AP European History CH 14: Scientific Revolution

inductive vs. deductive reasoning

derives general principles from large # of specific observations vs. logic used to come up with ways to test hypotheses

Jan Vermeer van Delft

Dutch, 17th C, Baroque, Painter, "Young Women with Water Pitcher"

French Academy of Science

it received abundant state support, and its members were appointed and paid by the state. They were encouraged to do practical work to benefit both "the king and the state" (this was mirrored in German societies). Founded in 1666 by Louis XIV

Sabbats

nightly gatherings where witches were thought to feast and dance in worship of the devil

Nicolaus Copernicus

(1473-1543) Polish preist/astronomer who pioneered heliocentric theory (sun is at center), wrote "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres" (1543) which explained the theory that the planets orbit the sun, but could not explain why they did so in ellipses; this theory contradicted Church's geocentric theory

Vesalius

(1514-1564) A Flemish scientist who challenged traditional anatomy with his text "On the Construction of the Human Body." Created with numerous illustrations of public dissections.

Sir Francis Bacon

(1561-1626): an English philosopher and statesman(Lord Chancellor of England for James I) who wrote the Advancement of Learning and popularized the new scientific method of observation and experimentation. He was not a trained or full-time scientist but kept up with astronomical debates and mathematical competitions of the day. His philosophical inclinations led him to consider science in his age and the timeless elements of the scientific approach.

William Harvey

(1578-1657) English physician and scientist who described the circulation of the blood

Sir Isaac Newton

(1643-1727) an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher; believed to be one of the greatest figures of the Scientific Revolution; in 1687 he published his theory of gravity and the three laws of motion, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics

Aristotle

(384-322 BCE) Believed, unlike his teacher Plato, that philosophers could rely on their senses to provide accurate information about the world.

The Crucible

(Arthur Miller, 1953). Miller chose the 1692 Salem witch trials as his setting, but the work is really an allegorical protest against the McCarthy anti-Communist "witch-hunts" of the early 1950s. In the story, Elizabeth Proctor fires servant Abigail Williams after she finds out Abigail had an affair with her husband. In response, Abigail accuses Elizabeth of witchcraft. She stands trial and is acquitted, but then another girl accuses her husband, John, and as he refuses to turn in others, he is killed, along with the old comic figure, Giles Corey. Also notable: Judge Hathorne is a direct ancestor of the author Nathaniel Hawthorne.

Discourse on Method

(Rene Descartes)- This written work used skepticism to come to the conclusion "I think, therefore I am" by questioning everything that anyone thinks they are certain of. Thus, the only thing we can be certain of is that we have doubt, and doubt is thought, and thought must come from a mind. He also concluded that because we know we are not perfect, there must be something perfect that gives us that knowledge, and that perfect thing is God. In this way his highly untraditional ideas did not conflict too much with Christianity.

empiricism

(philosophy) the doctrine that knowledge derives from experience Conclusions reached through observation in contrast to classical logical observation.

Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World

-(1632) Galileo defended truth of Copernicanism; Pope Urban VIII ordered investigation of book, believed to disobey mandate of 1616 (allowed Galileo to talk about Copernicanism as merely a theory) as well as personally insulted and humiliated Urban; condemned, required to renounce his views, and forced to live in house arrest for the remaining 9 years of his life

Galileo Galilei

1500-1600s - supported the Copernican model; laid teh foundation for a new physics; wrote in Italian as well as Latin so his writings were widely translated and read as opposed to Copernicus's highly mathematical works; urged a new relationship between religion and science; collided with Aristotelian philosophy and the authority of the Catholic Church; devised his own telescope (cratered moon, moons orbiting Jupiter, sun spots) "The Starry Messenger" -1610 - tutored the Medicis to become respected in Italy; wrote a series of letters describing how you could be a sincere Copernican and a sincere Catholic since the Church was upset; said the Church should not get involved in explaining the natural world

John Locke

1632-1704. Argued that government exists to protect "life, liberty, and property" More optimistic about human nature. Believed humans enjoyed certain inalienable rights that no government can take away. Humans entered into social contract to establish government and protect rights

The Wisdom of God Manifested in His Works of Creation

1690-Ray's work arguing that God had placed human beings to understand and then make practical use of it.

Rene Descartes

17th century French philosopher; wrote Discourse on Method; 1st principle "i think therefore i am"; believed mind and matter were completly seperate; known as father of modern rationalism

Leviathan

A book written by Thomas Hobbes describing his theory that an absolute government was the only means of balancing human interests and desires with their rights of life and property.

Blaise Pascal

A french mathematician and scientist. He believed that religious faith was necessary because reason alone could not satisfy peoples, hopes and aspiration. Untiy and Truth. wrote Pensees (means to think)

Novum Organum

A volume from Instauratio Magna that was published in 1620. Translates to New Method of Acquiring Knowledge. Sir Francis Bacon insisted on use of the inductive method. Should proceed from the particular/specific to the general, from the concrete to the abstract.

Index of Prohibited Books

A weapon of the Counter-Reformation of the Catholic Church; this documented books that disagreed with or criticized the Church. There was an early one issued by Pope Paul IV and another from the Council of Trent. This was supposed to protect people from immoral or incorrect theological works, but included scientific writing.

Ptolemy

An ancient Greek astronomer, living in Egypt, who proposed a way of calculating the movements of the planets on the assumption that they, along with the sun and the stars, were embedded in clear spheres that revolved around the Earth. His beliefs prevailed for nearly fifteen hundred years, until the modern model of the solar system, with the sun at the center, was developed from the ideas of Copernicus.

Johannes Kepler

Assistant to Brahe; used Brahe's data to prove that the earth moved in an elliptical, not circular, orbit; Wrote 3 laws of planetary motion based on mechanical relationships and accurately predicted movements of planets in a sun-centered universe; Demolished old systems of Aristotle and Ptolemy

Observations upon Experimental Philosophy

Cavendish. Explained how nature had power over man, not vice versa

projectors

Discriminatory name in England that described presented science as an enterprise, and advertised their own ideas to wealthy patrons.

Jan Vermeer

Dutch painter renowned for his use of light and painted everyday scenes (1632-1675) Baroque.

Thomas Hobbes

English materialist and political philosopher who advocated absolute sovereignty as the only kind of government that could resolve problems caused by the selfishness of human beings (1588-1679)

Malleus Maleficarum

German book published in 1487 outlining the nature and appearance of witches. The image that the authors create of witches still exist largely untouched today

Maria Cunitz

German; published a book on astronomy that many people thought her husband had written until he added a preface supporting her sole authorship

Principia Mathematica

In 1687, Publication of Sir Isaac Newton; filled with contributions to many areas of science, and included the three well-known laws of motion.

Second Treatise of Government

In the treatise, written by John Locke, Locke describes the relationship of the king and his people as a bilateral contract. If the king broke that contract, than the people had the right to dispose of him. Written before the Glorious Revolution.

Tycho Brahe

Influenced by Copernicus; Built observatory and collected data on the locations of stars and planets for over 20 years; His limited knowledge of mathematics prevented him from making much sense out of the data.

Essay Concerning Human Understanding

Locke, 1690, human mind has no innate ideas, what people know is not the world but the result of the interactions of the mind with the world. Psychology based entirely on nurture.

Malificium

Magic of the devil as opposed to the high magic performed by Catholic clergymen. Hundreds of thousands of people were sentenced to death for this: Witch Trials

Maria Winkelmann

One of the most famous of female astronomers in Germany, she married Gottfried Kirch, who was the official astronomer at the Berlin Academy of Sciences, and became his assistant. She discovered a comet in 1702, but it was not until 1930 that the discovery was ascribed to her, rather than her husband. When her husband died, she applied for permission to continue her work in 1710, but was denied by the academy, even though they knew of her accomplishments. Returned to the academy as an assistant to her son, who was now appointed astronomer. Once again, she was asked to leave. Later died in 1720.

Margaret Cavendish

One of the most prominent female scientists of the 17th century. She came from an aristocratic family. She wrote a number of books on scientific matters, including Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy. This work was especially critical of the growing belief that humans, through science, were the masters of nature. Allowed to attend one session of the London Society.

The Hammer of the Witches

Originally published under the title "Malleus Maleficarum," this book was written by Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger. It is a treatise on witches. "Witches for Dummies"

Pope Urban VIII

Pope Urban VIII was pope from 1623-1644 and he was the last pope to expand papal territory by force, and was a prominent patron of the arts and reformer of Church missions. Condemned Galileo.

"I think, therefore I am."

Rene Descartes

Royal Society of London

The English counter part to the scientific organization in Paris. Grew out of informal meetings in London and Oxford and worked on government-independent projects like the Publication of Newton's Principia.

The New Astronomy

The New Astronomy was written by Johannes Kepler in the year 1609. Although he worked for twenty years under Tycho Brahe, a man who believed in a geocentric universe, Kepler was a firm believer in the heliocentric theory. In his book, Kepler argued that the planet's orbit around the sun was elliptical, not circular.

Geocentrism

The outlook that the earth was the center of the universe and every thing rotated around it.

Heliocentrism

The view articulated by Polish clergyman Nicolaus Copernicus that the earth and planets revolve around the sun.

physico-theology

The view that evidence and sound arguments for God's existence can be derived from a study of the natural world; a study of the natural world intended to provide such evidence.

First Treatise of Government

Where Locke rejected arguments for absolute government that based political authority on the patriarchal model of fathers ruling over a family; proved enormously important by clearing the philosophical decks, so to speak, of a long-standing traditional argument that could not stand up to rigorous analysis.

Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina

Written by Galileo. The bible can be interpreted differently, and Galileo argues that its purpose is to tell us how to get to heaven. He also argues that the identity of the readers were, for the most part, uneducated and that the scriptures were written so that people would understand the purpose--not confusing. He also argues that we should use scriptures for religious things, not scientific things. Use observations and experimentation to find scientific things.

Letter Concerning Toleration

Written by John Locke; declared that Christians who persecute others in the name of religion are morally corrupt. Proposed religious toleration between Christians except Roman Catholics. No toleration for Catholics, non Christians and Atheists.

On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

Written by Nicolaus Copernicus and published in 1543. It contained his findings on the heliocentric theory. Published close to his death; didn't face intense persecution.

mechanism

the philosophical theory that all phenomena can be explained in terms of physical or biological causes