AP European History: Test Key Concept 1.2 and 1.3 Questions
Explain the ways in which both Catholic Spain and Protestant England exploited conflicts to promote political and economic interests.
Both Catholic Spain and Protestant England exploited conflicts to promote political and economic interests. Philip II and Spain entered the Netherlands ready to impose their traditional Catholic rule, but were met with resistance. Spain spent many years trying to subject the Dutch to Spanish rule for their own economic and political growth. The English became involved in many conflicts in hope of gain, as they aided the Dutch in the Treaty of Nonsuch. Both Spain and England's involvement in the revolt of the Netherlands had different effects, as Spain lost it's dominance in quest of even more power, and England created the foundation for a future global empire.
What efforts did Charles I/V and his son Philip II put forward to restore Catholic unity across Europe? To what extent were they successful?
Both Charles I/V and his son, Phillip II, attempted to restore Catholic unity across Europe through force, and were marginally successful. As King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor, Charles I/V controlled an enormous amount of land in Europe, as well as in North and South America. He sought to unify the Catholic Church once more, as he places an imperial ban on Martin Luther at the Diet of Worms and decided in the Diet of Augsburg that all Lutherans must revert to Catholicism.Charles also exerts force on Protestants, as he crushes the Schmalkadic League. Phillip also sought to unify Europe in Catholicism, and wars in France, England, and the Netherlands were fought to restore Catholicism. While Catholicism was able to remain in Europe, the efforts of Charles I/V and Phillip II did not last in the long term.
Describe how both France with the Edict of Nantes, and the Netherlands fostered religious pluralism as a means to maintain domestic peace.
Both France and the Netherlands fostered religious pluralism as a means to maintain domestic peace. Rulers in both countries understood that a middle ground would need to be found between the Protestants and the Catholics, and peace and unity in a nation was more important than religious creeds. The Edict of Nantes, issued by Henry IV was a formal religious settlement in which minority religious rights were recognized in what was to remain a Catholic country. In the Netherlands, William of Orange converted to multiple religions over a span of years, as he was a confessed Catholic, Lutheran and Calvinists. Both France and the Netherlands fostered religious pluralism and flexibility for the time period in order to keep peace within the country.
Explain how the Huguenots and Puritans challenged monarchical control of religious institutions.
Both Huguenots and Puritans challenged monarchical control of religious institutions. In France as the new monarchy of the Guise family rose in power, many Huguenots curried favor with the nobility and converted many nobles. In turn, the rise of Calvinism in French nobles would hopefully weaken the new monarchy in the process. Similarly, Puritans were Protestants who worked within the national church in hopes to "purify" it of its wrongs. The early Puritans were not separatists, and worked through Parliament to create an alternative national church modeled after Calvin and Geneva. Both the Huguenots and Puritans challenged monarchical control of religious institutions, and did so by working closely with the members in hopes it would result in the changes they desired.
Describe how the issues of religious reform exacerbated conflicts between the monarchy and the nobility in the French Wars of Religion. (in your response make sure you reference the following
Catherine de'Medici, St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre and Henry IV). : In the French Wars of Religion, the issues of religious reform exacerbated conflicts between the monarchy and the nobility. France struggled with its leadership, as the monarchy weakened with the death of Henry II and the rise of three powerful families. Two of the families, the Bourbons and Montmorency-Chatillions, had Huguenot sympathies, while the Guises were stern, militant Catholics whose association with the monarchy influenced it heavily. When Catharine Médici and her son assumed the throne, they aligned themselves with the Guises. After some time, Charles XI drew close to the Bourbon faction and the Huguenots, causing Catharine to plot closely with the Guises. Catharine's plotting culminated in Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre, in which Coligny, her son's most trusted advisor and important Huguenot leader, was killed along with 3,000 other Huguenots in Paris. Attacks of a similar nature continued, and the wars became a struggle against a cruel monarchy rather than a purely religious battle. The monarchy continued to be strong opponents of Protestants until Henry IV, a Bourbon Huguenot, replaced the assassinated Henry III. He was able to find a middle ground for some period of time, in which Catholics and Protestants lived together in France.
How did Christian humanism serve as inspiration in the service of religious reform? Make explicit reference to Sir Thomas More.
Christian humanism served as an inspiration as it incorporated Northern Renaissance learning in the service of religious reform. As a close friend of Erasmus, More was clearly influenced by the great humanist and employed humanism in his religious reform. His work Utopia criticized contemporary society, as it depicted a society in which reason and tolerance allowed man to overcome the social and political injustice of the time. Though a humanist, More remained Catholic and led the opposition against English Protestantism, even though he was a trusted diplomat of Henry VIII. More maintained major traditional beliefs while wanting to add humanism ideals, made popular through the Renaissance, into teachings. While More lost his life as a result of refusing to sign the Act of Supremacy, the humanist ideas he brought contributed to English Reformation.
Describe how some Protestants, including Calvin and the Anabaptists, refused to recognize the subordination of the church to the state.
In the sixteenth century, some Protestants, specifically Calvin and Anabaptists, refused to recognize the subordination of the church to the state. While the Peace of Augsburg gave Lutherans the ability to keep all church lands, Calvinists and Anabaptists could not. Anabaptists were accepted this exclusion by forming their own separate communities. On the other hand, Calvinists were not separatists. They wanted the right to worship publicly while influencing society according to their beliefs. To gain these rights, Calvinists organized national revolutions throughout Northern Europe, while Anabaptists remained in exclusive communities.
Identify abuses and problems Martin Luther, John Calvin and the Anabaptists had with the Catholic Church. Note, these men and groups had different ideas so do not treat them in common.
Martin Luther, John Calvin, and the Anabaptists all found faults with the Catholic Church. Martin Luther was upset with the selling of indulgences by Pope Leo X, which was done to raise money for the construction of Saint Peter's Basilica. He also found fault with the ultimate power of the Pope, and the extreme wealth of the Church. The Anabaptists were a radical group of devout fundamentalist Protestants who believed movements before them did not throughly implement Apostolic Christianity. They rejected infant baptism within the Catholic Church, and believed that only a consenting adult could receive baptism and enter the covenant of faith. Finally, John Calvin rejected the idea of free will, and strongly believed in predestination and the individual's responsibility to reorder society to God's will. While these reformers had different grievances against the Catholic Church, they all found it necessary to split from the Church itself.
Describe some developments in military technology in the 17th century (infantry, firearms, mobile cannon, and more elaborate fortifications). Why did these developments lead to heavier taxation and more elaborate government bureaucracies? How did these developments tip the balance of power toward states able to marshal sufficient resources for the new military environment? When answering look particularly at France.
Military technology in the seventeenth century led to heavier taxation and more elaborate government bureaucracies due to the necessity of having a strong military as a representation of a ruler's reputation and power. Developments such as advanced firearms and mobile cannons allowed the French to assert their military force. Changes in technology led to adjustment in the military, causing them to become larger and more expensive. Members of the military were also trained as to better understand their new tools. This in turn caused a higher tax to be levied to the people, in order to support the larger military, as well as the creation of large bureaucracies to supervise the resources of the state military. And as the military resources of the state grew, the power of state governments grew. This disrupted the balance of power and tipped it in favor of France, as their state government and military grew more powerful.
With specific reference to the Peace of Augsburg and the Edict of Nantes explain how New Monarchies laid the foundation for the centralized modern state by establishing a monopoly on tax collection, military force, and the dispensing of justice, and gaining the right to determine the religion of their subjects. Identify the specific terms and institutions related to this development. Also, explain to what extent they were successful
New Monarchies laid the foundation for the centralized modern state through many different methods. Some established a monopoly on tax collection, as did Louis XI in France when he enforced old taxes while implementing new ones. He also maintained the strong, professional military built by his father, Charles VII. As a result by the end of his reign, the kingdom of Louis XI was twice the size of that he had inherited. Spain also maintained a strong military force, as the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella united the two kingdoms, which increased the collective power of Spain. Spain's military presence grew dramatically, as they were able to conquer others, such as the Moors in Granada. They also gained the right to determine the religion of their subjects as as the completely controlled the Spanish Church and the Inquisition. Similarly in the Holy Roman Empire, territorial leaders would determine the religion of their respective land. While this gave religious rights to some Protestants, it exclude groups such as Calvinists and Anabaptists. The Edict of Nantes in France took these freedoms a step further, as it recognized religious rights of all Protestant religions, while maintaining a Catholic country. New monarchies laid the stepping stone for their respective countries, by solidifying a modern state, so that in the future it and its people could develop and grow.
Explain how the relationship between monarchs and nobles was strained during the 17th century. What was the Fronde in France? Why was this a significant event in French history?
Over the seventeenth century, the relationship between monarchs and nobles became strained as monarchs established absolute power. Through the work of Cardinal Richelieu and Cardinal Mazarin and their attempts to impose direct royal administration on France, Louis XVI was able to build off their work and achieve a firm authority over time. The monarchy faced strong opposition from the nobles in the early seventeenth century, as the centralized policies put into practice finally caused a breaking point. A series of widespread rebellions among French nobles between 1649 and 1652, known as the "Fronde", caused strife between the monarchy and the rebelling nobles. These rebellions proved unsuccessful, but they convinced Louis to be more subtle then his predecessors in making the monarchy the most important political power in France, while also assuring nobles of their of social standing and influence on the local level. Louis began to work with the local social and political institutions rather than ignore them completely, which maintained peace within France, further allowing Louis XVI to assert their dominance throughout the rest of Europe.
Describe ways in which religious reform both increased state control of religious institutions and provided justifications for challenging state authority. In your answers make reference to Henry VIII, Elizabeth I, the Book of Common Prayer and the Peace of Augsburg.
Religious reform throughout Europe both increased state control of religious institutions while providing justification for challenging state authority. The creation of the Anglican Church by Henry VIII, which established himself as the head of the Church of England, created state control of a religious institution. Changes were made after King Henry's death, as England underwent Protestant Reformation, but royalty kept their power and mandated "The Book of Common Prayer" in all English Churches. These changes didn't last long, but Elizabeth I return the nation to Protestant beliefs after Queen Mary's reign. While Mary was known for her cruelty toward Protestants, Elizabeth persecuted Catholics during her reign. The Peace of Augsburg stated that the regions ruler determined its religion. The state taking control of religious institutions prompted revolts such as the Peasants' Revolt from Germans.
With specific reference to Niccolo Machiavelli and Jean Bodin, explain how secular political theories, provided a new concept of the state.
Secular political theories provided a concept of the state through this period. The Prince, written by Niccolo Machiavelli, emphasized the need for a strong ruler in order for a state, in his case Italy, to be united. He believed that a ruler could use fraud and brutality as justifiable means of governing, if it meant a strong and unified nation. In the sixteenth century, Jean Bodin also defended the sovereign rights of the monarchy as well, and that a nation should be united behind powerful rulers. The state was now able to make decisions, and gather money without depending on the nobility for funds or input. After events like the Hundred years' War and the Great Schism, the clergy and nobility who would block growing national monarchies were weakened, which inspired political theorists to analyze the benefits of one, national ruler.
Research the Jesuit Order, the Council of Trent and Ursulines and explain ways in which the Catholic Church itself reformed during the 16th Century. Explain how these reforms helped cement the division within Christianity.
The Catholic Church itself reformed during the sixteenth century in response to the Protestant Reformation. The Jesuit Order formed during this time, and with the guidance of Ignatius Loyola the order grew immensely as each follower sought to be a soldier of Christ. The "Spiritual Exercises" done by the Jesuits won back many Protestants, and taught followers to submit to higher church authority and spiritual direction without question. Another new order formed was the Ursulines, which established religious education of all girls no matter social class. In The Council of Trent, which was held over a period of eighteen years, changes were made in the areas of internal church discipline, but not any in the doctrine questioned or refuted by the Protestants. This created a permanent separation between the two denominations, as compromise was now impossible. With the creation of new orders, in which Christianity was taught in accordance with the parameters of the Catholic Church, and the refusal for compromise signaled in the Council of Trent, the division between the Catholic and Protestant Church was solidified forever.
Identify ways in which the Protestant and Catholic Reformations fundamentally changed theology, religious institutions, and culture.
The Protestant and Catholic Reformations in the sixteenth century fundamentally changed theology, religious institutions, and culture. Early Reformers, specifically Erasmus, began the trend of reformation with his work to reform the Catholic Church from within, while also maintaining most of its doctrines such as free will. Introducing this idea of change inspired other reformers such as Martin Luther, who in eventually breaking from the Catholic Church due to the financial corruption, the abuse of power and the immorality it fostered, created the Lutheran Church. A number of new churches followed as well, and the Protestant Reformation began to take form. New teachings and practices in the Christian faith and the study of God himself changed as a result of the Protestant Reformation, as the laity were asked to read and interpret the Bible on their own in these new denominations. The Catholic Reformation solidified the changes brought about in the Reformation, as the Council of Trent sought to fix the corruption of religious leaders without making any compromises with the Protestants regarding doctrine. This solidified the break between the two denominations, therefore creating many distinct religious beliefs, institutions and cultures.
Following the Treaty of Westphalia, religion no longer was a cause for warfare among European states; the concept of the balance of power played an important role in structuring diplomatic and military objectives. Define balance of power and explain how diplomats play a crucial role in that objective.
The Treaty of Westphalia removed religion as a reason for warfare, by rescinding the Edict of Restitution and reasserting the major feature of the religious settlement in the Peace of Augsburg. Calvinists also received the religious freedom they were longing for. The concept of balance of power, which stated states would function independently with no one state becoming disproportionally powerful, played an important role in structuring diplomatic and military objectives. For example, after the death of Charles II, the last Habsburg king of Spain, the nations had already negotiated how the his inheritance would be split up, in order to maintain the balance of power. But Charles had left all his inheritance to Louis's grandson Phillip of Anjou, who became Philip V of Spain. In order to fight this inequity, England, Holland, and the Holy Roman Empire formed the Grand Alliance to preserve the balance of power. I 1701 the War of Spanish Succession began, and after years of fighting an agreement was reached in 1713.
Complete the worksheet on the Peace of Westphalia and explain how the decisions through that treaty not only put an end to the idea of universal Christendom, but accelerated the decline of the Holy Roman Empire
The decisions made through the Peace of Westphalia put an end to the idea of universal Christendom, while accelerating the decline of the Holy Roman Empire. With the reinstatement and expansion of the Peace of Augsburg, which gave religious rights to all Protestant religions, any hopes of reuniting Europe in Catholicism were lost completely. Protestants such as Calvinists now had the freedom to worshipped as they pleased, which eliminates the chance of reuniting the numerous Christian denominations. But with this decision, Princes still determined the religion of their region, and each had their own piece of land as the Holy Roman Empire was split in small pieces. This created numerous divides between each province, and these divisions eventually led to the demise of the Empire.
What were the causes of the English Civil War? Who was this a competition between? What was the role of Oliver Cromwell?
There were many causes of the English Civil War. The conflict stemmed from a distrust between the King and Parliament, as the two party's had not gotten along in the past several years. During the reign of Charles I, Parliament was divided on whether to raise funds for an army to suppress the rebellion in Scotland, as many believed Parliament rather than King Charles should be the commander-in-chief of the Royal Armed Forces. After a failed attempt to invade Parliament, Charles I fled London and began to raise an army, while the House of Commons passed the Militia Ordinance, allowing Parliament to raise an army of their own. The two sides, that of King Charles Supporters, known as the Cavaliers, and Parliamentary supporters, known as Roundheads, fought in the Civil War. After four years, the Parliamentary side prevailed, in thanks to the militarily leadership of Oliver Cromwell, a country squire who was able to tolerate an established majority church as long as Protestant dissenters were permitted to worship outside of it.
With specific reference to the Nobles of the robe in France and the Gentry in England, describe how commercial and professional groups gained power and played a greater role in political affairs
Throughout Europe, commercial and professional groups gained power and played a greater role in political affairs. In France, Louis XIV made it clear he believed in the concept of royal authority and the divine right of kings, as he weakened most of the nobility, classified as the Nobility of the Sword, whose lineage made them nobles. They were housed in the palace of Versailles, and worried only of court life. The new Noble of the Robe had little noble lineage, but their rank came from holding important judicial or administrative posts, which could be bought from the King. In England, the Gentry, or wealthy land owners, were able to dominate the House of Commons, England's lower house in Parliament. Both the Nobles of the Robe and English Gentry were able to use their wealth to increase their power in political affairs.
