species to survive.

Charles David Keeling

- Through the work of the IPCC, we now understand that CO2 is an important greenhouse gas that can contribute to global warming, but we didn't always realize this. - In the first half of the twentieth century, most scientists believed that if any excess CO2 were being produced, it would be absorbed by the oceans and vegetation. - In addition, because the concentration of atmospheric CO2 was very low compared to gases such as oxygen and nitrogen, it was difficult to measure accurately. - Was the first to overcome the technical difficulties in measuring CO2. - When Keeling set out to measure the precise level of CO2 in the atmosphere, most atmospheric scientists believed that two measurements several year apart would be sufficient to answer the question of whether human activities were causing increase concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere. - Keeling did not agree and in 1958 he began collecting data throughout the year at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii. - After just 1 year of work, Keeling found that CO2 levels varied seasonally and that the concentration of CO2 increased from year to year. - His results prompted him to take measurements for several more years, and he and his students have continued this work into the twenty-first century. - The results confirm Keeling's early findings; although CO2 concentrations vary between seasons, there is a clear trend of rising CO2 concentrations across the years. - This increase over time is correlated to increased human emissions of carbon from the combustion of fossil fuels and net destruction of vegetation.

Kuznets curve

- To address some of the shortcomings of GDP as a measurement of wealth, some environmental economists and scientists advocate using a model known as the Kuznets curve. - The Kuznets curve suggests that as per capita income in a country increases, environmental degradation first increases and then decreases (turning point). - The model is controversial because it is not easily applicable to all situations. - For example, despite the increasing affluence of developed countries, carbon dioxide emissions and municipal solid waste (MSW) generation have both continued to increase. - It is possible that these developed countries are not yet wealthy enough to deal with these problems effectively, but it is also possible that there are certain problems that cannot be solved simply with greater wealth. - For example, as countries become wealthier, residents tend to use more fossil fuel for travel, consume more resources, and generate more waste.

intrinsic value

- Value independent of any benefit to humans. - These beliefs may grow out of religious or philosophical convictions. - People who believe that ecosystems are inherently valuable may argue that we have a moral obligation to preserve them. - They may equate the obligation of protecting ecosystems with our responsibility toward people or animals that might need our help to survive. - People who argue that ecosystems are valuable independent of any benefit to humans generally believe that environmental policy and the protection of ecosystems should be driven by this intrinsic value.

decomposition and digestion

- When decomposition occurs under high-oxygen conditions, the dead organic matter is ultimately converted into carbon dioxide. - Methane is created when there is not enough oxygen available to produce carbon dioxide. - This is a common occurrence at the bottom of wetlands where plants and animals decompose and oxygen is in low supply. - Wetlands are the largest natural source of methane. - A similar situation occurs when certain animals digest plant matter. - Animals that consume significant quantities of wood or grass, including termites and grazing antelopes, require gut bacteria to digest the plant material. - Because the digestion occurs in the animal's gut, the bacteria do not have access to oxygen and methane is produced as a by-product. - A single termite colony can contain more than a million termites. - Termites are abundant throughout the world—especially in the tropics—and represent the second largest natural source of methane.

supply and demand with externalities

- When the cost of emitting pollutants is included in the price of a good, for any given quantity of items, the price increases. - This causes the supply curve to shift to the left, from S to S1. - Since the law of demand states that when the price of a good goes up, demand falls, the amount demanded falls, and the market reaches a new equilibrium, E1. - In other words, including the externalities raises the price and lowers the demand. Therefore the price that includes externalities is more reflective of the true cost of the item.

market failure

- When the economic system does not account for all costs. - Among those economic thinkers who have sought ways to respond to market failures, many have become part of the discussion in the fields of environmental economics and ecological economics.

sustainable economic system

- Will rely more on ecosystem services and reuse of existing manufactured materials and less on resource extraction. - In this system, there is greater reliance on ecosystem services and less reliance on resource extraction that requires energy. - It also takes some of the waste stream and reuses it in the production and consumption cycle. - Therefore, the cycle would use more renewable energy, lessen negative externalities, and reuse more of the products that were destined for the waste stream. - This model has led architects, environmental scientists, and engineers to a collaborative discussion of the optimal way to design, manufacture, use, and dispose of objects such as automobiles, houses, and consumer goods. - Currently, a consumer purchases an object, such as an automobile or computer, and when that object has reached the end of its useful life, the consumer is responsible for its disposal.

cold spells

- With global temperatures rising, minimum temperatures are expected to increase over most land areas, with fewer extremely cold days and fewer days below freezing. - Such conditions would have two major positive effects for humans: fewer deaths due to cold temperatures and a decrease in the risk of crop damage from freezing temperatures. - It may also make new areas available for agriculture that are currently too cold to grow crops. In addition, warmer temperatures would decrease the energy needed to heat buildings in the winter. - However, a decrease in freezing temperatures that normally would cause the death of some pest species might allow these pest species to expand their range. - The hemlock wooly adelgid (Adelges tsugae), for example, is an invasive insect from Asia that is causing the death of hemlock trees in North America by feeding on sap. - Researchers have found that the range of the species is limited by cold temperatures. - Warmer conditions in future decades are expected to allow this pest to expand its range and kill hemlock trees over a much larger area.

greenhouse gas misconceptions

- Without any greenhouse gases, the average temperature on Earth would be approximately -18 C (0 F) instead of its current average temperature of 14 C (57 F). - Concern about the danger of greenhouse gases is based on our understanding that an increase in the concentration of these gases—as has occurred due to human activities—can cause the planet to warm even more than usual.

instrumental value

- Worth as an instrument or a tool that can be used to accomplish a goal. - Which include the value of items such as crops, lumber, and pharmaceutical drugs, can be thought of in terms of how much economic benefit a species bestows. - We often refer to these instrumental values as ecosystem services. - When calculating the instrumental value of various ecosystem services, we can consider five categories: provisions, regulating services, support systems, resilience, and cultural services.

According to atmospheric temperature and CO2 concentration records derived from Antarctic ice cores, Earth's climate has undergone significant changes over the past 200,000 years. Two graphs are shown below. The upper graph shows the variation in atmospheric CO2 concentration, and the lower graph shows the variation in air temperature. Both graphs cover the same time period from approximately 200,000 years ago up until the year 1950, which is represented as year 0 on the graphs. (a) Answer the following questions that relate to the graphs above. Remember that for any calculations you must clearly indicate how you arrived at your answer. Answers must also include appropriate units. - (i) Determine the net change in atmospheric CO2 concentration between 140,000 years ago and 125,000 years ago.

140,000 years before present: CO2 ~ 200 ppm 125,000 years before present: CO2 ~ 280 ppm 280 ppm - 200 ppm = an increase of 80 ppm

Populations of large terrestrial animals, such as African elephants and snow leopards, are in decline around the world. Many of these large animals are now on the verge of extinction. (b) Calculate the percent loss of elephants in Africa from 1970 to 2000. Show all work.

2,000,000 - 400,000 = 1,600,000 (1,600,000 / 2,000,000) x 100 = 80%

According to atmospheric temperature and CO2 concentration records derived from Antarctic ice cores, Earth's climate has undergone significant changes over the past 200,000 years. Two graphs are shown below. The upper graph shows the variation in atmospheric CO2 concentration, and the lower graph shows the variation in air temperature. Both graphs cover the same time period from approximately 200,000 years ago up until the year 1950, which is represented as year 0 on the graphs. (a) Answer the following questions that relate to the graphs above. Remember that for any calculations you must clearly indicate how you arrived at your answer. Answers must also include appropriate units. - (iii) Scientists predict that between 1950 to 2050, the atmospheric CO2 concentrations will increase by 200 ppm. Predict the change in mean global temperature between 1950 and 2050 using the ration that you calculated in part (ii).

200 ppm x 1 C/8 ppm = 25 C increase in global temperature

Scientific evidence shows a direct relationship between sea level and the global mean atmospheric temperature at Earth's surface. Increases in the global mean atmospheric temperature during the past century have been accompanied by a gradual increase in sea level; currently the average rate of increase in sea level is 3.0 mm/yr. Additional increases in sea level are expected during the next century as global mean atmospheric temperatures continue to rise. These increases in sea level will affect coastal ecosystems as well as human activity along coastal margins. (a) Based on the rate cited above, calculate the expected increase in sea level, in meters, during the next 50 years.

3.0 mm/yr x 50 yrs = 150 mm = 0.15 m

The city of Fremont has a large brownfield located along the Fremont River. The brownfield is a former industrial site where contamination by hazardous chemicals impede redevelopment. The city council is considering two options for reclaiming the brownfield. The first option is to excavate and remove the contaminated soil, and the second option is to decontaminate the soil on the site using vegetation. (c) Describe and explain one environmental benefit and one societal benefit of brownfield reclamation.

Acceptable environmental benefits: - Creates green spaces—habitat for plants, insects, animals. - Reduces hazardous runoff into streams, lakes, rivers. - Reduces groundwater contamination. - Reduces urban sprawl by reclaiming urban land. Acceptable societal benefits: - Cleaned up area improves property values. - Can provide green space for parks, athletic fields, or aesthetic value. - Can provide area for housing, businesses, or crops. - Land made available for development can add to tax base and provide jobs. - Decreases health risks related to living near a brownfield. - Use as a positive model for successful reclamation which could increase environmental awareness/community service. - Reduces urban sprawl (if not credited above).

The city of Fremont has a large brownfield located along the Fremont River. The brownfield is a former industrial site where contamination by hazardous chemicals impede redevelopment. The city council is considering two options for reclaiming the brownfield. The first option is to excavate and remove the contaminated soil, and the second option is to decontaminate the soil on the site using vegetation. (b) Assume that the city council chooses the second option. Explain how vegetation could be used to decontaminate the soil. Discuss one advantage and one disadvantage of using this reclamation method.

Advantage of using plants: - Low cost - Reduces soil erosion - Reduces the amount of material that has to be taken to a landfill - Less habitat disruption (not removing the soil) - Aesthetically pleasing Disadvantages of using plants: - Process may be slow - Vegetation may become hazardous to insects or animals that feed on it - When the vegetation is removed, it is still hazardous - May not remove all of the contaminants/effective only to the depth that the roots reach - May introduce exotic species - Appropriate plant species may be difficult to grow on the site - Volatilized compounds may be emitted through plant pores

The zebra mussel, a mollusk native to Eurasia, was first discovered in the Great Lakes of North America in 1988. Zebra mussels attach to solid substrates and are filter feeders. Adult zebra mussels can survive for several days or even weeks out of water if the temperature and humidity are favorable. An adult female zebra mussel can produce as many as one million eggs per year. The recent range of occurrence of zebra mussels in the United States is indicated by shading in the map above. (e) One strategy for controlling an invasive species has been to introduce another nonnative species to control it; this strategy can often have unintended results. Give a specific example of the use of this strategy and discuss a negative impact of introducing a nonnative species to control an invasive species.

Biological control: - Insects (stem borers, leaf eaters) to feed on purpose loosestrife. - Ladybird beetles (ladybugs) to feed on pest insects. - Parasitoid wasps to control weevils. - Bacteria (e.g., Bt) or viruses to control animal pests. - Mongoose to hunt rats. - Cane toads to prey on insect pests. Negative impact: - Predation of nontarget species. - Competition with native species. - Toxic to native predators, or reduces available food to native predators. - Alters ecological interactions, e.g., food webs or biogeochemical cycles.

in carbon cycle

Chemical weathering of rock consume CO2 (greenhouse gases — GHG, GG) ⇒ Temperature↓ ⇒ glaciation↑ ⇒ rock chemical weathering↓ ⇒ CO2↑ ⇒ temperature↑ ⇒ glaciation↓ ⇒ rock chemical weathering↑ - Negative feedback loop (stabilizing) - Glaciation cycles ~ 20,000-30,000 years - Has been 10,000-15,000 years since last ice age - We're in the middle of two glacial ice ages - Natural warm peak

Scientific evidence shows a direct relationship between sea level and the global mean atmospheric temperature at Earth's surface. Increases in the global mean atmospheric temperature during the past century have been accompanied by a gradual increase in sea level; currently the average rate of increase in sea level is 3.0 mm/yr. Additional increases in sea level are expected during the next century as global mean atmospheric temperatures continue to rise. These increases in sea level will affect coastal ecosystems as well as human activity along coastal margins. (d) Although sea level has been rising for over a century, human population in coastal areas have increased dramatically during this period. - (i) Describe on negative economic impact that an increase in sea level will have on people who live along a coastline.

Damage to private property - Cost of replacement, relocation, or improved construction to reduce storm damage. - Increased insurance premiums. - Decrease in property values (unable to sell). Loss of income/livelihood - Loss of commercial fishing. - Loss of income-producing agricultural lands. - Loss of tourism dollars. Loss of food supply - People who rely on fishing or agriculture in coastal areas will need to buy food. Saltwater intrusion - Water supplies for drinking and irrigation may require expensive desalination treatment.

According to atmospheric temperature and CO2 concentration records derived from Antarctic ice cores, Earth's climate has undergone significant changes over the past 200,000 years. Two graphs are shown below. The upper graph shows the variation in atmospheric CO2 concentration, and the lower graph shows the variation in air temperature. Both graphs cover the same time period from approximately 200,000 years ago up until the year 1950, which is represented as year 0 on the graphs. (a) Answer the following questions that relate to the graphs above. Remember that for any calculations you must clearly indicate how you arrived at your answer. Answers must also include appropriate units. - (iv) Describe one major assumption that was necessary to make the prediction in part (iii) above. Discuss the validity of the assumption.

Direct relationship exists between CO2 and the temperature - Invalid due to the anthropogenic increase of other GHGs and/or precursors: CH4, O3, N2O, CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs, halons, NOx , NO, NO2 , CO, VOCs, HCs. - Invalid due to negative feedbacks: aerosol increase offsets warming, clouds can offset warming. - Invalid due to positive feedbacks: clouds can enhance warming. - Invalid because temperature change leads CO2 concentration change. - Invalid because correlation does not remain constant over time series periods. - Valid because this has been the case for the past 200k years (must refer to time series): correlation remains constant over time. CO2 is the only GHG that impacts temperature - Invalid due to anthropogenic increase of other GHGs and/or precursors: CH4, O3, N2O, CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs, halons, NO x , NO, NO2 , CO, VOCs, HCs. - Valid because this has been the case for the past 200k years: correlation remains constant over time. Change expected to occur over a very short time period - Invalid because uncharacteristically large changes relative to time series scale: nonlinear fluctuations, correlation changes over time. 200 ppm CO2 concentration change (prediction used as assumption) - Invalid because the change may be greater or less than this value. Increasing CO2 concentrations cause atmospheric temperature to rise - Invalid because time series shows periods when change in temperature leads the change in CO2 concentration. - Valid because time series shows periods when change in CO2 concentration leads the change in temperature. Antarctic data can be applied to assume global temperature changes - Invalid because there are regional variations in the magnitude of temperature fluctuations over time Measurement techniques are precise - Valid because of scientific consensus of data. - Invalid because of measurement uncertainty.

Species such as the dusky seaside sparrow, the passenger pigeon, and the woolly mammoth are extinct. Populations of other species have declined to the point where they are designated as threatened or endangered. (a) Identify one threatened or endangered species and explain why its population has declined.

Examples of species accepted: - Giant panda, elephant, whooping crane, manatee, rhinoceros, California condor, bald eagle, western lily, wooly spider monkey, Florida panther, blue whale, Galapagos tortoise. Example of explanations accepted: - Habitat alternation for a specific reason, such as human encroachment (urban sprawl), fragmentation (building highways), conversion (building a marina), simplification (agriculture) OR identification of the specific habitat altered (e.g., "the bamboo forest needed by the giant panda has been destroy."). - Hunting or poaching for a specific reason (e.g., food, sport, commercial, cultural beliefs). - Inability to compete with non-native or invasive species (must be specific, e.g., "arrowroot is outcompeted by the non-native purple loosestrife."). - Pollution (must be specific, e.g., "lead poisoning of bottom-feeding waterfowl."). - Pest control (must be specific, e.g., "DDT causes thin egg shells in bald eagles.").

Species such as the dusky seaside sparrow, the passenger pigeon, and the woolly mammoth are extinct. Populations of other species have declined to the point where they are designated as threatened or endangered. (d) Name and describe one United States federal law or one international treaty that is intended to prevent the extinction of species.

Federal laws: Endangered Species Act - Identify species that are endangered/threatened or - Protected endangered species from one of the following: import/export, taking, harassing, harming, hunting, shooting, wounding, trapping, killing, capturing, collecting, possessing, selling, delivering, transporting, shipping, receiving or - Penalize violators or - Design protection plans or - Reintroduce species or - Protect habitat Lacey Act - Prohibits transport of protected species between states Other laws: Wild Bird Conservation Act, Eagle Protection Act, Migratory Bird Treaty Act, African Elephant Conservation Act, Whaling Conservation and Protection Study/Act, Fur Seal Act, Marine Mammal Protection Act, Whaling Convention Act, Migratory Bird Conservation Act, Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act, Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, Fish and Game Sanctuary Act, Marine Protection Research and Sanctuary Act, Fish and Wildlife Act, Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937 (Pittman-Robertson Act), National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act International treaties: - CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) — regulates international trade of protected species and their products. - Convention on Biological Diversity — treaty signatories are expected to adopt biodiversity plans, establish protected ecosystems, promote sustainable use of biological resources, restore degraded habitats, protect threatened species. - International Whaling Commission Ban on Whaling — impose moratorium on whaling.

Populations of large terrestrial animals, such as African elephants and snow leopards, are in decline around the world. Many of these large animals are now on the verge of extinction. (d) Most large terrestrial mammals are K-strategists. Identify one characteristic of a K-strategist and explain how the character you identified can make these mammals prone to extinction.

Few offspring (per event/year/lifetime) or low reproductive rate: - Difficult recovery from population decline. - Unable to adapt to changing environments or human-induced ecosystem changes. - Fewer opportunities for reproduction to pass on genes. High parental care and protection of offspring: - Loss of parent = loss of offspring. - Offspring vulnerable to predation. Long gestation period: - Fewer opportunities for reproduction. Late age for first reproductive/long maturation period: - Difficult recovery from population decline. - Unable to adapt to changing environments or human-induced ecosystem changes. - Fewer opportunities for reproduction to pass on genes.

The city of Fremont has a large brownfield located along the Fremont River. The brownfield is a former industrial site where contamination by hazardous chemicals impede redevelopment. The city council is considering two options for reclaiming the brownfield. The first option is to excavate and remove the contaminated soil, and the second option is to decontaminate the soil on the site using vegetation. (ii) one method of legally disposing of hazardous waste.

Incineration: burning waste plus one of the following - reduces volume - detoxify the waste - may produce air pollution Bioremediation - Using organism to decompose the contaminants Chemical methods - Detoxification or stabilization before disposal, vitrification of nuclear wastes (glass rods) Landfill: description of the site to include at least one of the following - lined - contained - sealed drums Deep well injection - Injection of hazardous wastes into underground sites that are geologically stable Exportation of wastes - Ship to a less regulation country Utilize a local hazardous waste collection site - Must include specific details about the collection or the site. Must specify that there is a local site. Name of a specific disposal site (e.g., Yucca Mountain): description of the site must include at least one of the following - monitored for leakage - geologically stable - isolated from population centers Surface impoundments - Lined liquid disposal pits

Scientific evidence shows a direct relationship between sea level and the global mean atmospheric temperature at Earth's surface. Increases in the global mean atmospheric temperature during the past century have been accompanied by a gradual increase in sea level; currently the average rate of increase in sea level is 3.0 mm/yr. Additional increases in sea level are expected during the next century as global mean atmospheric temperatures continue to rise. These increases in sea level will affect coastal ecosystems as well as human activity along coastal margins. (c) Describe two environmental impacts that increasing sea level will have on an estuarine ecosystem such as those in the Mississippi Delta, Chesapeake Bay, and San Francisco Bay.

Loss/flooding/erosion of estuary habitat (conversion to open water) - Loss of wetlands, marshes, salt marshes, intertidal zone, riparian zone, mangroves. - May lead to changes in water depth, light levels and temperature, causing migration or local extinction of species that have specific requirements. - Inland migration of wetlands. - May lead to loss of species (fish, shellfish, birds) that rely on estuary as a nursery/breeding area. - May lead to loss of species that rely on estuary for protection from predators. - May lead to loss of migratory species (birds) that rely on estuary as a stopover. Increase nutrient loads in the water - Estuaries filter out excess nutrients; without them, eutrophication may lead to algal blooms. Increased storm destruction of areas adjacent to the estuary - Estuaries absorb excess water, reducing flooding. - Estuaries provide a physical barrier that protects the area from storm surges, preventing erosion. - Increased erosion of coastline leads to habitat loss. Change in salinity - Salinity may increase. - May lead to loss of species that have a small salinity-tolerance range. Waterlogged soils due to flooding - Loss of marsh plant species. Spreading of oil spills that occurs in ocean to inland areas - Oil may coat birds' feather, reducing insulation and ability to fly. - Oil may coat mammals' coat; animal may ingest the oil during cleaning and die. - Oil may cause suffocation (organisms unable to perform gas exchange).

greenhouse effect (GE) comparison

Mars: - No greenhouse gases - 100 units energy goes down - 100 units will go up to space Earth: - 100 units energy goes down - 60 units will go up to space - 40 will go in greenhouse particle - 40 splits to 20 and 20 - One 20 will go to space - The other 20 will add with 100 and become 120 units energy - 120 units energy goes down on planet - Earth's temperature is supposed to be 140 F, but is 59 F (15 C) because of weather (keeps the earth cooler, heat travels from hot to cool). - 70-90% of greenhouse gases (GHG) could be attributed to water + clouds. - Look at ice cores, tree rings, and sediments for earth's temperature when humans didn't record it, now use satellite.

The zebra mussel, a mollusk native to Eurasia, was first discovered in the Great Lakes of North America in 1988. Zebra mussels attach to solid substrates and are filter feeders. Adult zebra mussels can survive for several days or even weeks out of water if the temperature and humidity are favorable. An adult female zebra mussel can produce as many as one million eggs per year. The recent range of occurrence of zebra mussels in the United States is indicated by shading in the map above. (b) How are zebra mussels introduced into isolated lakes? Describe one viable method for preventing the spread of zebra mussels into isolated lakes.

Mechanisms of zebra mussel introduction: - Transport of boats or boat trailers with mussels attached. - Carried in water in boats (excluding ballast, which implies oceangoing vessels). - Inundation of isolated lakes with floodwater containing mussels. - Building canals or other waterways between previously isolated lakes. - Transport by animal vectors (migratory waterfowl, etc.) - Brought with fish used to stock water bodies. Methods to prevent spread of zebra mussels: - Thorough inspection/cleaning of boats before transport or launch. - Flushing or draining of water between water bodies. - Refraining from building connecting waterways. - Education/information campaigns to discourage practices causing spread. - Prohibiting transport of boats to unaffected lakes.

Scientific evidence shows a direct relationship between sea level and the global mean atmospheric temperature at Earth's surface. Increases in the global mean atmospheric temperature during the past century have been accompanied by a gradual increase in sea level; currently the average rate of increase in sea level is 3.0 mm/yr. Additional increases in sea level are expected during the next century as global mean atmospheric temperatures continue to rise. These increases in sea level will affect coastal ecosystems as well as human activity along coastal margins. (b) Identify two phenomena that result from an increase in global mean atmospheric temperature and that contribute to increases in sea level. For each phenomenon that you identify, explain how it causes sea level to increase.

Melting of glaciers, continental ice caps - As ice melts the amount of water in the ocean increases. Melting of ice sheets (Greenland and Antarctica) - As ice melts, the amount of water in the ocean increase. Thermal expansion of the ocean - As water warms, water molecules move farther apart and the volume of the ocean increases. Melting of Antarctic ice shelves - Ice shelves are attached to continental ice and do not displace liquid water; if they break off, they will displace water and raise sea level.

According to atmospheric temperature and CO2 concentration records derived from Antarctic ice cores, Earth's climate has undergone significant changes over the past 200,000 years. Two graphs are shown below. The upper graph shows the variation in atmospheric CO2 concentration, and the lower graph shows the variation in air temperature. Both graphs cover the same time period from approximately 200,000 years ago up until the year 1950, which is represented as year 0 on the graphs. (c) Identify two gases other than CO2 that contribute to the anthropogenic increase in mean global temperature. For each gas, describe a major human activity that leads to its release.

Methane (CH4) - Production of rice - Landfill use - Cattle/sheep ranching - Creation of wetlands/bogs - Leaks from pipelines, refineries, and coal mines Ozone (O3) - Photochemical smog resulting from internal combustion engines, vehicle exhaust Nitrous oxide (N2O) - Burning of petroleum products, biomass, nitrogen-rich fuels (particularly coal) - Fertilizers - Feedlots (CAFO and/or CAFL) and dairy farms CFCs (freons), HFCs, and HCFCs - Used in refrigerators and air conditioners, in foam production, to clean electronics, and formerly as propellants Halons - Used in fire extinguishers NO, NO2 (NOx) - Coal burning, internal combustion engines (fossil fuels too generic) CO - Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels VOCs - Gasoline/petroleum evaporation - Paints and solvents - Aerosols HCs - Gasoline/petroleum: incomplete combustion, evaporation

The city of Fremont has a large brownfield located along the Fremont River. The brownfield is a former industrial site where contamination by hazardous chemicals impede redevelopment. The city council is considering two options for reclaiming the brownfield. The first option is to excavate and remove the contaminated soil, and the second option is to decontaminate the soil on the site using vegetation. (d) Identify and describe - (i) one method currently used to reduce the production of hazardous waste and

Recycling, reuse of materials - Reusing the waste for another application - Establishing trading centers where leftover paint, solvents, pesticides, or cleaning solutions are reused - Reusing batteries (rechargeable) - Gas stations accepting oil for recycling Substitution of nonhazardous materials for hazardous materials: using a less toxic material - Acetamide—Substitute: Stearic acid - Chromic acid cleaning solutions—Substitute: Detergents - Formaldehyde—Substitute: Ethanol - Mercury thermometers—Substitute: Alcohol thermometers Government regulation of the contaminant - Prohibition of PCBs, CFCs, DDT - Specific limitations or acts/laws/regulations (EPA: RCRA) - Pollution prevention act - Monitoring for compliance - Pollution credits, tax credits, or trading credits - Requiring the use of catalytic converters Substitution of alternate energy sources that do not produce hazardous wastes - Wind, solar, hydroelectric, or geothermal Becoming more efficient in the manufacturing process - Specific examples of increased efficiency

According to atmospheric temperature and CO2 concentration records derived from Antarctic ice cores, Earth's climate has undergone significant changes over the past 200,000 years. Two graphs are shown below. The upper graph shows the variation in atmospheric CO2 concentration, and the lower graph shows the variation in air temperature. Both graphs cover the same time period from approximately 200,000 years ago up until the year 1950, which is represented as year 0 on the graphs. (a) Answer the following questions that relate to the graphs above. Remember that for any calculations you must clearly indicate how you arrived at your answer. Answers must also include appropriate units. - (ii) Calculate the ratio of the change in mean global temperature to the change in atmospheric CO2 concentration between 140,000 years ago and 125,000 years ago.

Temperature 140,000 years ago ~ -8 C Temperature 125,000 years ago ~ 2 C 2 C - (-8 C) = an increase of 10 C Acceptable answers include 10:80 or 10/80 or 10 to 80; 1:8 or 1/8 or 1 to 8.