AP Euro Final Exam
Goya's painting drew upon his reflections of the experiences of Napoleon's
Peninsular War in Spain.
The Pope has neither the will nor the power to remit any penalties except those, which has imposed by his own authority, or by that of the canons. Every true Christian, whether living or dead, has a share in all the benefits of Christ and the Church, given by God, even without letters of pardon. Again, why does not the Pope, whose riches are at this day more ample than those of the wealthiest of the wealthy, build the single Basilica of St. Peter with his own money rather than with that of poor believers? From Martin Luther's 95 Theses The excerpt from Luther's 95 Theses best reflects Luther's efforts to
Reform the Catholic Church.
"Indeed, the purpose of an encyclopedia is to collect knowledge disseminated around the globe; to set forth its general system to the men with whom we live, and transmit it to those who will come after us, so that the work of preceding centuries will not become useless to the centuries to come; and so that our offspring, becoming better instructed, will at the same time become more virtuous and happy.... One must examine and stir up everything, without exception and without cautiousness.... We must trample under foot all that old foolishness; overturn barriers not put there by reason; restore to the sciences and arts their precious liberty...." Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Encyclopédie, entry for "Encyclopedia," 1772 The Encyclopedia reflected which primary goal of the Enlightenment?
The attempt to improve institutions and society through rational inquiry.
"If anyone says that a man's justification before God is not increased by his good works, let him be cursed... In order that Christians may receive the sacraments with greater devotion, this holy council commands that bishops and priests should first explain the purpose and use of the sacrament in a way that the congregation can understand, using the native tongue of the people if it is necessary... It is to be desired that all who become bishops should understand what portions of their income should be devoted to their own maintenance and to comprehend that they are called to the office of bishop not for riches or luxury, but to the labors and cares for the glory of God." Decrees of The Council of Trent, Roman Catholic council, 1545-156 The decrees excerpted in the passage above came in response to:
the successful spread of the Reformation in the preceding decades.
"Albeit the king's majesty firstly and rightfully is and ought to be the supreme head of the Church of England, and so is recognized by the clergy of this realm in their Convocations. . . be it enacted by authority of this present Parliament, that the king our sovereign lord, his heirs and successors, kings of this realm, shall be taken, accepted, and reputed the only supreme head in earth of the Church of England. . . and shall have and enjoy, annexed and united to the imperial crown of this realm, as well the title and style thereof, as all honors, dignities, pre-eminences, jurisdictions, privileges, authorities, immunities, profits, and commodities to the said dignity of supreme head of the same Church. . . and that our said sovereign lord, his heirs and successors, kings of this realm, shall have full power and authority from time to time to visit, repress, redress, reform, order, correct, restrain, and amend all such errors, heresies, abuses, offenses, contempts, and enormities, whatsoever they be...to the pleasure of Almighty God, the increase of virtue in Christ's religion, and for the conservation of the peace, unity, and tranquility of this realm" - Excerpt from the Act of Supremacy in England , 1534 The goal of the document above was mainly to
Assert King Henry VIII as the head of the Church of England and independent from the authority of the pope.
"The discovery of America, and that of a passage to the East Indies...are the two greatest and most important events recorded in the history of mankind. ...one of the principal effects of those discoveries has been to... enrich a great nation rather by trade and manufactures than by the improvement and cultivation of land, rather by the industry of the towns than by that of the country. But, in consequence of those discoveries, the commercial towns of Europe... have now become the manufactures for the numerous and thriving cultivators of America, and the carriers, and in some respects the manufacturers too, for almost all the different nations of Asia, Africa and America. Two new worlds have been opened to their industry, each of them much greater and more extensive than the old one, and the market of one them growing still greater and greater every day..." Adam Smith Book IV Of Colonies According to Adam Smith, all of the following explain the role colonies have played in the economic development of Europe except?
Colonies shifted economic development from rural to urban.
It appears from all this that the person of the king is sacred, and that to attack him in any way is sacrilege. God has the kings anointed by his prophets with the holy unction in like manner as he has bishops and altars anointed. But even without the external application in thus being anointed, they are by their very office the representatives of the divine majesty deputed by Providence for the execution of his purposes. Accordingly God calls Cyrus his anointed. "Thus saith the Lord to his anointed, to Cyrus, whose right hand I have holden, to subdue nations before him." Kings should be guarded as holy things, and whosoever neglects to protect them is worthy of death... There is something religious in the respect accorded to a prince. The service of God and the respect for kings are bound together. St. Peter unites these two duties when he says, "Fear God. Honour the king..." —Jacques-Benigne Bossuet, 1678 What philosophy of government is advocated in the passage?
Divine Right Monarchy.
"One must attempt, above all, to know the special genius of the people which one wants to govern in order to know if one must treat them leniently or severely, if they are inclined to revolt.... [The Prussian nobility] has sacrificed its life and goods for the service of the state; its loyalty and merit have earned it the protection of all its rulers.... In such a state no factions or rebellions need be feared...it is one goal of the policy of this state to preserve the nobility. A well conducted government must have an underlying concept so well integrated that it could be likened to a system of philosophy. All actions taken must be well reasoned.... It is of no concern in politics whether the ruler has a religion or whether he has none. All religions, if one examines them, are founded on superstitious systems, more or less absurd. It is impossible for a man of good sense, who dissects their contents, not to see their error...." King Frederick II of Prussia, Political Testament, 1752 The idea expressed in this excerpt best reflects which of the following historical trends?
In the eighteenth century, a number of states in eastern and central Europe experimented with "enlightened absolutism."
"As our Father being drawn away from the Supremacy of Rome by schmismatical and heretical councils and advisors, who, we pray advised him more or flattered him than you, good Mr. Father, when you were Bishop of Rochester? And then, you Mr. Bonner, when you were Archdeacon? And you Mr. Tuberville? Nay, further...who was more an advisor to our Father than your great Stephen Gardiner, when he lived?...Was it not you and such like advisors that...stirred up our Sister against us and other of her subjects? Whereas you would frighten us by telling how emperors...have owned the Bishop of Rome's authority. It was contrary in the beginning, for our Saviour Christ paid His tribute unto Caesar, as the chief superior; which shows your Romish supremacy is usurped...We give you, therefore, warning, that for the future, we hear no more of this kind, lest you provoke us to execute those penalties enacted for the punishing of our resisters, which out of our clemency we have foreborne." Elizabeth I The passage above could best be characterized as a monarch's attempt to:
Lessen religious differences in order to increase power.
"Since no man has any natural authority over his fellowmen, and since force is not the source of right, conventions remain as the basis of all lawful authority among men.... 'To find a form of association which may defend and protect...the person and property of every associate, and by means of which each, coalescing with all, may nevertheless obey only himself, and remain as free as before'.... If then we set aside what is not of the essence of the social contract, we shall find that it is reducible to the following terms: 'Each of us puts in common his person and his whole power under the supreme direction of the general will, and in return we receive every member as an indivisible part of the whole'.... What, then, is the government? An intermediate body established between the subjects and the sovereign for their mutual correspondence, charged with the execution of laws and with the maintenance of liberty both civil and political. I presuppose here what I believe I have proved, viz., that there is in the State no fundamental law which cannot be revoked, not even this social compact...." Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract: On Popular Sovereignty and the General Will, 1762 Rousseau's ideas in this excerpt are most like what other early modern thinker's philosophy?
Locke's argument that the state's authority originated in the consent of the governed.
The Pope has neither the will nor the power to remit any penalties except those, which has imposed by his own authority, or by that of the canons. Every true Christian, whether living or dead, has a share in all the benefits of Christ and the Church, given by God, even without letters of pardon. Again, why does not the Pope, whose riches are at this day more ample than those of the wealthiest of the wealthy, build the single Basilica of St. Peter with his own money rather than with that of poor believers? From Martin Luther's 95 Theses According to Luther's 95 Theses, how did his concept of Salvation differ most from that of the Catholic Church?
Luther believed that salvation came from faith alone, while the Catholic Church promoted the understanding that one could earn their way into heaven through good deeds.
"Finally, the Great Artisan [God] mandated that this creature (man) who would receive nothing proper to himself shall have joint possession of whatever nature had been given to any other creature. He made man a creature of indeterminate and indifferent nature, and, placing him in the middle of the world, said to him, 'Adam, according to your desires and judgment, you will have and possess whatever place to live, whatever form, and whatever functions you yourself choose... You, with no limit or no bound, may choose for yourself the limits and bounds of your nature. We have placed you at the world's center so that you may survey everything else in the world...[W]ith free choice and dignity, you may fashion yourself into whatever form you choose. To you is granted the power of degrading yourself into the lower forms of life, the beasts, and to you is granted the power, contained in your intellect and judgment, to be reborn into the higher forms, the divine.' Imagine! The great generosity of God! To man it is allowed to be whatever he chooses to be!" Pico della Mirandola, Dignity of Man 1486 Which of the following is best supported by the passage?
Most Renaissance humanists believed that men have free will and the potential to do great things.
"Article I: Woman is born free and lives equal to man in her rights.... Article II: The purpose of any political association is the conservation of the natural...rights of woman and man; these rights are liberty, property, security, and especially resistance to oppression..... Article VI: The law must be the expression of the general will;...it must be the same for all: male and female citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, must be equally admitted to all honors, positions, and public employment according to their capacity and without other distinctions besides those of their virtues and talents...." Olympe de Gouges, Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen, 1791 In this excerpt, Olympe de Gouges is responding to
New arguments proposed by Enlightenment philosophes like Rousseau promoting the continued exclusion of women from political life.
"Upon this a question arises: whether it be better to be loved than feared or feared than loved? It may be answered that one should wish to be both, but, because it is difficult to unite them in one person, is much safer to be feared than loved, when, of the two, either must be dispensed with. Because this is to be asserted in general of men, that they are ungrateful, fickle, false, cowardly, covetous, and as long as you succeed they are yours entirely; they will offer you their blood, property, life and children, as is said above, when the need is far distant; but when it approaches they turn against you. And that prince who, relying entirely on their promises, has neglected other precautions, is ruined; because friendships that are obtained by payments, and not by greatness or nobility of mind, may indeed be earned, but they are not secured, and in time of need cannot be relied upon; and men have less scruple in offending one who is beloved than one who is feared, for love is preserved by the link of obligation which, owing to the baseness of men, is broken at every opportunity for their advantage; but fear preserves you by a dread of punishment which never fails. Nevertheless a prince ought to inspire fear in such a way that, if he does not win love, he avoids hatred; because he can endure very well being feared whilst he is not hated, which will always be as long as he abstains from the property of his citizens and subjects and from their women." --The Prince, Chapter XVII, by Niccolo Machiavelli (1513) The primary purpose of this work was to promote the ideals of
Preservation of order and security for a government
"I wish, then, that this Courtier of ours should be nobly born and of gentle race; because it is far less unseemly for one of ignoble birth to fail in worthy deeds, than for one of noble birth, who, if he strays from the path of his predecessors, stains his family name, and not only fails to achieve but loses what has been achieved already; for noble birth is like a bright lamp that manifests and makes visible good and evil deeds, and kindles and stimulates to virtue both by fear of shame and by hope of praise. And since this splendor of nobility does not illumine the deeds of the humbly born, they lack that stimulus and fear of shame, nor do they feel any obligation to advance beyond what their predecessors have done; while to the nobly born it seems a reproach not to reach at least the goal set them by their ancestors. And thus it nearly always happens that both in the profession of arms and in other worthy pursuits the most famous of men have been of noble birth, because nature has implanted in everything that hidden seed which give a certain force and quality of its own essence to all things that are derived from it, and makes them like itself..." - Baldesar Castiglione from The Book of the Courtier based upon court life of the duke of Urbino (Italy) 1504-1524 Castiglione's discussion in the passage above clearly shows the influence of which of the following trends in fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in Europe?
Renaissance humanists developed the values of secularism and individualism.
"First, The policy of Europe occasions a very important inequality in the whole of the advantages and disadvantages of the different employments of labour and stock, by restraining the competition in some employments to a smaller number than might otherwise be disposed to enter into them. The exclusive privileges of corporations are the principal means it makes use of for this purpose...." Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and causes of the Wealth of Nations, 1776. Excerpt from Book 1, Chapter 10: Of Wages and Profit in the Different Employments of Labor and Stock. Which of the following forms of government would be least receptive to the main argument of the excerpt?
absolute monarchy.
And not to leave any occasion of trouble and difference among our Subjects, we have permitted and do permit to those of the Reformed Religion, to live and dwell in all the Cities and places of this our Kingdom and Countreys under our obedience, without being inquired after, vexed, molested, or compelled to do any thing in Religion, contrary to their Conscience, nor by reason of the same be searched after in houses or places where they live, they comporting themselves in other things as is contained in this our present Edict or Statute. Excerpt from the Edict of Nantes, 1598 Henry IV issued this edict primarily in response to
religious turmoil faced by France as a result of the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre.
The group that would most likely disapprove of the David portrayal of Marat's murder are
royalists.
"Who can deny but it is repugnant to nature, that the blind shall be appointed to lead and conduct such as do see? That the weak, the sick, and impotent persons shall nourish and keep the whole and strong? And finally, that the foolish, mad, and frenetic shall govern the discreet, and give counsel to such as be sober of mind? And such be all women, compared unto man in bearing of authority. For their sight in civil regiment is but blindness; their strength, weakness; their counsel, foolishness; and judgment, frenzy, if it be rightly considered. Nature, I say, does paint them forth to be weak, frail, impatient, feeble, and foolish; and experience has declared them to be inconstant, variable, cruel, lacking the spirit of counsel and regiment. And these notable faults have men in all ages espied in that kind, for the which not only they have removed women from rule and authority, but also some have thought that men subject to the counsel or empire of their wives were unworthy of public office. For thus writes Aristotle, in the second of his Politics. What difference shall we put, says he, whether that women bear authority, or the husbands that obey the empire of their wives, be appointed to be magistrates? For what ensues the one, must needs follow the other: to wit, injustice, confusion, and disorder.....What would this writer (I pray you) have said to that realm or nation, where a woman sits crowned in Parliament amongst the midst of men?" John Knox, Public Epistles, Treatises, and Expositions, 1558 The excerpt provides evidence to support the argument that
the Renaissance and Reformation movements raised debates about female roles in the family, society, and church.
Goya employed symbolism in the use of light and positioning in the work to highlight
the heroism of those opposed to French domination.
The artists of these paintings [include The Death of Marat] would most likely disagree about
the importance of Marat as a martyr.
