AP LIT

exclamatory sentence type

An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses great emotion such as excitement, surprise, happiness and anger, and ends with an exclamation point.

oxymoron

An oxymoron is the conjunction of two words with meanings that contradict each other. While a paradox is the opposition of ideas or themes, an oxymoron is a contradiction merely between words. An example of oxymoron in literature can be found in William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. In the balcony scene, Juliet exclaims that Romeo's departure is "sweet sorrow."

characterization

Characterization is the description of a character's physical traits (how a character looks), point of view, personality, private thoughts, and actions.

Declarative Sentence Type

Declares or states something

foil

A character who is in most ways opposite to the main character (protagonist) or one who is nearly the same as the protagonist. The purpose of the foil character is to emphasize the traits of the main character by contrast only

epiphany

A moment of sudden revelation or insight

periodic sentence type

A periodic sentence is a sentence that has been deliberately structured to place the main point at the end. Therefore, a periodic sentence will have its main clause or predicate as the last part.

motif

A recurring theme, subject or idea

Onomatopoeia

A word that imitates the sound it represents.

Verbs useful for analysis

Imply/infer Suggest Highlight Demonstrate Accentuates Depicts Illustrates Points to Reveals Exposes Indicates Intimates Confirms Displays Establishes Validates Conflates

expository sentence type

"Expository" means "intended to explain or describe something." An expository sentence provides a clear, focused explanation of a particular topic, process, or set of ideas. It doesn't set out to prove a point, just to give a balanced view of its subject matter.

couplet

A couplet is a pair of two consecutive lines of verse that create a complete thought or idea, and are connected by rhythm and rhyme. They make a poem pop with their lyrical language and pacing. Poets use the quick pacing and brief language of couplets as a technique to make their poems memorable. Couplets express an idea in a concise, memorable statement. Poets use this finite narrative for: Rhythm. The quick pacing of a couplet brings energy to a poem. Imagery. Couplets can be colorfully written, creating an image in just a few words. Robert Frost told visual narratives through his poetry, often using rhyming couplets. Emphasis. A couplet emphasizes an idea by creating and resolving a thought in two lines. Shakespeare places couplets at choice moments in his plays to draw the reader's and audience's attention to that moment. Conclusion. Poets sometimes use couplets to signify the end of the poem and to leave a poem on a succinct note that leaves a lasting impression. The sonnet form consists of 14 lines of iambic pentameter with a couplet at the end, to conclude and summarize the poem.

synecdoche

A figure of speech in which a part is used for the whole (as hand for sailor), the whole for a part (as the law for police officer), the specific for the general (as cutthroat for assassin), the general for the specific (as thief for pickpocket), or the material for the thing made from it (as steel for sword).

interrogative sentence

A sentence that asks a question

tercet

A tercet is a stanza of poetry with three lines; it can be a single-stanza poem or it can be a verse embedded in a larger poem. With an odd number of lines, the tercet is less popular than the couplet (a two-line stanza) or the quatrain (a four-line stanza). The pace of a tercet is often slower, lending itself to a more somber tone. Tercets might be limited in language and lines, but there are advantages to writing poetry that incorporates this unique stanza. Enforce brevity. Poetry is already a concentrated narrative. Tercet poems enforce brevity even further. Like in a haiku, poets use minimal language to convey an idea or paint a picture in a tercet. The effect is a memorable poem that invites the reader to fill in the blanks. Build momentum. Tercets can help a poem flow better. The rhyme scheme of a terza rima, in particular, creates interlocking tercets which push the momentum of the narrative forward. Experiment with rhyme. Tercets are a good opportunity to experiment with different rhymes: the first line and last line can rhyme while the middle line can stand on its own.

volta

A turn of thought or argument in poetry is called the volta. It is a rhetorical shift. It is a dramatic change in emotions or thoughts that the speaker is expressing in the poem. It could be ironic as it reverses the meanings. It could be emblematic (symbolic), concessional, retrospective or argumentative. It mostly occurs in haikus, sijos, and sonnets. In a sonnet, the volta is the turn of thought or argument: in Petrarchan or Italian sonnetsit occurs between the octave and the sestet, and in Shakespearean or English before the final couplet. The Petrarchan volta occurs in Petrarchan sonnets. It refers to the device in which, as a poet projects the subject of the sonnet in the first quatrain, he makes it complicated in the second and completes it at the start of the second part of the sonnet. It is here that the turn or volta is inserted to resolve that problem. The Shakespearean volta happens in quatrains instead of at the end of the sestet. It happens by the third quatrain and gives a concise judgment or terseness of the issue discussed in the poem. Synonyms: turn, swerve, focus, emotional pitch

satire

A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule. Satire is a type of wit that is meant to mock human vices or mistakes, often through hyperbole, understatement, sarcasm, and irony. Nowadays, satirists most commonly use this form of humor to expose political missteps or social inadequacies in everyday life, sometimes with the goal of inspiring change. Political cartoons: Political cartoons usually offer biting political satire with a drawing that overexaggerates the actions of an elected official or any newsworthy figure, depicting a situation to make a cutting commentary. Sketch comedy: Sketch shows like Saturday Night Live have a long tradition of poking fun at elected officials, often overexaggerating their faults (especially self-righteous faults) through the use of humor.

antithesis

An antithesis is a figure of speech that juxtaposes two contrasting ideas. Unlike paradoxes, antitheses focus on the opposition of the opposing ideas. Neil Armstrong's statement when he stepped on the moon in 1969 is a good example of an antithesis: "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." The pairing of the small steps and giant steps accentuates the significance of the event—but there is no contradiction between the two ideas.

anaphora

Anaphora is the repetition of a word or sequence of words at the beginning of successive clauses, phrases, or sentences. It is one of many rhetorical devices used by orators and writers to emphasize their message or to make their words memorable. Rhythmic and repetitive, anaphora is a rhetorical device writers use to make any literary medium, from poetry to song lyrics, memorable. Give emphasis. Anaphora draws attention to the repeated words, as well as those directly around them. Create a rhythm. Judicious repetition can make a piece of text more musical and lilting, and therefore more pleasant to read or listen to. Link, compare, or contrast ideas. Sometimes the ideas that follow the successive repeated words are quite different. In these cases, anaphora invites the audience to appreciate the contrast more deeply.

colloquial

Characteristic of ordinary conversation rather than formal speech or writing

concession

Concession is a literary device used in argumentative writing, where one acknowledges a point made by one's opponent. It allows for different opinions and approaches toward an issue, indicating an understanding of what causes the actual debate or controversy. It demonstrates that the writer is a mature thinker, and has considered the issue from all angles. Concession writing style also shows that the writer is a logical and fair-minded person, able to realize that every argument has several sides to consider before it is presented. This type of writing can be considered strong as it finds common ground between the writer and his opponent.

Verbs to use (instead of "to be" and "shows")

Confirms Defines Suggests Implies Demonstrates Points to Assumes Accentuates Delineates Elicits Presumes Supports Undermines Conflates Contrats Establishes Intimates (imply or hint) Hints at Confirms Indicates Proposes Suggests Alludes to Attributes Differentiates Distorts Impels Portrays Overstates Rationalizes Disrupts Downplays Heightens Postulates

euphimism

Euphemism is a figure of speech commonly used to replace a word or phrase that is related to a concept which might make others uncomfortable. Euphemism refers to figurative language designed to replace phrasing that would otherwise be considered harsh, impolite, or unpleasant. This literary device allows for someone to say what they mean indirectly, without using literal language, as a way of softening the impact of what is being said. The reason for this would be for the sake of politeness, discretion, and other means of mitigating communication. Euphemisms are used for certain abstractions such as death, sex, aging, getting fired, bodily functions, and others. This figure of speech allows a writer to address potentially sensitive, offensive, or unpleasant subjects in a more delicate or less damaging manner than literal words or phrasings would be. In addition, euphemisms can add to the poetic nature of writing as a means of describing something in a more figurative manner. They can also elevate a writer's prose. Figurative language through euphemism can allow readers to feel less confronted as they might by harsh, literal wording. As a result, meaning is enhanced through figure of speech. Euphemism is often inherently humorous. In attempting to replace wording or phrasing that is impolite or offensive, euphemisms can range from being unclear to nonsensical. They have no meaning as stand alone phrases without the context of the literal abstraction. However, euphemisms can be a way for writers to incorporate the ridiculous in their writing as humor for the reader.

mood/tone/atmosphere

In literary analysis, tone is an author's attitude toward their subject matter. The author's tone in a literary work can reflect their personal opinion, or the tone can channel the feelings of a particular character. Authors convey tone through their word choice, punctuation, and sentence structure. tone words in your analysis: hopeful, bleak, romantic, cynical, sarcastic, solemn, fatalistic, nostalgic, dramatic, ardent, sullen, light-hearted or cheerful. While tone signifies an author's point of view, the mood of a piece of writing is the atmosphere of a piece and the overall feeling it conveys to the reader. While Charles Dickens's tone may be ironic, cynical, and clever in novels like Bleak House and Hard Times, but the mood he creates for his readers is dreary and intriguing. Authors convey mood through figurative language and literary devices, letting the reader feel whatever mood the writing evokes.

dramatic irony

Irony that occurs when the meaning of the situation is understood by the audience but not by the characters in the play. It is both a literary and theatrical device in which the reader or audience knows more than the characters they are following. The characters' actions have a different meaning for the audience than they do for the actors or characters, and this device often lends itself to tragedy. In literature, what the main characters do not know and the audience does works to create tension and suspense for the reader. When used in tragedies, dramatic irony is referred to as "tragic irony." Shakespeare often made good use of irony in his literary works, and the ending of Romeo and Juliet is an embodiment of dramatic irony; the audience knows that both lovers are alive, but neither of the lovers knows that the other is still alive. Each character drinks their poison without knowing what the audience knows.

parallelism

Phrases or sentences of a similar construction/meaning placed side by side, balancing each other. Parallelism is the repetition of grammatical elements in a piece of writing to create a harmonious effect. Sometimes, it involves repeating the exact same words, such as in the common phrases "easy come, easy go" and "veni, vidi, vici" ("I came, I saw, I conquered"). Other times, it involves echoing the pattern of construction, meter, or meaning. Writers sometimes use parallelism as a figure of speech that goes beyond just the grammatical structure of a sentence. They might repeat a word or several words at the start of successive clauses—a type of parallelism known as "anaphora." It's possible to also put opposite ideas into parallel positions within a sentence, bringing attention to their contrasting character. Writers use parallelism, alongside other literary devices such as assonance and alliteration, to create flow and rhythm. Parallelism is particularly popular among orators because it usually simplifies the structure of sentences, so the speaker can hold an audience's attention for longer and present their message in digestible terms. Parallelism also useful when a writer wants to emphasize the relationship between two or more ideas. It can set up a comparison or contrast between two things.

sarcasm

Sarcasm is an ironic remark meant to mock by saying something different than what the speaker really means. Since sarcastic statements run contradictory to the speaker's intent, they can often be difficult to identify in written English and usually rely on spoken-word verbal cues (such as a mocking tone of voice for emphatic effect) and context.

POV/narrative voice

The perspective from which a narrative is recounted, such as first-person, third-person omniscient, and third-person limited. In first person point of view, one of the characters is narrating the story. This is generally revealed by the "I" sentence construction and relies on first person pronouns.First person narrative can provide intimacy and a deeper look into a character's mind, but it is also limited by the perceptive abilities of the character. They are confined to report only what they would realistically know about the story, and they are further confined by their own perspective. Second person point of view is structured around the "you" pronoun, and is less common in novel-length work. Second person can allow you to draw your reader into the story and make them feel like they're part of the action because the narrator is speaking directly to them. Third person point of view. The author is narrating a story about the characters and refers to them with the third person pronouns "he/she." The omniscient narrator knows everything about the story and its characters. This third person narrator can enter anyone's mind, move freely through time, and give the reader their own opinions and observations as well as those of the characters. This narrator also knows more than the characters—think of the omniscient narrator as having a god's-eye-view of the characters. ("He had been infected with the virus, but he didn't know it yet.") The third person limited point of view is when an author sticks closely to one character but remains in third person. This style gives you the ability to be inside a character's thoughts, feelings, and sensations, which can give readers a deeper experience of character and scene. ("As she watched him leave, she was afraid he'd never come back.")

elegy

a poem of serious reflection, typically a lament for the dead.

anecdote

a short and amusing or interesting story about a real incident or person. Anecdote is defined as a short and interesting story, or an amusing event, often proposed to support or demonstrate some point, and to make the audience laugh. Anecdotes and humorous pieces are not only jokes, but exquisite literary devices as well. Their primary purpose is to stir up laughter, to disclose a truth in a general way, or to describe a feature of a character in such a way that it becomes humorous, and at the same time gives us a better understanding of the character. Anecdotes may also serve as cautions. Writers tell their readers about the possibilities of future happenings, in case they do not follow particular processes and techniques.

allusion

an expression designed to call something to mind without mentioning it explicitly; an indirect or passing reference. Allusions are used to develop characters, frame storylines, and help create associations to well-known works. Allusions can reference anything from Victorian fairy tales to popular culture, and from the Bible to the Bard. Allusions are used as stylistic devices to help contextualize a story by referencing a well-known person, place, event, or another literary work. These references do not have to be explicitly explained; more often than not, writers choose to let readers fill in the blanks. Writers can use allusions to build trust with their readers, contextualize characters, and to help disclose mysterious plot points. Here are some ways allusions can help to support a story: Character development. Using well-known figures as character inspiration can help to define characters and associate familiarity with the reader. For example, King Triton in The Little Mermaid bears resemblance to Poseidon, the god of the sea. Context. An allusion to another work can delineate differences or similarities between the two. The 1999 film The Matrix draws parallels with Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland. The film's protagonist, Neo, follows a character called the "White Rabbit Girl" to a mysterious underworld, much like Alice's journey to Wonderland. Exposition. Allusions can be used to help piece together thrillers or mysteries, offering readers clues that intimate other stories. In Charles Dickens's The Mystery of Edwin Drood, allusions to Shakespeare's Macbethforeshadows the story's plot and the motivations of its characters.

archaism

archaic diction. archaism is a figure of speech in which a used phrase or word is considered very old fashioned and outdated. It can be a word, a phrase, a group of letters, spelling, or syntax. Sentences that may be considered examples of archaism will most probably contain words like "thine" and "thou." The role of archaism in history is to suggest a superior, but maybe mythical, ancient golden age. Also, it can be used for creating humorand irony. However, the most effective use of archaism is in poetry. The sound patterns of archaic words are helpful when it comes to assonance, alliteration, and rhyme scheme.

subordinate clauses

does not express a complete thought and cannot stand by itself as a complete sentence

overstatement

hyperbole/exaggeration Overstatement is an act of stating something more profoundly than it actually is, in order to make the point more serious or important or beautiful. In literature, writers use overstatement as a literary technique for the sake of humor, and for laying emphasis on a certain point.

verbal irony

irony in which a person says or writes one thing and means another, or uses words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of the literal meaning. Verbal irony is when a character says something that is different from what he or she really means, or how he or she really feels. This is the only type of irony where a character creates the irony. Verbal irony would occur if a character walked out into a horrible blizzard and said, "What nice weather we're having!"

situational irony

irony involving a situation in which actions have an effect that is opposite from what was intended, so that the outcome is contrary to what was expected. Situational irony occurs when there is a difference between what is expected to happen and what actually happens. For example, a fire station burning down is a case of situational irony. If a police officer were conducting a gun safety course and accidentally shot himself in the foot during the class, that would be situational irony.

metaphysical conceit

sets up an analogy between one entity's spiritual qualities and an object in the physical world and sometimes controls the whole structure of the poem A metaphysical conceit is a complex, and often lofty literary device that makes a far-stretched comparison between a spiritual aspect of a person and a physical thing in the world. Quite simply, a metaphysical conceit is an extended metaphor, which can sometimes last through the entire poem. A metaphysical conceit works to connect the reader's sensory perceptions to abstract ideas. Metaphysical Conceit = is an extended metaphor with a complex logic that governs a poetic passage or entire poem. It usually sets up an analogy between one entity's spiritual qualities and an object in the physical world and sometimes controls the whole structure of the poem.

alliteration

the occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words it injects focus, harmony, and rhythm. In alliteration, the words should flow in quick succession. Assonance is a related literary term that refers specifically to the repetition of vowel sounds, be they in the beginning, middle or end of words. Another related term is consonance—the equivalent repetition of consonant sounds in successive words. Alliteration is considered a subcategory of consonance since it refers only to sounds repeated at the beginning of words. These literary devices can be used alone or in combination to enliven poetry, prose or spoken speech.

equivocation

the use of ambiguous language to conceal the truth or to avoid committing oneself; prevarication. the use of vague language to hide one's meaning or to avoid committing to a point of view. It's often used by dishonest politicians who want to seem like they agree with everyone. It can also be used in legal contexts, for example where a defendant wants to avoid admitting guilt, but also does not want to lie openly - so they use equivocation to escape the true answer. The two essential elements of equivocation are: Ambiguous language, An effort (conscious or unconscious) to deceive others

modifying phrases

using adjectives, adverbs, and groups of words to describe, better explain, define, identify or enhance the understanding of unfamiliar terms A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies—that is, gives information about—another word in the same sentence. For example, in the following sentence, the word "burger" is modified by the word "vegetarian": ... The modifier "vegetarian" gives extra information about what kind of burger it is.

imagery (five types)

visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory. the use of figurative language to evoke a sensory experience in the reader. When a poet uses descriptive language well, they play to the reader's senses, providing them with sights, tastes, smells, sounds, internal and external feelings, and even internal emotion. The sensory details in imagery bring works to life.In poetry, imagery is a vivid and vibrant form of description that appeals to readers' senses and imagination. Despite the word's connotation, "imagery" is not focused solely on visual representations or mental images—it refers to the full spectrum of sensory experiences, including internal emotions and physical sensations. Imagery allows the reader to clearly see, touch, taste, smell, and hear what is happening—and in some cases even empathize with the poet or their subject. Whether it's the classical sonnets of Shakespeare or the searing social commentary from poets in the African diaspora like Langston Hughes, imagery beautifies and intensifies the poetic work. There are seven main types of imagery in poetry. Poets create imagery by using figures of speech like simile (a direct comparison between two things); metaphor(comparison between two unrelated things that share common characteristics); personification (giving human attributes to nonhuman things); and onomatopoeia (a word that mimics the natural sound of a thing). Here are the seven types of imagery in poetry, with examples. Visual imagery. In this form of poetic imagery, the poet appeals to the reader's sense of sight by describing something the speaker or narrator of the poem sees. It may include colors, brightness, shapes, sizes, and patterns. To provide readers with visual imagery, poets often use metaphor, simile, or personification in their description. Auditory imagery. This form of poetic imagery appeals to the reader's sense of hearing or sound. It may include music and other pleasant sounds, harsh noises, or silence. In addition to describing a sound, the poet might also use a sound device like onomatopoeia, or words that imitate sounds, so reading the poem aloud recreates the auditory experience. In this form of poetic imagery, the poet appeals to the reader's sense of taste by describing something the speaker or narrator of the poem tastes. It may include sweetness, sourness, saltiness, savoriness, or spiciness. This is especially effective when the poet describes a taste that the reader has experienced before and can recall from sense memory. Tactile imagery. In this form of poetic imagery, the poet appeals to the reader's sense of touch by describing something the speaker of the poem feels on their body. It may include the feel of temperatures, textures, and other physical sensations. Olfactory imagery. In this form of poetic imagery, the poet appeals to the reader's sense of smell by describing something the speaker of the poem inhales. It may include pleasant fragrances or off-putting odors. Kinesthetic imagery. In this form of poetic imagery, the poet appeals to the reader's sense of motion. It may include the sensation of speeding along in a vehicle, a slow sauntering, or a sudden jolt when stopping, and it may apply to the movement of the poem's speaker/narrator or objects around them. Organic imagery. In this form of poetic imagery, the poet communicates internal sensations such as fatigue, hunger, and thirst as well as internal emotions such as fear, love, and despair.

discourse

written or spoken communication or debate

consonance

Repetition of a consonant sound within two or more words in close proximity.

assonance

Repetition of a vowel sound within two or more words in close proximity

epigrammatic sentence type

Something that's epigrammatic is short and clever. An aphorism or maxim — a witty, concise saying — is epigrammatic.Epigrams as Witty Statements Within Poetry and Prose Any stanza that adheres to the basic definition of anepigram—short, witty, dedicated to a single subject or observation—may also be considered anepigramor an "epigrammaticstanza," even if the stanza just a part of a much longer poem.

dialogue

The conversation between characters in a work of literature. Reveal emotions Draw the reader into the characters' lives Show the reader how the character reacts to different situations, such as pressure, intimacy, hate, love or fear Move the story forward - every piece of dialogue should have a purpose Hint at or tell of coming events Give balance to a story after a long section of narrative Increase the pace of the story Contribute humour Reflect the changes in emotions and lifestyle of your characters

paradox

a contradiction that questions logic. In literature, a paradox is a literary device that contradicts itself but contains a plausible kernel of truth. paradoxes can elicit humor, illustrate themes, and provoke readers to think critically.

dramatic monologue

a poem in the form of a speech or narrative by an imagined person, in which the speaker inadvertently reveals aspects of their character while describing a particular situation or series of events.

connotation

an idea or feeling that a word invokes in addition to its literal or primary meaning.

brevity

concise and exact use of words in writing or speech: succinctness, compendiousness, briefness, pithiness, laconism, pointedness, concision

discursive

digressing from subject to subject: rambling, digressive, meandering, wandering, maundering, diffuse, long, lengthy, circuitous, roundabout, circumlocutory, periphrastic, verbose, long winded, prolix, wordy

imperative sentence

gives a command

pastoral

having to do with the country/rural life

terseness

neatly or effectively concise; brief and pithy

Juxtoposition

placement of two things closely together to emphasize similarities or differences

elipsis

the deliberate omission of a word or words from a sentence that do not prevent the meaning from being understood Ellipsis is the narrative device of omitting a portion of the sequence of events, allowing the reader to fill in the narrative gaps.

speculation

the forming of a theory or conjecture without firm evidence