AP Euro Unit 5

Third Section

secret political police force created by Nicholas I following the Decembrist Revolt in order to monitor Russian citizens and prevent the spread of revolutionary ideas

Suburbs

sprung up outside of cities as wealthy, middle-class urban inhabitants tried to insulate themselves from the wretched conditions of the urban poor

tariffs

used by continental governments to encourage domestic industrialization; put high taxes on cheap, imported British goods; were advocated for by Friedrich List who wrote "National System of Political Economy" arguing that protective taxes were the key to fostering industrialization

Revolutions of 1848

watershed political event of the 19th century; overthrow of Louis-Philippe in France and the establishment of the Second French Republic led to a rash of revolutionary movements across Europe; liberal-nationalist revolts took place in Italy, Austria (Hungary and Bohemia), and the German States; ended serfdom in the east; only Britain and Russia were unaffected

factory discipline

workers were forced to work regular hours and in shifts to keep machines producing steadily at maximum output; pre-industrial workers were not used to regulated format, so disciplinary fines and dismissals were used to maintain order; children could be beaten

Germanic Confederation

39 sovereign states in what once been the HRE recognized by the Vienna Settlement (1815); had no real executive and weak centralization; disunification was reinforced by the Carlsbad Decrees but attempted without success at the Frankfurt Assembly after spirit of nationalism spread

Rerum Novarum

Pope Leo XIII's encyclical issued in 1891; Expressed that private property ownership is acceptable but recognized that capitalism also had faults and that workers should have a living wage; suggested that Catholics form their own socialist parties/unions; at the same time, there was a decline in church attendance

Workhouses

Public housing established by the Poor Laws of 1834; were like prisons and were based on the idea that the poor were at fault for their economic status; family members were separated, forced to live in dormitories, and given work assignments

Dmitri Mendeleev

Russian scientist that organized the periodic table by atomic mass in 1869

Hebert Spencer

applied Darwin's ideas to society, creating idea of Social Darwinism; believed that natural laws dictated why some people were successful (rich) while others were not (poor)

Spinning jenny

developed by James Hargreaves in 1770; important step in mechanization of weaving process which allowed several spindles of yarns to be spun at a time

Flying shuttle

developed by John Kay in 1733; one of the key developments in weaving that helped fuel the Industrial Revolution/increase textile production; enabled the weaver of a loom to throw the shuttle back and forth between the threads with one hand

Water frame

developed by Richard Arkwright in the 1780s; spinning wheel powered by water which put out yarn much more efficiently and led to the mechanized loom

Spinning mule

developed by Samuel Crompton in 1779; combined the spinning jenny and the water frame to create a machine which produced a thread which was stronger, finer and more consistent

Henry Cort

developed the puddling furnace in the 1780s which allowed for more efficient iron production and higher quality iron; later developed a heavy duty steam-powered roller that could shape finished iron into needed forms

Cholera

disease that spread through England in the 1830s and 1840s due to unsanitary practices and led to middle class support for public health reform

Coal Mines Act of 1842

eliminated the employment of women and male children under the age of 10 in mines

Poorhouses

emerged in the 19th century as a surplus of labor resulted in poor conditions for workers; were supposed to provide work to the unemployed; were intentionally impressive to encourage paupers to remain in the labor market

Poor Laws of 1834

enacted by the Whig Parliament to address urban poverty; established workhouses where healthy jobless people were forced to live

Britain's poor-law commission

established by Parliament to investigate the conditions of the poor in British cities; produced detailed reports on the conditions in industrial cities and displayed shock at the physically and morally debilitating effect of industrial life on the poor

proletariat

factory workers and wage earners that, according to Karl Marx, would enact a violent revolution to overthrow capitalism when they realized their needs weren't being met

Romanticism

failed revolutions showed that rational argument and liberal revolution would not always ensure success; gave way to age in which emotion was emphasized over reason; prevailing philosophy rejected Enlightenment rationality and progressivism and looked to intuition, feeling, emotion, and imagination as sources of knowledge; saw the middle ages as a time of spiritual depth

Georges von Haussmann

helped France take the lead in urban planning and public transportation; redeveloped Paris with wide boulevards, better middle-class housing on the outskirts of the city, demolition of slums, and creation of open parks and spaces; new system of aqueducts doubled Paris's fresh water supply

Giuseppe Garibaldi

he and his forces protected Mazzini as he established the Roman Republic in 1849; later attempted to unify and liberate the Kingdom of Two Sicilies with his army of "Red Shirts" (1860)

Prague Conference

held in Bohemia after the French Revolution in 1848; attempted to unite Slavic peoples in the Austrian Empire but failed due to Austria military reaction; developed notion of Austroslavism, or constitution and autonomy within the Habsburg empire

petite bourgeoisie

lower middle class that emerged in the 19th century; formed by white collar workers like secretaries, retail-clerks, and low level bureaucrats; experienced decreased opportunities for advancement which led to certain revolutionary movements

steam engine

most fundamental advance in technology; began to replace water power by the 1780s; could pump water from mines 3x as quickly as before

February Revolution

name of the French Revolution in 1848; working class and liberals were unhappy with Louis-Philippe, forced him to abdicate; Second French Republic was established with a new constitution that allowed for universal male suffrage

puddling furnace

new machinery for processing iron that allowed impurities to be removed and drastically sped up speed of production; invented by Henry Cort in the 1780s

Reform Act of 1832

passed by the Whig Parliament which was wary of France's July Revolution; gave explicit recognition to the changes caused by the Industrial Revolution by disenfranchising "rotten" rural boroughs and enfranchising new towns and cities; doubled the electorate and primarily benefited the upper middle class

Caspar David Friedrich

(1774-1840) Romantic painter of "Wanderers Above the Mist" (1818); mystical view of sublime power of nature was conveyed in his paintings

J.W.M Turner

(1775-1851) English painter that dwelt on nature and was extremely prolific; did not idealize nature or portray it realistically, instead focusing on mood; wild storms and sinking ships were favorite subjects, as were sunrises, sunsets

Lord Byron

(1788-1824) poet that dramatized himself as the melancholy Romantic hero that he had written about in "Child Harold's Pilgrimage"; died in battle participating in the Greek Revolt against the Ottomans

Eugene Delacroix

(1796-1863) most famous French Romantic painter; was fascinated by the exotic and dramatic use of color; painted extremely theatrical works; "Liberty Leading the People" (1830) portrays the 1830 revolution in France; "The Death of the Sardanapalus" was significant in its use of light and color but was rejected for its garishness

Mary Shelley

(1797-1851) novel that reflects Gothic attraction to the bizarre and supernatural in its plot about a mad scientist bringing a monster to life; symbolic of the danger of science trying to conquer nature

Theodore Gericault

(1791-1824) Romantic painter; "Raft of Medusa" was based on a shipwreck off the coast of Africa and illustrates themes of the power of nature and man's attempt to survive its force

Michael Faraday

(1791-1867) made basic discoveries on electromagnetism in the 1830s and 1840s, resulting in the first generator; was applied to the development of electric motors, electric lights, and streetcars

Percy Bysshe Shelley

(1792-1822) Romantic poet that set out to reform the word after being expelled from school for promoting atheism; his "Prometheus Unbound" (1820) is a portrait of the revolt of human beings against oppressive society

August Comte

(1798-1857) "father of sociology" that developed the idea of positivism, or that all intellectual activity passes through predictable stages; thus, humans would soon discover the laws of human thought; believed social scientists could help regulate society for the its benefit

Combination Acts

(1799) Parliament forbade the formation of labor unions outlawed strikes in Great Britain; were resultant of fears that the Proletariat would rise up against government; was repealed in 1825 after which unions were tolerated but had only limited power

Honore de Balzac

(1799-1850) Realist writer that wrote "The Human Comedy" which depicted urban society as grasping, amoral, and brutal

Sir Walter Scott

(1771-1832) Scottish writer of long narrative poems and historical novels; published "Ivanhoe" about the clash between knights in medieval England; represented Romantic interest in history

Cottage Industry

"putting out system"; capitalist entrepreneurs or merchants provided raw materials and technologies so workers could produce finished goods in their homes for a fixed cost; difficulties with guaranteeing quality and consistency of godos

sturm und drang

"storm and stress"; this was a German literary movement in the 1770s and 1780s focusing on the emotional, action-filled subjects, such as the individual's rebellion against society, was similar to Romanticism in its focus on emotion

William Wordsworth

(1771-1855) Romantic poet who expressed an almost mystical love for nature; believed that nature was alive and sacred; said that modern science left no room for imagination or soul; along with Coleridge, published "Lyrical Ballads" (1798), an influential literary work which abandoned flowery poetic conventions for ordinary language and portrayed simple subjects as majestic

Robert Owen

(1771-1858) British cotton manufacturer and reformist that combinined firm discipline with concern for the health, safety, and hours of his workers; After 1815, he experimented with cooperative and socialist communities (New Lanark); In 1834, he organized the large and visionary Grand National Consolidated Trades Union to implement a universal strike

Samuel Taylor Coleridge

(1772-1834) published "Lyrical Ballads" (1798) along with Wordsworth

Charles Fourier

(1772-1838) early socialist that proposed the creation of small model communities called phalansteries which were to be self-contained cooperatives in which people worked communally; early proponent of total emancipation of women

Klemens von Metternich

(1773-1859) leader of the Congress of Vienna and Austrian Foreign Minister; wanted to restore legitimate monarchs to Europe and embodied the conservative reaction to the French Revolution in policies such as the Carlsbad Decrees

Commercial Revolution

(1500-1700) expansion of trade and business brought about by the Age of Exploration, price revolution, and rise of capitalism; spurred economic growth, thus helping to cause the Industrial Revolution

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

(1712-1778) philosophical forerunner of Romanticism; wrote the "Social Contract" (1762); believed society and materialism corrupted man's natural state as a "noble savage"

Immanuel Kant

(1724-1804) philosophical forerunner of Romanticism; accepted rationalism of the Enlightenment while preserving belief in human freedom, immortality, and existence of God; helped establish philosophy as a separate branch from religion

Edmund Burke

(1729-1797) Englishman that wrote "Reflections on the Revolution in France" (1790) which predicted anarchy and dictatorship as result of too rapid advance of liberties; said change should be slow and tradition should be valued; first example of modern political conservatism

Johann Gottfried Herder

(1744-1803) German philosopher regarded as the father of modern nationalism; created the idea of Volksgeist, or the unique national character of every cultural group; led to the notion that every nation should be sovereign and contain members of the same ethnicity but said that no culture was superior to another

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

(1749-1832) German writer of "The Sorrow of the Young Werther, the quintessential Romantic novel of a tragic hero and his love story which spurred copycat novels about young maidens killed off to the despair of their lovers; also wrote "Faust" which criticizes the excesses of Romanticism as the main character sells his soul to the devil for human experiences

Joseph de Maistre

(1753-1821) French spokesman for a counterrevolution and authoritarian conservative; supported the restoration of hereditary monarchy and believed only absolute monarchy could uphold order; example of political conservative

John McAdam

(1756-1836) a Scottish engineer that equipped road beds with a layer of large stones for drainage and on top placed a layer of smoother rocks, prevented heavy wagons from sinking into the mud; associated with hard-surfaced roads

Henry de Saint-Simon

(1760-1825) early French socialist that believed that industrialization/science would bring a wondrous new age to Europe if the parasites (court, aristocracy, clergy) gave way to the doers (scientists, engineers); said that every social institution should try to improve conditions for the poor

Johann Gottlieb Fichte

(1762-1814) father of German nationalism; spoke of German superiority over other peoples, especially Jews; gave the "Addresses to the German Nation" calling for younger Germans to acknowledge their national duty

Thomas Malthus

(1766-1834) economist that wrote "Essay on the Principles of Population" in which he argued that populations, when unchecked, grow at a rate much higher than food production grows; thus, suffering and poverty were the result of natural population restraints and should not be interfered with by government

Chateaubriand

(1768-1848) wrote the "Genius of Christianity", a popular expression of Romantic revival of Catholicism; defended Catholicism based on Romantic sentiment rather than historical, theological, or rational grounds; echoed the harmony of faith and said that Catholic grandiose brought one into God's presence

Ludwig van Beethoven

(1770-1826) great composer that bridged Classicism and Romanticism; revolutionized music by conveying inner human feelings through composition; his "Eroica" (the Third Symphony) reflected Romanticism in its use of uncontrolled rhythms to create a dramatic struggle; wrote later works such as the 9th symphony in deafness

George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

(1770-1831) leading philosopher of German idealism during the Romantic period; believed ideas develop in an evolutionary fashion involving conflict; came up with idea of dialectic, or that initial view (thesis) is challenged by an opposing view (antithesis) and results in a hybrid of these two ideas (synthesis)

Edwin Chadwick

(1800-1890) most important reformer of living conditions in cities; sought to eliminate poverty and squalor of industrial cities with sanitation; headed the Poor Law Commission and advocated for a system of modern sanitary reforms, eventually leading to Britain's first public health act which created the National Board of Health

Victor Hugo

(1802-1885) wrote the "Hunchback of Notre Dame" and "Les Miserables"; romanticism in his novels was evident with his use of fantastic characters and strong emotion

Hector Berlioz

(1803-1869) French composer of the Romantic style; one of the founders of program music which used moods and sound effects of music to depict actions/emotions of a story/event; his most famous piece "Symphonie Fantastique" was the first programmatic symphony and told the story of a tortured love affair

Giuseppe Mazzini

(1805-1872) a dedicated Italian nationalist who founded an organization known as Young Italy in 1831 with the goal of creating a united Italian republic; wrote "In the Duties of Man" urging Italian nationalism; helped bring about Italian revolution in 1848 and established the Roman Republic

John Stuart Mill

(1806-1873) English philosopher and advocate of liberalism that wrote "On Liberty" (1859) in which he argued for freedom of thought and expression; later, he wrote "On the Subjection of Women" (1867) in support of female equality and suffrage

Pierre Joseph Proudhon

(1809-1865) wrote "What is Property?" (1840) in which he argued that property was profit stolen from the worker, who was the ultimate source of all wealth; greatly feared the power of the state

Frederic Chopin

(1810-1849) wrote piano works that highlighted Polish folk songs and dances (nationalism)

Louis Blanc

(1811-1882) established national workshops in France during the revolution in 1848; urged workers to fight for universal suffrage and political influence

Franz Liszt

(1811-1886) greatest piano virtuoso of the mid to late 19th century; developed the symphonic/tone poem that was based on a literary or pictorial idea; many of his works reflected his native Hungarian music ("Hungarian Rhapsody")

Richard Wagner

(1813-1883) German opera composer considered to be one of the best of the century; his development of the "music drama" is often seen as the culmination of the Romantic era; showed nationalism in his emphasis on Germanic myths and legends

Giuseppe Verdi

(1813-1901) greatest Italian opera composer who became a symbol for Italian nationalism

Concert of Europe

(1815-1850s) a series of meetings to enforce the status quo as it was defined by the Vienna Settlement; highly conservative in nature; Quadruple Alliance took action against threats to balance of power or peace (revolutions) and the Congress System controlled international relations

Gustave Flaubert

(1821-1880) realist writer that wrote "Madame Bovary" portraying the provincial middle class as petty, smug, and hypocritical

Louis Pasteur

(1822-1895) developed germ theory of disease and created the process of pasteurization, or the heating of food/beverages to suppress bacterial action (fermentation)

Treaty of Adrianpole

(1829) recognized Greek autonomy from the Turks following Russian defeat of the Ottoman Empire; gave Britain, Russia, and England control over Greece and they established a royal dynasty for the country

Camille Pissarro

(1830-1903) painter considered by some to be the true father of impressionism

Peter Tchaikovsky

(1840-1893) most well known of the Russian Romantic composers; often used Russian folk songs in his symphonies and ballets (e.g. The Nutcracker and Swan Lake); also known for 1812 Overture and March Slav

Claude Monet

(1840-1926) foremost Impressionist painter; "Impression Sunrise" (1873) is considered the first impressionist painting; known for series paintings of waterlilies

Sigmund Freud

(1856-1939) Third giant of 19th century thought along with Darwin and Marx; believed that humans were irrational creatures and that sexuality was a key driving force in one's psychological make-up; founder of psychoanalysis

Wassily Kandisky

(1866-1944) most important Expressionist painter; turned away from nature completely with his non-figural paintings; colors were used to express emotion and symbolism but not recognizable form; "Composition", 1913

Henri Matisse

(1869-1954) most important French artist of the 20th century; expressionist; works were criticized as being "les fauves"-wild beasts because they were so crazy

Albert Einstein

(1879-1955) developed the theory of relativity which hypothesized that time ad space are relative to the viewpoint of the observer and only the speed of light is constant for all frames of reference; united an apparently infinite universe with the incredible small, fast-moving subatomic world

Pablo Picasso

(1881-1973) Spanish, most important artist of the 20th century; founded cubism in 1907 with "Les Madamoselle d'Avignon"; focused on complex geometric figures

July Revolution

(France, 1830) Immediate reaction to Charles X's edicts and dissolution of the legislature; a provisional government led by moderate, propertied liberals took Paris and appealed to Louis-Philippe, duke of Orleans, to seize the throne; Charles X fled and LP became the "Bourgeoisie King"

Congress of Vienna

(September 1814-June 1815) representatives of major powers of Europe including France met to redraw territorial and lines and try and restore traditional political and social order based on principles of legitimacy, balance of power, and compensation

Louis XVIII

(r. 1814-1824) Bourbon king following the restoration of monarchy to France; understood the need to accept some revolutionary developments and adopted Napoleon's civil code, property rights, and a bicameral legislature

Charles X

(r. 1824-1830) became king following death of Louis XVIII; was sympathetic to ultraroyalists and gave privileges to aristocrats while supporting the Catholic Church; dissolved legislature with the July Ordinances of 1830, spurring revolutionary upheaval in France

Tsar Nicholas I

(r. 1825-1855) succeeded the throne following the death of Alexander I; the Decembrist Revolt made him extremely reactionary and he established a conservative police state in Russia, was willing to use Russian troops to crush revolutions abroad

Louis Philippe

(r. 1830-1848) "Bourgeoisie King" that came into power during the July Revolution; allowed upper-middle class Bourgeoisie influence in government; enacted reforms but did not extend as many benefits to the lower-middle class, leading to dissent and France's Second Revolution (1848) in which he was removed from power

Peterloo Massacre

1819; a squadron of cavalry attacked 60,000 Anti-Corn Law protesters in Manchester, killing 11 people and wounding 400; Parliament responded by restricting public meetings and the press

Carlsbad Diet

1819; called by Metternich in response to liberalism/nationalism in German universities; cracked down on liberalism in universities and called for censorship of materials advocating unification; drove liberalism and nationalism underground

Decembrist Uprising

1825; the death of Tsar Alexander I led to a power vacuum in which liberals rebelled against the accession of Nicholas; the uprising was put down by troops and Nicholas became even more reactionary; significant because it was the first upper-class revolt in Russia

Zollverein

A tariff-free zone in Germany that allowed goods to flow freely between German states; advocated by Friedrich List in order to boost German economy; also helped build German nationalism

Bubble Act

Act of Parliament passed in 1720 that forbade all companies except those chartered by the govt. to raise capital by the sale of stock; was repealed in 1825 which helped factory owners generate capital

Quadruple Alliance

Austria, Russia, Prussia, Great Britain; four great European powers that controlled politics on the European continent from 1815 until the 1850s

Duke of Bridgewater

Completed the first great canal that put the uneconomical coal industry into business by transporting coal cheaply; was very profitable and halved the price of coal in certain places like Manchester

Tories

Conservative party in Britain after the defeat of Napoleon; enacted Corn Laws; eventually became unpopular due to its disregard for the poor

Frederick William IV

Declined offer from the Frankfurt Assembly to be constitutional emperor of the united German Federation claiming "divine right" of kings; later tried to unify Germany under his conservative rule and failed, leaving Austria as the dominant German state

"Eastern Question"

Dilemma about what should be done about the collapsing Ottoman Empire. Who was going to get the pieces. The Great Powers were like vultures circling a carcass. It's one (of many) reasons that the Great Powers did not stop the Greek revolt (against the Turks)

Joseph Lister

English surgeon that grasped the connection between bacteria and the problem of wound infection; reasoned that a chemical disinfectant applied to a wound dressing would "destroy the life of the floating particles"; this "antiseptic principle" resulted in far fewer people dying of infections from surgeries

Magyars

Following French Revolution in 1848 this ethnic minority in the Austrian Empire declared their independence; were led by Louis Kossuth and fueled by nationalism; armies drove within sight of Vienna but the Slavs resisted their invasion, resulting in the failure of the revolt and continued Habsburg domination (shows how divisions between minority groups hindered the success of revolutions)

Cubism

Founded by Pablo Picasso in 1907; a Post-Impressionist type of art that concentrated on the complex geometry of zigzagging lines and sharply angled, overlapping planes; Picasso's Les Madamoiselle d'Avignon (1907) is considered to be the first masterpiece in the genre; significant because it shows a movement away from realism/impressionism and towards the more abstract

Revolutions of 1830

France's July Revolution sparked a wave of liberal-nationalist revolutions in Italy (Mazzini), the German states (demonstrations were crushed by Metternich), Belgium (got independence from Netherlands), Poland (wanted independence from Russia), and Prussia (established the Zollverein)

Edouard Manet

French realist and impressionist painter that bridged both movements; considered the first modernist painter; "Le Déjeuner sur l'herbe" (Picnic on the Grass) shocked audiences with its depicting of a nude woman lunching with clothed men; "Olympia" was equally revolting for its casual nude portrayal of a prostitute

Burschenschaften

German student societies dedicated to fostering the goal of a free, united Germany; motto was "Honor, Liberty, Fatherland" and ideas were inspired by nationalism

canals

Governments in Europe, especially in Britain, built these man-made waterways in the 1700s and 1800s to benefit commerce, contributed to the rise of industrialization

Greek Revolt

Greeks rebelled against the Ottoman Turks in 1821 after 400 years of domination; England, France, and Russia accepted Greece's Christian appeal and joined to defeat Turkish and Egyptian naval forces; fighting ended with the Treaty of Adrianople; significant because the Concert of Europe supported nationalistic self interest rather than united conservatism

George Stephenson

In 1815, he successfully invented a locomotive engine, the "Rocket", which revolutionized rail transportation; by 1829 his Rocket traveled on the world's first railroad line from Manchester to Liverpool at average fastest speed of 16mph.

Humiliation of Olmutz

In March of 1849, Frankfurt National Assembly had drafted a constitution and voted to offer the imperial crown to Frederick William IV who declined it and attempted to form a Prussian dominated federation of German States; Austria opposed this and threatened force; Prussia gave way up and dropped its plan to unify Germany in November, 1850, thus Austrians re-established their dominance

Manchester

Industrial city in Northern England which greatly increased in population during the Industrial Revolution; interests were underrepresented in Parliament during the early 19th century due to rotten boroughs; first large textile city and example of how cities sprung up around factories

Urbanization

Industrialization and population increase saw growth of cities; London remained the largest city; living conditions of the poor were wretched

India's cotton cloth production

Industrialized European countries intentionally prevented the growth of mechanized industry; India was under British control and British textiles put Indian weavers out of business, but Britain refused to introduce modern technologies to India

Robert Fulton

Inventor of the steamboat, which was a boat that had a powerful steam engine; enabled boats to travel upstream on rivers, thus increasing trade while at the same time improving inter and state transportation; in 1807 the Clermont traveled up the Hudson from NYC to Albany

Vincent van Gogh

Major post-Impressionist artist; "Starry Night" (1889) showed the sky as he imagined it, not as it really was; later cut his ear off

Agricultural Revolution

Massive increase in farm output during the 18th century that resulted from the spread of new crops, improvements in cultivation techniques and livestock breeding, and land enclosures; many people were no longer farmers which provided cheap labor for production

Factory Act of 1833

Movement in Great Britain that outlawed the employment of children under the age of nine in textile mills; also limited the work days for those aged 9 to 13 to nine hours a day, and teenagers 14-18 to twelve hours a day; broke pattern of families working together in factories

Saddler Commission

Parliamentary commission that investigated working conditions in factories and exposed child-labor atrocities, particular in textiles; helped create regulatory legislation

Proto-industrialization

Preliminary shift away from agricultural economy; workers become full or part time producers of finished products, working at home but in a capitalist system in which materials, etc depended on urban merchants (cottage system); prelude to Industrial Revolution

Classical liberalism

Reformist and political rather than revolutionary; emphasis on natural rights, constitutionalism, and republicanism; did not promote democracy

Leo Tolstoy

Russian realist that wrote "War an Peace" (1869) about Russian society during the Napoleonic Wars

Corn Laws

Revised in 1815, these laws forbade the import of cheap grain to benefit the landed aristocracy; gave way to protests and anger; were repealed in 1846 with the allying of the middle class and working class (England's first step towards free trade)

Frankfurt Assembly

Revolution in 1848 France inspired revolution in German states; a parliament was held to fulfill nationalist aspirations of uniting the German provinces under a single government and constitution; chose Prussian King Frederick William IV as ruler of the new Germany but he declined the title, resulting in the collapse of the movement

Neo-gothic architecture

Romantic revival of middle-ages Gothic architecture left European countryside adorned with pseudo-medieval castles and cities with grandiose cathedrals, city halls, etc.; most famous example is the British Houses of Parliament which was rebuilt in the mid-1800s

James Watt

Scottish inventor patented the first efficient steam engine in 1769, caused radical transformations in transport and manufacturing

Chartists

Supporters of the People's Charter (drawn up in Britain in 1838), which sought to transform Britain into a democracy and demanded universal suffrage for men, vote by secret ballot, equal electoral districts, annual elections, and the elimination of property qualifications for and the payment of stipends to members of Parliament.

London Working Men's Association

Trade union that drew up the "People's Charter" (1838) which called for universal male suffrage, payment for members of Parliament, elimination of property qualifications for members of Parliament, and annual sessions of Parliament; inspired the Chartist movement

Luddites

Workers in Britain who responded to the replacement of their labor by machines during the Industrial Revolution by attempting to destroy machines; were unsuccessful

Credit Mobilier

a French bank that built railroads all over France and through Europe, created by Emile and Isaac Pereire

coke

a new method of smelting iron ore to produce cast iron was devised based on the use of coke or "courke", which involved slowly burning charcoal; was later used in Henry Cort's puddling furnace to burn away impurities in iron

Irish Potato Famine

aka the "Great Famine"; occurred in 1845 when the main crop of Ireland, potatoes, was destroyed by disease; over 1 million Irish peasants died while millions of others emigrated to the United States

Lowes Act

allowed for limited liability for business owners, thus reducing the risk of going into capitalist ventures; helped factory growth take off

Classical economics

also known as economic liberalism; main tenet was laissez faire capitalism; government should limit itself to defending country, protecting individuals, and maintaining public works

trade unions

banned by the Combination Acts but formed regardless; served to preserve owners' positions by limiting entry into their trade and for workers to gain benefits from employers; carried out strikes illegally leading to the repeal of the Combination Acts in 1824

Impressionism

began in France and was impacted by photography; painters sought to capture overall feeling of light falling on real-life scene before eyes rather than exact replication; painting outdoors became more common due to oil paints so nature scenes were common

limited liability

business owners could not lose private assets if their business failed; principle that encouraged individuals to invest in business during the Industrial Revolution

Post-Impressionsim

came about in the early 20th century as a desire emerged to know and depict worlds other than the visible world of fact; was characterized by a psychological view of reality; included expressionism, cubism, etc.

Whigs

came into power with the support of the industrial middle class after 1830 elections unseated the unpopular Tories; introduced reform bills including election reform, thus allowing Britain to avoid revolution in 1848

Gustav Courbet

coined the term realism; painted "The Stonebreakers"(1859) which depicted ordinary men at work

Great Exhibition of 1851

collection of 100,000 exhibits that displayed the wide variety of products created by the Industrial Revolution in Britain that was housed in the Crystal Palace in Kensington, London; 6 million people visited in 6 months to witness this display of British success

Grimm's Fairytales

collection of German folk stories published under the influence of Herder's ideas about preserving German culture; provides a strong example of how nationalism and romanticism were tied together

Grand National Consolidated Trades Union

created by Robert Owen in February 1834; a national federation of trade unions with the purpose of coordinating a universal strike for an eight-hour work day; lacked real working class support and union movement reverted back to trade-specific unions

Bank of England

created in 1694 which laid the foundation for a network of lending institutions; allowed for a large supply of capital

transportation revolution

critical development of the Industrial Revolution that was made possible by steam power; characterized by new canal systems, the construction of hard-surfaced roads, and railroads

Cotton Industry

first important industry of the Industrial Revolution; took off after the invention of the rotary steam engine allowed cloth to be woven mechanically; most significant in Britain

Factory Acts

first labor reform acts of the Industrial Revolution passed between 1802 and 1819; put some limits on child labor but did not provide for their enforcement; more comprehensive reform did not come about until the 1830s and 1840s

Congress System

four congresses were held between 1818 and 1822 to monitor and defend the status quo as it was defined by the Congress of Vienna; Britain eventually bowed out after the rest of the alliance ignored its opposition to intervention

Hand-loom weavers

home-based workers that produced cloth by hand until the mid-1820s but were eventually replaced by new machinery and big factories; decreased from 250,000 in 1813 to 3,000 in 1850

Utopian socialism

idea of creating a idyllic world through socialism in which there would be no private property or competitive spirit of capitalism; did not advocate violence

"June Days" Revolution

in elections for the National Assembly of the Second French Republic, moderates gained power and closed Louis Blanc's national workshops; workers revolted against this decision, leading to four days of bloody fighting and 10,000 deaths; revolt was crushed by General Cavaignac

new elites

industrial entrepreneurs that amassed great wealth and played an important role in society alongside traditional landed elites; bought great estates and acquired social respectability; eventually merged with old elites

power loom

invented in 1781 by Edmund Cartwright; steam-engine powered loom that operated mechanically; meant the doom of hand-loom weavers and changed workers job from running it to watching it; sped up the production of textiles

Second Industrial Revolution

last half of 19th century; focused on steel production, oil, electricity, and chemicals; expansion of industry and technology created growing demand for experts w/ specialized knowledge; Germany surpassed Britain by 1890; cities continued to grow

Louis Kossuth

led Hungarian agitation for "commonwealth" status; demonstrations in Buda, Prague, and Vienna led to Metternich's dismissal; uprising was put down by Austrian and Russian armies

Public Health Movement

led by Edwin Chadwick; sought to remedy the high disease and mortality rate that occurred in cities by improving sanitation (sanitary idea)

Anti-Corn Law League

led by Richard Cobden and John Bright; argued for lower food prices and brought about the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, indicating the beginning of the end of British mercantilism

Jeremy Bentham

liberal British theorist and philosopher that founded utilitarianism, or the idea that governments should base their laws/actions on providing the greatest good for the greatest number of individuals

Carbonari

liberal-nationalist secret society in Italy that wanted to overthrow Ferdinand I of the Kingdom of Two Sicilies; incited revolution in Naples in 1820 which was quickly put down by Austrian troops

Second French Republic

ratified on November 4, 1848; a new government was established with a legislature of 750 reps and a president elected by universal male suffrage; president became Napoleon III; Louis Blanc established national workshops; reforms included abolition of slavery, 10-hour workday in Paris, and abolished death penalty

Emile Zola

realist; wrote "Germinal" (1885) depicting the hard life of young miners in Norther France

Ten Hours Act of 1847

reduced the workday for women and children 13-18 years old to a maximum of 10 hours

Crystal Palace

strikingly modern building that housed the Great Exhibition of 1851; architectural masterpiece that was made entirely of glass and iron, both of which were cheap and abundant

Industrial Revolution

the change from an agrarian to industrial society and from home manufacturing to factory production; was characterized by a massive increase in production of goods between 1750 and 1850

fin de siecle

the end of the 19th century; was characterized by an increased standard of living in all industrialized countries, increased consumption, new inventions, and improved education (esp. public education)

heavy industry

the manufacture of machinery and materials used in production; was boosted by rising supplies of coal and growing iron industry

Expressionism

the ultimate stage in development of abstract nonrepresentational art; modernist art that was the result of the artist's unique inner or personal vision and that often had emotional dimension; characterized by fascination with form, as opposed to light; Wassily Kandinsky was the most important painter

The Communist Manifesto

written by Karl Marx and Friederich Engels in 1848; considered the "bible" of communism; explained dialectical materialism, which said that history was a struggle between the rich and poor and that a violent revolution would create a dictatorship of the proletariat and a classless society

Charles Darwin

wrote "On the Origin of Species" (1859) proposing the theory of evolution and refuting the literal interpretation of the bible

David Ricardo

wrote "Principles of Political Economy" in which he argued for the iron law of wages: an increase in population means more workers and lower wages, lower wages mean more starvation and eventually fewer workers, fewer workers mean higher wages and population growth...thus, the cycles repeats and raising wages would be pointless

Adam Smith

wrote "Wealth of Nations" (1776) aka the bible of capitalism; argued for laissez faire economics because market forces (the invisible hand) would regulate itself; helped bring about the Industrial Revolution and the end of mercantilism