AP Gov Study Guide: Unit 2

What is meant by the term "minority majority"?

"Minority majority" means that the group or groups who were previously considered the minority are now the majority. It is predicted that by 2045 in America that the current minorities (African, Hispanic, and Asian Americans) will outnumber White Americans and become the majority.

What role do delegates/super delegates play in the nominating process?

(Super)delegates are chosen by the people to go to the national party conventions to vote for a certain candidate that they've pledged support to. Many delegates today don't vote freely based on what they think, because many have been working on a candidate's campaign and must vote for that candidate. To make sure there were some unbiased votes, about 20% of the delegate slots are set aside for Democratic office holders (governors, senators, HOR). Superdelegates are national party leaders who automatically get a delegate slot at the Democratic national party convention.

What are the three great waves of immigration to the United States?

1. Before 1800: Northwestern Europeans (English, Irish, Germans, and Scandinavians) i.e. the Potato Famine 2. During late 1800s and early 1900s: Southern and Eastern Europeans (Italians, Jews, Poles, Russians) Most came through Ellis Island. 3. Recently: Hispanics and Asians (Cuba, Central America, Mexico, Vietnam, Korea, and the Philippines) The 1980s saw the second-largest number of immigrants in any decade and this high number of immigrants has stayed consistent today.

Presidential Primaries

Elections in which voters in a state vote for a candidate. Most delegates to the national party conventions are chosen this way.

What are the two tasks that elections accomplish, according to democratic theory?

Elections select the policymakers and they help shape public policy.

Policy Voting

Electoral choices that are made on the basis of the voters' policy preferences and on the basis of where the candidates stand on policy issues.

What is the "paradox of mass politics" according to Russell Neuman?

Even though the general public doesn't know much about politics, the political system still functions and works well. Though people may not know the ins and outs of policy or political candidates, they know what basic values they want to uphold and will vote based on those values.

What are exit polls and why are they sometimes seen as negative? (use the 2000 Election situation)

Exit polls are when, on election day, voting places are randomly selected around the country and every tenth person is asked how they voted. These votes are counted to predict the outcome of the election and then displayed on TV. In 2000, a Florida exit poll declared one candidate the winner of the election who ended up losing. These polls are not always accurate and can discourage people from voting both for the winning and losing candidate.

Explain what a PAC is-- include their purpose, what they can do, their goals, and how they can affect an election.

A PAC is a political action committee. Interest groups, such as a business or union, can make a contribution of up to $5000 per candidate in both the primary and general election. They contribute to the candidate whom they believe will support the legislation the business or union group favors. Because PACs play a major role in financing campaign, deals are made where a candidate will accept the money in return for a stronger stance for whatever the PAC wants to happen. This is a cause for worry, as some think this ruins the democratic system and turns the PACs into the power-yielding authorities.

How does a candidate get selected through a caucus?

A caucus is a meeting of all state party leaders for selecting delegates to the national party convention. They are usually organized like a pyramid. Small neighborhood caucuses are first held in churches or even someone's home, and delegates are selected based on the preference for a certain candidate. This continues to county caucuses, congressional district caucuses, and then a state convention. At the state convention, delegates are finally chosen to go to the national convention. Caucuses are now open to all voters who are registered with a particular political party. Caucuses don't necessarily choose a candidate, but they choose delegates who support a specific candidate to go vote for them at the convention.

Legitimacy

A characterization of elections by political scientists meaning that they are almost universally accepted as a fair and free method of selecting political leaders.

McGovern-Fraser Commission

A commission formed at the 1968 Democratic convention in response to demands for reform by minority groups and outers who sought better representation.

Protest

A form of political participation designed to achieve policy change through dramatic and unconventional tactics.

Civil Disobedience

A form of political participation that reflects a conscious decision to break a law believed to be immoral and to suffer the consequences.

Direct Mail

A high-tech method of raising money for a political cause or candidate. It involves sending information and requests for money to people whose names appear on lists of those who have supported similar views or candidates in the past.

Federal Election Campaign Act

A law passed in 1974 for reforming campaign finances. The act created the Federal Election Commission, provided public financing for presidential primaries and general elections, limited presidential campaign spending, required disclosure, and attempted to limit contributions.

Caucus

A meeting of all state party leaders for selecting delegates to the national party convention. They are usually organized as a pyramid.

Party Platform

A political party's statement of its goals and policies for the next four years. The platform is drafted prior to the party convention by a committee whose members are chosen in rough proportion to each candidate's strength. It is the best formal statement of a party's beliefs.

How does a candidate get selected through a primary?

A primary is an election in which voters in a state vote for a candidate (but really for delegates). Most delegates to the national party conventions are chosen this way. The presidential primary was created to take out the party bosses that controlled which delegates were picked in the caucuses; people wanted a direct vote in picking a candidate.

Initiative Petition

A process permitted in some states whereby voters may put proposed changes in the state constitution to a vote if sufficient signatures are obtained on petitions calling for such a referendum.

Regional Primaries

A proposal by critics of the caucuses and presidential primaries to replace these electoral methods with a series of primaries held in each geographic region.

National Primary

A proposal by critics of the caucuses and presidential primaries, which would replace these electoral methods with this held early in the election year.

Sample

A relatively small proportion of people who are chosen in a survey so as to be representative of the whole.

Federal Election Commission

A six-member bipartisan agency created by the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974. It administers and enforces campaign finance laws.

Referendum

A state-level method of direct legislation that gives voters a chance to approve or disprove proposed legislation or a proposed constitutional amendment.

Voter Registration

A system adopted by the states that requires voters to register well in advance of Election Day. A few states permit Election Day registration.

Random-Digit Dialing

A technique used by pollsters to place telephone calls randomly to both listed and unlisted numbers when conducting a survey.

Retrospective Voting

A theory of voting in which voters essentially ask this simple question: "What have you done for me lately?"

Electoral College

A unique American institution, created by the Constitution, providing for the selection of the president by electors chosen by the state parties. Although the electoral college vote usually reflects a popular majority, the winner-take-all rule gives clout to big states.

Census

A valuable tool for understanding demographic changes. It counts the number of people in an area.

Name two ways in which aging affects political behavior.

Aging increases political participation. Voting becomes a routine habit as people get older, so older people will be more likely to vote than inexperienced younger voters. Aging also increases the strength of party attachment. As one gets older, he or she will more likely vote for the same party every time in comparison to a younger voter.

Political Participation

All the activities used by citizens to influence the selection of political leaders or the policies they pursue. Ways to do this include voting, protesting, and civil disobedience.

Political Culture

An overall set of values widely shared within a society.

List and explain three major reasons people might vote.

People might vote in they believe that the policies of one party will bring more benefits than the policies of another party. For example, if a woman is a supporter of abortions because she has had one before, then she will be more likely to vote because the Democratic Party has the same stance as she does on the issue of abortion. People might also vote if they believe in political efficacy, or the notion that one's vote really does make a difference. If the last election was very close (i.e. the election in Boise that differed by 7 votes), then one will be more likely to vote in an election. People may vote because they believe it is their civic duty to vote. America is fortunate in that it's people have a say in their government, and a person who believes that they should take full advantage of this opportunity will be more likely to vote.

Melting Pot

The mixing of cultures, ideas, and peoples that has changed the American nation. The United States, with its history of immigration, has often been called this.

Nomination

The official endorsement of a candidate for office by a political party. Generally, success requires momentum, money, and media attention.

Reapportionment

The process of reallocating seats in the House of Representatives every ten years on the basis of the results of the census.

Political Socialization

The process through which a young person acquires political orientations as they grow up, based on inputs from parents, teachers, the media, and friends.

Front Loading

The recent tendency of states to hold primaries early in the calendar in order to capitalize on media attention.

Gender Gap

The regular pattern by which women are more likely to support Democratic candidates. Women tend to be significantly less conservative than men and are more likely to support spending on social services and to oppose higher levels of military spending.

Demography

The science of population changes.

National Party Convention

The supreme power within each of the parties. It meets every four years to nominate the party's presidential and vice-presidential candidates and to write the party's platform.

What are the three most important dimensions of candidate image?

The three most important dimensions of candidate image are integrity, reliability, and competence.

How have primaries become more political (think front loading)?

There is so much media attention on the first few primaries because it is the first glimpse into who will be the frontrunners for each party. This said, many states want to push up the dates of their primaries so they can help influence who will win the nomination, which is known as front loading. The candidates with the first few primary wins will be portrayed as the frontrunners, and each state wants its candidate to be on top.

Political Action Committees

They are funding vehicles created by the 1974 campaign finance reforms. A corporation, union, or some other interest group can create a political action committee and register it with the Federal Election Commission, which will meticulously monitor the PAC's expenditures.

What are the general beliefs of Conservatives and what are their typical demographic characteristics?

They believe in a large, strong government and support military interventions around the world. The are pro-life, support prayer in schools, and oppose affirmative action. They want less government intervention and want to keep taxes and spending low. They believe we should stop coddling criminals and should stop letting criminals hide behind laws. Men, older people, Protestants, and born-again Christians tend to be more conservative.

What are the general beliefs of Liberals and what are their typical demographic characteristics?

They believe in less military spending and are less willing to send troops to action. They are pro-choice, opposed to prayer in schools, and in favor of affirmative action. They want to tax the rich more, spend more money on the poor, and view government as a regulator. They believe we should solve the problems that cause crime and believe we should guard defendants' rights because everyone deserves a fair trial. Women, African Americans, Hispanics, Jews, people with no religious affiliation, and people under 30 tend to be more liberal

Random Sampling

They key technique employed by sophisticated survey researchers, which operates on the principle that everyone should have an equal probability of being selected for the sample.

How does the Electoral College support a two party system? (hint: 270 to win)

To win the election, a candidate needs 270 votes to win. If there are more than two parties, it would be very hard for any candidate to achieve the 270 votes he or she would need to win the election.

What are the four conditions necessary for true policy voting to take place?

Voters must have a clear sense of their own policy positions, they must know where candidates stand on policy issues, they must see differences between the candidates on these issues, and they must actually vote for the candidate whose policy positions best fit with their own.

Campaign Strategy

The master game plan candidates lay out to guide their electoral campaign.

List and explain six demographic factors that are related to voter turnout.

1. Education: People with higher levels of education tend to have a higher rate of voting because they are more knowledgable about the topics that are debated and about politics in general. 2. Age: Older people are more likely to vote than younger because they are more set in their political stance and have made registering to vote and voting itself a habit. 3. Race: Because of the continuing racial discrimination in America, African Americans and Hispanic Americans tend to have a lower voting turnout because they are generally less educated than their white counterparts. Educated minorities, however, tend to have a higher rate of voting because they have the incentive of racial equality. 4. Gender: Women have a slightly higher rate of voting than men. 5. Marital Status: Married people tend to have a higher rate of voting than their single counterparts. This may be because married people are more involved in their communities. 6. Government Employment: Government workers have a higher rate of voting because they are usually more knowledgeable about the campaigns and their jobs are at stake.

Matching Funds

Contributions of up to $250 are matched from the Presidential Election Campaign Fund to candidates for the presidential nomination who qualify and agree to meet various conditions, such as limiting their overall spending.

Explain the significance of each of the following as sources of political learning: family, mass media, schools.

Family: Because most political opinions are formed at a young age, one's family has the power to influence those opinions. Children grow up around their family's political learning and tend to have similar viewpoints as their family. Research has found that genetics plays a big role in a person's political learning. Mass Media: As mass media continues to grow and consume our attention, it shapes our political learning more and more. Political ads, for instance, play during the commercials for Modern Family and the Blacklist. Each commercial aims to influence one's political learning. Media now displaces parents as a main source of information for children as they get older. Schools: Governments try to use schools to instill the basic values they think all Americans should have. For example, national pride and loyalty is reinforced every day during the Pledge of Allegiance. AP Government class pushes the strengths of capitalism and democracy and the weaknesses of communism and dictatorships. Public school teachers are certified by the state government and textbooks are chosen by the government. The government forces their idea of political learning on the youth so that they will be more inclined to support said government, vote in elections, and tolerate other opinions.

What was created to administer campaign finance laws and describe two limits placed on campaigns due to the creation of the commissions?

In 1974, Congress passed the Federal Election Campaign Act to reform campaign finances. This act created the Federal Election Commission, which administers campaign finance laws and enforces them. The federal treasury will match individual contributions up to $250 for presidential candidates if the candidate agrees to limit his or her campaign expenditures. Candidates must file reports to the Federal Election Commission, saying who gave them money, how much money, and how the money was spent. Congress also limited individual contributions to $1000.

What is the difference between an initiative petition and a referendum? Which seems more democratic (in terms of getting people more involved) and why?

In an initiative petition, a person can make their state governments vote to change something in the state constitution if they get enough people to sign a petition. In a referendum, voters can approve or disapprove proposed legislation or a proposed constitutional amendment. An initiative petition seems to be more democratic because it requires all the people who sign the petition to understand and want to take action against the thing they're calling attention to. With less than a quarter of people voting in state/local elections, people don't really participate or are involved in local politics but an initiative petition changes that.

List the three kinds of elections found in the US and their purpose?

In primary elections, people select party nominees. In general elections, people select the winner of all the nominees. There are also elections about specific policy questions and voters can vote for or against the proposed legislation.

How has the influence of party identification on voting changed since the 1950's?

In the 1950s, party affiliation was the best single indicator of a voter's decision. Today, people usually choose the best person for the office or position regardless of the candidate's political party. This can be partly credited to technology, because people can easily look up individual candidate's stances on various issues and pick the candidate who fits one's beliefs, rather than just looking at the general beliefs of a party. This rings true especially for younger people, who are open for possibly voting for candidates who are neither Democratic nor Republican.

527 Groups

Independent groups that seek to influence the political process but are not subject to contribution restrictions because they do not directly seek the election of particular candidates.

Presidential Election Campaign Fund

Money from the $3 federal income tax check-off goes into this fund, which is then distributed to qualified candidates to subsidize their presidential campaigns.

Superdelegates

National party leaders who automatically get a delegate slot and the Democratic national party convention.

Motor Voter Act

Passed in 1993, this act went into effect for the 1996 election. It requires states to permit people to register to vote at the same time they apply for their driver's license.

Sampling Error

The level of confidence in the findings of a public opinion poll. The more people interviewed, the more confident one can be of the results.

What groups tend to participate in politics? Why do they participate? How do they participate?

People who are of higher social economic status tend to participate more in politics. Not only to they sign petitions and vote, but they also donate money to political campaigns. Minorities tend to participate in politics because they have incentives, such as wanting their group to be more equal and have more rights. Political participation encompasses the activities in which citizens engage to influence the selection of political leaders or the policies they pursue. There are two types of political participation: conventional and unconventional. Conventional participation includes the more common, accepted forms of influencing government, such as voting, petitioning, and running for office. Unconventional participation includes more radical forms of influencing government, such as protesting, civil disobedience, and violence.

Soft Money

Political contributions earmarked for party-building expenses at the grass-roots level or for generic party advertising. Unlike money that goes to the campaign of a particular candidate, such party donations are not subject to contribution limits. For a time, such contributions were unlimited until they were banned by the McCain-Feingold Act.

Exit Poll

Public opinion surveys used by major media pollsters to predict electoral winners with speed and precision.

Although the intention was to limit campaign spending, how has campaign spending increased with soft money and PAC's?

Soft money is political contributions given for party-building expenses, such as voter registration drives and generic party advertising. These donations were not limited, so candidates got millions and millions of extra money this way. PACs are political action committees. Though limited at $5000 per candidate, PACs can donate thousands of dollars to a candidate to fund his or her campaign. In 2006 there were a reported 4,217 PACs which contributed over 372 million to House and Senate candidates.

What is a SUPER-PAC? (Buckley vs. Valeo) How is this a game changer?

Super PACs are a political action committee than can raise an unlimited amount of money but cannot give that money directly to a candidate or campaign. They can, however, still campaign for a candidate in a separate campaign. The ruling in Buckley vs. Valeo made super PACs possible because it said not allowing people to spend money to try to sway the election is against the freedom speech. The ruling also allowed candidates to spend as much of their own money as they want. This is a game changer because richer candidates automatically have the upper hand because they can spend millions of dollars promoting themselves. Though super PACs don't directly give money to the candidates, they still use the money to advertise and support their candidate of choice, which gives that candidate an upper hand.

What is the major provision of the 1993 Motor Voter Act?

The Motor Voter Act requires states to permit people to register to vote at the same time they apply for their driver's license. Because registering to vote used to be an arduous process that discouraged many people from voting, this act was created to make voting registration easier. All people have to do is check a box on their driver's license application or renewal form.

What was the goal of the Simpson-Mazzoli Act?

The Simpson-Mazzoli act requires that employers document the citizenship of their employees. This was put in place to try to prevent illegal immigration by requiring workers to present proof of either citizenship or legal immigrant. This hasn't been very successful because it is hard to prove that employers accepted false social security cards and other documents. A controversial solution has been proposed to deny all governmental benefits to workers who cannot prove their citizenship or status as a legal immigrant.

What is the US census and how is it used in government?

The US census is designed to show how many people are in the US and where they live. The information is used to determine the number of representatives a state should have in the house. It allocates where school and legislative districts borders should be. It points to where schools, railroad tracks, and businesses should be.

Civic Duty

The belief that in order to support democratic government, a citizen should always vote.

Political Efficacy

The belief that one's political participation really matters- that one's vote can actually make a difference.

Public Opinion

The distribution of the population's beliefs about politics and policy issues.

What are the two reasons why the Electoral College is important to presidential elections?

The electoral college gives biased results because each state is given two electors regardless of the state's population, so largely populated states are underrepresented. Also, candidates will focus on the states with a close contest in polls because the winner takes all the votes from the state. These states are known as "swing states" because whichever candidate wins the state by a small percentage makes major gains in his or her chance of winning the election.

Minority Majority

The emergence of a non-caucasian majority, as compared with a white majority. It is predicted that by about 2045, Hispanic Americans, African Americans, and Asian Americans together will outnumber White Americans.

According to the text, what is the clearest way in which elections broadly affect public policy?

The greater the policy differences between the candidates, the more likely voters will be able to steer government policies by their choices. This doesn't always work out, however, because candidates can be ambiguous to try to encompass as many opinions about a topic as possible so those people will vote for him or her.

Mandate Theory of Elections

The idea that the winning candidate has a mandate from the people to carry out his or her platforms and politics. Politicians like the theory better than political scientists do.

What is the key to the accuracy of opinion polls?

The key to the accuracy of opinion polls is random sampling. Random sampling operates on the principle that everyone should have an equal probability of being selected. This means that anyone's chance of being polled is equal, no matter race, religion, or political affiliation. The people polled should accurately represent the population as a whole.

Suffrage

The legal right to vote, extended to African Americans by the Fifteenth Amendment, to women by the Nineteenth Amendment, and to people over the age of 18 by the Twenty-sixth Amendment.