AP Psych (collegeboard videos)

Which brain structure filters and relays sensory information to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex? Which sense doesn't go through this area? Which lobes of the brain contain this brain structure?

Thalamus, olfaction (smell), frontal

Motivated forgetting

The conscious or unconscious act of eliminating the awareness of painful or unacceptable thoughts and experiences

Self-centeredness

Thinking about your own wants and needs, not those of others

Is this an example of classical conditioning? If so, list the stimuli and responses Siggy is a very good dog. He has learned that when a certain kitchen cabinet opens, he will receive a treat. If he hears that cabinet open, he runs to the kitchen.

This response, as written, is not a classical conditioning example, because running is not a reflex

John B. Watson's "Little Albert" experiment classical conditioning

US: loud noise UR: fear NS: white rat CS: white rat CR: fear

Experimenter Bias

Use a double blind technique (Experimenter or researcher doesn't know which participant is in which group)

Premack's Principle

Using a behavior, which is preferred by an individual to increase the likelihood that another behavior that is not preferred will occur

Treatment Orientation Cognitive-Behavioral

Utilizes both cognitive methods and behavioral methods that directly attempt to replace or eliminate maladaptive actions and thoughts

Operant Conditioning: responses

Voluntary

circadian rhythm

a 24-25 hour biological clock related to the sleep and wake cycle involving changes in hormones, blood pressure, and internal temperature (light from outside hits retina and sends information to suprachiasmatic nucleus, which sends information to pineal gland... if it's light out, stop melatonin production (hormone that makes you sleepy) and if it's dark, to start producing melatonin

Prodigy

a child who has an amazing ability (expert adult-like ability)

Sensory Adaptation

a decrease in sensitivity to a constant level of stimulation

Achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard

Corpus callosum

a group of nerve fibers that relay information between the 2 halves of the brain

Visual Cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

Sensory adaptation

a reduction of the response of the sensory receptors due to continual exposure (you stop noticing that your phone is in your pocket and you look for it but it's right there... same with sunglasses on your head)

Consciousness

a state of awareness about one's internal thoughts and one's environment

Discriminative stimulus

a stimulus that indicates if a voluntary behavior is demonstrated a reinforcement will or will not result

Polygenic

a trait is caused by more than one gene

Emotion-focused coping

a type of coping in which people try to prevent having an emotional response to a stressor (like by practicing medication)

Escape conditioning

a voluntary behavior causes an aversive stimulus to stop, which causes the individual to repeat that behavior in the future

Avoidance conditioning

a voluntary behavior prevents an aversive stimulus from happening, which causes the individual to repeat that behavior in the future (before it even shows up)

Unconditional Positive Regard

according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person

Teratogens

agents, such as drugs and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Peg Word Mnemonic

allows you to memorize a series of words, especially ones you want to memorize in order

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, practical intelligence

Specific Phobia

anxiety is directed at a specific object (like heights or spiders)

Sleep cycle

approximately 90-minute repeating pattern of NREM and REM stages that occur during sleep... each stage has distinctive brain wave activity

Basal Ganglia

area in our brain related to creating goal-oriented movement and involved in procedural or "how to" memories... receives input from the cortex but doesn't send messages back out

Echoic Memory

auditory sensory store... sounds can be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.... When someone asks you a question and you say "What did you say?", then you realize you know what the question is, because the memory is still there

Beta waves

awake and alert

Modeling therapy

based on social-cognitive theory of Albert Bandura.. Involves helping individuals learn to cope with their mental illness by watching and mimicking a person who's successful

Neurons

basic building block of nervous system

Gender

behavior patterns deemed appropriate for men (masculine behaviors) and women (feminine behaviors)

Biofeedback therapy

behavioral treatment for anxiety where a person uses a monitoring device to monitor their physiological activity and allows them to gain greater control over their autonomic nervous system (breathing and heart rate) as a way to reduce their stress response

Spermarche

boys' first ejaculation

Central Nervous System

brain and spinal cord

Still Face Experiment

caregiver is advised to suddenly look blankly (with no emotion) while playing with child at their child to see how their child reacts; shows an infants attachment to them

Etiology

cause or causes of a condition or disease

Those with an intellectual disability might have reduced ability to think abstractly and social abilities and practical abilities. List the practical skills

centers on self-management in areas such as personal care, job responsibilities, money management, recreation, and organizing school and work tasks

Bulimia Nervosa

characterized by binging (periods of excessive overeating) followed by purging (vomiting or other measures to remove/reduce the intake)

Convergent thinking

choosing the most efficient and logical solution from a list of many solutions

Psychological Disorders

collection of behaviors and mental processes

Loci Mnemonic "Memory Palace"

connecting a series of items you want to remember with a series of locations in a familiar place (neighborhood or rooms in your house)

Somatosensory cortex

controls how things feel to the touch like pain or pressure or temperature to the touch (like cold to the touch... NOT if you have a fever)

Emotional intelligence

controversial form of intelligence in the field of psychology... it's similar to Gardner's multiple intelligences and highlights the importance of intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence (Self-awareness, empathy, cooperation, self-control)

Myelin Sheath

covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses

Classical Conditioning: goal

create a new involuntary response to a neutral stimulus

Shaping

creating a new voluntary response by providing reinforcements for successively closer approximations of the desired new action → Training a dog to shake his paw and uses treats whenever he gets closer and closer to doing it

Elaborative Rehearsal

deep processing, attaching numerous associations and making applications, relating to prior knowledge, self-reference effect (taking new info and trying to think of ways that it applies to you personally... very powerful way to improve memory), visual imagery (not same as visual encoding)

Semantic Encoding

deep processing... creates more durable memories and easiest to retrieve.. Putting info into memory system by emphasizing meaning... rephrasing or meaningfully connecting things existing to knowledge

Delta waves

deep stage 3 steep

Construct validity

degree to which the test accurately measures what it was designed to measure... for example, how can the abstract idea of intelligence be translated into something that can be measured?

Androgyny

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics

Alpha waves

dominant when awake and relaxed (like during meditation)

Flynn Effect

each generation seems to score higher and higher on scores even when the tests are adjusted

Somatic Symptom Disorder

extreme health anxiety and individual would report one or more symptoms... impairs functioning

Placenta

filter between developing baby and what's going on in mother's system

Anorexia Nervosa

food refusal, fear of weight gain, people typically take excessive weight loss measures, below normal body weight

Terminal branches of axon

form junctions with other cells

Savant

having a genius-like ability in a narrow area (ability to instantly calculate square roots)

Phantom pain

having a sensation in a limb you no longer have

Operational definition

how do we make thoughts observable and measurable

Self-esteem

how much you value, respect, and feel confident about yourself

Gender expression/typing

how you demonstrate your gender based on traditional gender roles

Orexin

hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus

Egocentrism

idea that a young child has difficulty with the idea that others don't know what he knows

Critical period

if it's not learned at this point in time, it's not going to be learned

Serial-position effect

if you have a list of items to remember, you have a tendency to remember the beginning and the end

Recency effect

if you remember ONLY the beginning of a list, you call that the primary effect, and if you remember ONLY the end

Operant Conditioning: goal

increase or decrease the rate of a voluntary behavior

dissociative amnesia

individual has partial or complete inability to remember autobiographical personal information that is caused by an extremely traumatic event

Gender identity

individual's sense of being male or female (regardless of what their physical sex is)

Schizophrenia Personality Disorder

individuals who are emotionally and socially detached, often have unusual behaviors, similar to schizophrenia but less severe

Avoidant Personality Disorder

individuals who are excessively shy in social situations and very afraid of being evaluated negatively

Maintenance Rehearsal

intermediate processing, repetition without meaning

Acoustic Encoding

intermediate processing... creates a more durable memory... putting info into sequence of sounds... based on how it sounds

State-dependent memory

internal physiological condition (hunger, thirst, pain) correlates to recall

Classical Conditioning: responses

involuntary or an emotion

Antisocial Personality Disorder

involves individuals who consistently violate the rights of others... often are impulsive, ruthless, and lack a conscience

Linguistic determinism

language determines the way we think

Habituation

learning that involves a decrease in responsiveness to stimuli after exposure

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov/Watson): acquisition

learning through repeated pairings of the NS and the US to create a CR

Operant Conditioning (Skinner): acquisition

learning through repeated pairings of voluntary actions and their consequences (Reinforcement or punishments)

Broca's aphasia

left frontal lobe of brain near motor cortex... person with damaged Broca's aphasia would struggle to speak words but still able to understand language

Persistent Depressive Disorder

less severe in symptoms, lasts for longer than 2 years, most individuals with depression would fall into this category

Operant Conditioning: associative learning:

linking a behavior to a consequence

Bipolar 1 Disorder

major depressive episode and manic episode... can result in significant risk

Bipolar 2 Disorder

major depressive episode but manic episode would be less extreme

Predictive validity

measure of how well a test predicts future performance... for example, the SAT has a high predictive validity if the data set is large enough... if 100,000 people take the SAT, those who score higher will, on average, do better in college... predictive validity tests lose their accuracy as the data set gets smaller or if it's used to predict a single individual

Criterion validity

measures how well the test correlates with the outcome... does the test match an independent measure? For example, if a student is a genius on an online test but consistently misspells the word "intelligence", the online test has low criterion validity

Learned helplessness

mental state involving a loss of control and reduced efforts because previous attempts to end a punishment were not effective

Sensitive period

more flexible... you don't HAVE to learn a second language when you turn like 3 years old... but it's just HARDER to learn when you're older

Gilal Cells

neural cells that don't carry action potential.. Makes myelin, which helps speed up the message

Which neurotransmitter is also a hormone?

norepinephrine

Bottom-Up Processing

noticing the individual aspects and assembling them into a coherent whole (trees: notice each branch and each leaf, and then see tree as a whole)

Panic Disorder

occurs when an individual has frequent, unexpected panic attacks and spend a lot of time worrying about subsequent panic attacks.. Panic attack itself isn't a disorder but it's a symptom... panic disorders can sometimes happen for no reason

Proactive interference

old info blocks recall of new info → You can't remember your new phone number and you can only remember old → Your old memory of the Pythagorean Theorem from 8th grade prevents (interferes) you from remembering more recently learned formulas →Deanna is frustrated because she can't remember her new locker combination because her old locker combination is blocking the recall of her new combination.

Overlearning

once you've mastered something, you still keep practicing... helps make memory durable and helps you overcome stress

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

one of the best intelligence tests and assesses a range of intellectual abilities in verbal comprehension, reasoning, working memory, and processing speed

Classical conditioning (Pavlov/Watson): Stimulus Discrimination

organisms learn to involuntarily respond only to the CS

Classical conditioning (Pavlov/Watson): Stimulus Generalization

organisms learn to involuntarily respond to stimuli like the CS

Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Stimulus Generalization

organisms learn to voluntarily respond to stimuli like the original stimulus

Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Stimulus Discrimination

organisms learn to voluntary respond only to original stimulus

Fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

Affiliation motivation

our drive to relate to other people and to form attachments with them

Retrograde Amnesia

partial or complete inability to remember events that happened before the trauma/disease (retro means before) --> Ex: A worker fell off a ladder and hit his head, causing a concussion. He can't remember what happened just before the fall due to the injury.

Amensia

partial or total loss of memory due to an injury or illness

Axon

passes messages away from cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands

Spinal cord

pathway for neural fibers traveling to and from brain; controls single reflexes

Borderline Personality Disorder

people who have difficulty in relationships and highly unstable moods, self-image, impulsive

Binge Eating Disorder

periods of extreme overeating (binge periods) but without purging behaviors

Epinephrine

produced by the adrenal glands so it is a hormone, but it also exists in the brain and is a neurotransmitter

Encoding Specificity Principle

pulling stuff out of memory is easier if you are getting certain hints

Encoding

putting into into memory → EX: typing your document

Dendrites

receive messages from other cells

Experimental group

receive the independent variable

Temporal lobes

recognizes faces

Those with an intellectual disability might have reduced ability to think abstractly and social abilities and practical abilities. List the social abilities

refers to empathy, social judgment, interpersonal communication skills, the ability to make and retain friendships, and similar capabilities

Pancreas

regulates the level of sugar in the blood

Storing

retaining info in memory → EX: hitting the 'save' button

Classical conditioning (Pavlov/Watson): spontaneous recovery

return of an extinguished CR without being paired with the US

Operant conditioning (Skinner): spontaneous recovery

return of an extinguished voluntary behavior without a consequence

Genius

scoring 2 standard deviations above mean

Top-Down Processing

seeing the whole picture then noticing individual aspects of that perception (song or forest) → we mostly do top-down

Agoraphobia

severe anxiety and fear of open spaces and wide-open because they fear that they won't be able to escape and that they won't get help if they need it

Visual Encoding

shallow processing that involves putting info into your memory system by its appearance, emphasizing physical structure

Those with an intellectual disability might have reduced ability to think abstractly and social abilities and practical abilities. List the abstract abilities

skills in language, reading, writing, math, reasoning, knowledge, and memory

Theta waves

slow regular waves of light sleep

Which aspect of the peripheral nervous system is associated with voluntary movement of the skeletal muscles?

somatic

Placebo pain

something is wrong, but body turns it off or ignores it

Secondary Reinforcer

stimulus that has learned value (has to be learned) → Ex: money, tokens, attention, praise, status or removal of exclusion or ridicule

Primary Reinforcer

stimulus that is naturally or innately rewarding → Ex: food, air, warmth, water, or removal of pain or discomfort

Epigenetics

study of changes in gene expression due from non genetic causes

Substance withdrawal

substance-specific problems resulting from ending or reducing the use of the drug

Negative punishment

subtracting or removing a stimulus after a voluntary behavior that makes the behavior less likely to occur again → Erin fumbles the ball during practice so she loses her starting position in the next game → 9-year-old Nina keeps slamming the door to her room. One day when Nina came home from school, she realized her dad had removed the door from her bedroom. After the door was returned 2 weeks later, Nina never slammed her door again.

Negative reinforcement

subtracting or removing a stimulus, after a voluntary action that makes the behavior more likely to occur again -Ex: Savannah hates spiders and finds a spider in her room and screams. When she screams, her dad comes into her room and kills the spider. The next time Savannah sees a spider, she screams -Behavior increases

Substance Intoxication

symptoms that are due to current use including disturbances in ood, perception, cognition, behavior

Glands

system of hormones that are going through the bloodstream and are attached to different parts of the body

Self-report bias

systematic errors that can occur in self-report data because participants are unable or unwilling to answer accurately

Retrieving

taking info out of memory → EX: you can go back to google docs and pull out that document

REM rebound

tendency for REM sleep to increase if you're following a night where you had REM deprivation

Overconfidence bias

tendency for a person to place too much faith in his or her opinion even if there is no reasonable explanation... for example, a gambler tends to continue betting even though he or she has lost the last 10 hands at a poker game

Anchoring bias

tendency to jump to conclusions by thinking of an improbably, but scary solution rather than the reasonable outcome. For example, many people are afraid of flying, even though driving is more dangerous, and therefore choose to take a long car ride instead of flying

Confirmation bias

tendency to look for information that confirms an existing belief. For example, consider how people choose to view news sources that agree with their opinion

Availability bias

tendency to rely on readily available information and find a solution that is easy. For example, when you lose your keys, you probably keep looking in the same location because that is where the keys were found in the past

Hindsight bias

tendency to see past events as predictable, called the "I knew it all along" effect. For example, after watching a football game, a fan might claim that he knew the coach decision would be wrong even if the fan didn't think so originally

Belief Perseverance

tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

Pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

Spotlight effect

the belief that others are paying more attention to our appearance and behavior than they really are

Sex

the biological differences that distinguish males from females

Embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month of pregnancy when cells differentiate

Neurogenesis

the development of new neurons

Group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group

Menarche

the first menstrual period

Cerebrum

the largest area of the brain including, the surface (cortex) and subcortical regions in each of the 2 hemispheres... functions include language, complex thought, consciousness, and sensory and motor processing

Absolute threshold

the lowest level of a stimulus that we can RELIABLY notice

Law Pragnanz

the mind (or we) prefers and automatically perceives things in the simplest way → like seeing a smiling face instead of two circles, one arc, and a big circle

Stream of Consciousness

the mind experiences thought as a flow of ever-changing sensations, emotions, and ideas... this view contradicts the idea of thought consisting of stable components in structuralism

Mere exposure effect

the more you see something, the more you will probably remember it and like it

Transduction

the process of turning environmental energy, to neural energy, to perception, to thought

Bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Cornea

the transparent outer covering of the eye

Von Restorff (distinctiveness effect)

the unique things in a list that you remember... like if you have a shopping list and there's one thing on the list that is unique and strange, you are likely to remember it

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

Divergent thinking

thinking of multiple solutions → Think of as many uses of a paper clip as you can

Primary sexual characteristics

traits specifically related for reproduction (enlargement of sex organs, starting to produce eggs and sperm)

Dissociative Identity Disorder

two or more distinct personalities in the same individual and recurring gaps in memory... used to be called "Multiple Personality Disorder" but isn't the same as schizophrenia

Personal fable

type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and invincible and protected from harm

Lateral thinking

using a different process to think differently

Autism spectrum disorder

varying degrees in communication, social interactions... individuals may have difficulty with language, social and cognitive development, unresponsiveness, rigid and repetitive behaviors

Major Depressive Disorder

very severe in symptoms that last for 2 weeks

Iconic Memory

visual sensory story... images can be recalled within less than a second... when you close your eyes, your brain holds on to that last image you saw for a little bit longer

Aversive conditioning

way to remove a negative behavior by making an association between the behavior you want to remove and the negative experience (like trying to prevent nail biting by painting a sour-tasting substance on nails and then whenever they bite their nails, they get that sour taste and eventually stop biting their nails)

Gestalt

ways that our brain/mind automatically, unconsciously organizes incoming, afferent (signals that come to mind) sensory information → this is how we perceive the world

Facial mimicry

we tend to automatically mimic emotional facial expressions

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov/Watson): extinction

weakening of a CR because the CS is no longer paired with the US

Classical Conditioning (Skinner): extinction

weakening of a learned voluntary response when a consequence is no longer provided

Conversion Disorder (Functional Neurological Disorder)

when person loses control over voluntary motor responses or some sort of sensory (like deafness) but without medical reason... possible that there is an underlying medical condition

Face validity

when the construction of the test is consistent in meaning and interpretation... for example, the AP Psych exam curriculum is divided into units... does the exam have a proportional number of questions to match the curriculum goals?

Content validity

when the test has relevant and pertinent elements that are representative of the construct... for example, does the test ask about all the things that fall into the area that the test should be asking?

Source amnesia

when you can't remember where you heard that your friend got into college

Instinctive drift

without regular conditioning, animals will revert back to their instinctive behaviors

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

worry is continual worry about various issues... spread out

Social Anxiety Disorder

worry is triggered by fear of being negatively evaluated by others... fear of embarrassment... tending to avoid social situations

Source monitoring error

you think you saw something on the news, but you actually saw it in a comedy TV show... you confused your source

Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning: Goal

→ CC: create a new involuntary response to a neutral stimulus → OC: increase or decrease the rate of a voluntary behavior

Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning: responses

→ CC: involuntary or an emotion → OC: voluntary

Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning: associative learning

→ CC: linking different stimuli → OC: linking a behavior to a consequence

Night terrors

→ Description: appearing terrified, talking nonsense, sitting up, or walking around during NREM-3 sleep, different from nightmares → Effects: Doubling of a child's heart and breathing rates during the attack.. Children remember little or nothing of the fearful event the next day... as people age, night terrors become more rare

Sleepwalking and sleeptalking

→ Description: doing normal waking activities (sitting up, walking, speaking) while alseep.. Sleeptalking can occur during any sleep stage... sleepwalking happens in NREM-3 sleep → Effects: few serious concerns... sleepwalkers return to their beds on their own or with the help of a family member, rarely remembering their trip the next morning

Insomnia

→ Description: ongoing difficulty falling or staying asleep → Effects: chronic tiredness... reliance on sleeping pills and alcohol, which reduce REM sleep and lead to tolerance (state in which increasing doses are needed to produce an effect)

Sleep apnea

→ Description: stopping breathing repeatedly while sleeping → Effects: fatigue and depression (as a result of slow-wave sleep deprivation)... associated with obesity (especially among men)

Narcolepsy

→ Description: sudden attacks of overwhelming sleepiness → Effects: risk of falling asleep at a dangerous moment... attacks usually last less than 5 minutes, but they can happen at the worst and most emotional times... everyday activities, such as driving, require extra caution

Short-Term memory

→ Durability of 3-12 seconds → Magic number is 7 (btwn 5 and 9) → Capacity is limited → Chunking! Put info into groups

Jimmy Schmidlap doesn't think that a temporary interruption to one of his school years should throw off his academic goals and plans. He thinks that watching review videos and practicing FRQ's will lead to a good score on the AP Exam. What are the independent variable and the dependent variable?

→ IV: watching the videos and practicing FRQ's → DV: good score on the AP Exam

Long-term memory

→ Just because you can't pull something out of your long-term memory doesn't mean that it's not there... you just can't reach it → Capacity is unlimited

Signal Detection Theory

→ Motivation to notice (you gotta want it) → Ability to notice (maybe you didn't notice the sink full of dirty dishes)

A police dog has been conditioned to respond to verbal commands given by his trainer. The dog, however, learns to react only to the command words if they are provided by his trainer and not other individuals. Which best explains what is happening? What type of conditioning is this?

→ Stimulus discrimination → Operant: dog is responding voluntarily

LSD

→ Type: hallucinogen → Pleasurable Effects: visual "trip" → Negative After Effects: risk of panic

Marijuana (THC)

→ Type: mild hallucinogen → Pleasurable Effects: enhanced sensation, relief of pain, distortion of time, relaxation → Negative After Effects: impaired learning and memory, increased risk of psychological disorders

Methamphetamine

→ Type: stimulant → Pleasurable Effects: euphoria, alertness, energy → Negative After Effects: irritability, insomnia, hypertension, seizures

Cocaine

→ Type: stimulant → Pleasurable Effects: rush of euphoria, confidence, energy → Negative After Effects: cardiovascular stress, suspiciousness, depressive crash

Ecstasy (MDMA)

→ Type: stimulant, mild hallucinogen → Pleasurable Effects: emotional elevation, disinhibition → Negative After Effects: dehydration, overheating, depressed mood, impaired cognitive and immune functioning

Is this an example of classical conditioning? If so, list the stimuli and responses Earlier in the summer, Jean vomited after riding a roller coaster called Daredevil with many loops and steep drops. Later in the summer, when she returns to the amusement park, she finds that when she sees the sign for the Daredevil ride, her stomach feels queasy.

→ US: Daredevil ride motion → UR: vomit → NS: seeing the ride → CS: seeing the ride → CR: queasy feeling

Is this an example of classical conditioning? If so, list the stimuli and responses Lucia went to see a comedian perform live and laughed through almost the entire show. Now whenever she sees the logo for the theater where she saw the comedian, she smiles

→ US: comedy show → UR: laughs → NS: club logo → CS: club logo → CR: smiles

Is this an example of classical conditioning? If so, list the stimuli and responses Michelle accidentally got hairspray in her eyes, which caused her to cringe from the pain. Now when she is getting a haircut, she cringes when the hairdresser picks up the hairspray.

→ US: hairspray in eyes → UR: cringe → NS: hairspray bottle → CS: hairspray bottle → CR: cringe

Pavlov's Meat Powder and Dogs classical conditioning

→ US: meat powder, UR: salivation, NS: tone, CS: tone, CR: Salivation → US: what dog naturally salivated to → NS: something that dogs don't naturally salivated, but since it's paired with the meat powder, dog will learn → UR and CR will be same or similar and a reflex or an emotion

Is this an example of classical conditioning? If so, list the stimuli and responses Siggy is a very good dog. He has learned that when a certain kitchen cabinet opens, he will receive a treat. Having a treat makes his heart race, and he feels happy. After a while, every time he hears that cabinet open, his heart races, and he is happy.

→ US: treat → UR: heart race/happy → NS: cabinet opening sound → CS: cabinet opening sound → CR: heart race/happy

John B. Watson's "Little Albert" experiment

→ Unconditioned response: Fear → Conditioned response: Fear → Classical conditioning can be used to create a fear in an individual → The 2 responses are going to be the same or similar if classical conditioning happened and learning occurred, and both are going to be involuntary → Conditioned: learned → Unconditioned: unlearned reaction → Unconditioned stimulus: something that naturally causes that response (fear) → Conditioned response: result of a stimulus that Little Albert had to learn to fear → Unconditioned stimulus in Albert Experiment: loud noise → Neutral stimulus: white rat → Neutral stimulus and conditioned stimulus will be the same if learning occurred

How might classical conditioning explain how a person could develop a phobia of dogs?

→ Unconditioned stimulus: dog bite → Unconditioned response: fear → Neutral stimulus: seeing a dog → Conditioned stimulus: seeing a dog → Conditioned response: fear

Parasympathetic nervous system

-"Rest and digest" -rests and calms body, increases digestion processes, slow heart rate

Authoritarian parents

-"because i said so" -strict and not willing to take input from the children -parents are rigid and expect obedience -rules are set without consulting the child -child is generally unsociable and withdrawn

pituitary gland

-"master gland", secretes many different hormones, some of which affect other glands -Endocrine gland located below the cortex and below hypothalamus and releases growth hormone and a lot of other hormones -controlled by hypothalamus -master endocrine gland

Stage 5 of Erik Erikson's Psychosocial theory of Development

-13-18/20 years -Identitiy vs Role Confusion -Value: Fidelity -Identity: based on previous stages, the adolescent learns to transition from childhood to adulthood by reexamining his identity and determining where he fits best in society... this is the time of experimenting with different aspects of one's life (friends, groups music preferences, political views, and societal norms) -Role Confusion: can be the most stressful period if one's lifetime because the teen is examining sexual and occupational identities... if the adolescent is unable to properly form an internal sense of self, it can lead to not being able to accept oneself or others

Pre-Conventional

-1st stage of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development -Based on consequence (Heinz should not steal because he will get in trouble) -Based on self-interest (Heinz should steal because his wife will owe him a favor)

Sensorimotor Stage

-1st stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development -Infancy (birth to 2 years) -Infants construct an understanding of the world through physical actions (like motor skills) and their sense (see, touch, feel, hear, and smell) -Newborns begin with instinctual reflexes and gradually progress toward developing schemas based on their immediate physical surroundings -By 8-12 months, infants can grasp concept of object permanence (recognizing that objects exist even when removed from sight)

Stage 6 of Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Theory of Development

-20-40 years -Intimacy vs Isolation -Value: love -Intimacy: adult learns to intimately share himself with someone else (partnerships, marriage, or friendships)... Eriskon states that in order to have a successful intimate relationship, the person must first have a strong sense of self -Isolation: adult can't be intimate until he has resolved the "Who am I?" question from the previous stage... if not successfully masters, the adult may have difficulty developing and maintaining successful relationships with others

Big 5 Model of Traits- Extraversion- High vs Low Score

-Low: can be quiet and withdrawn.. Doesn't start a convo -High: outgoing, enjoys being social and seeks new friends and enjoy small task

Preoperational Stage

-2nd stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development -Early childhood (2-7 years) -Children are center of their universe (egocentrism) until 5 years old -Preoperational children focus on symbolic thoughts, imitation, play, drawings, and imagination -Children use words to represent objects symbolically, and although their language sounds like adults, they can't yet think and reason the same as adults -About 5-6 years old: children understand law of conservation

Conventional

-2nd stage of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development -Based on conformity (Heinz should steal... a good husband would do that) -Based on social order (Heinz shouldn't steal because if EVERYONE stole, then it would be really bad and turn very serious)

Trichromatic theory

-3 types of cells (cones) that respond to different wavelengths of radiation --> Short wavelengths: blue --> Medium wavelengths: green --> Long wavelengths: red -Mix of afferent signals sent from the cones in different ratios can produce the perception of any color... our perception of yellow comes from stimulation of both red and green cones

Concrete operations

-3rd stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development -Middle childhood (7-11 years) -Children begin to think logically -Children can manipulate and classify and are capable of complex thinking -Children are successful at solving problems by thinking about multiple perspectives that are real (concrete) -Children have the ability to imagine the consequences of their actions -A child at this age thinks about what is tangible and real

Stage 7 of Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Theory of Development

-40-65 years -Generativity vs Stagnation -Value: care -Generativity: middle-aged adult is unconsciously driven to generate one's life work for the next generation (family, career, volunteering, or something that contributes positively to society) -Stagnation: if the adult does not feel productive during this period, he may develop feelings of "not leaving a meaningful mark in this world", accompanied by feelings of inactivity and worthlessness, and may not have interest in self-improvement

Stage 4 of Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory of development

-6-13 years -Industry vs Inferiority -Virtue: competence -Industry: school-aged child learns to have a strong self-image through his abilities to accomplish tasks (navigate rules, assignments, and expectations at school)... socializing with peer groups becomes important, and the child has a need to gain approval by demonstrating competencies -Inferiority: if industry isn't encouraged, child begins to doubt his abilities, not feel values, and feel inferior to others

Stage 8 of Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Theory of Development

-65 and older -Ego Integrity vs Despair -Value: wisdom -Ego integrity: senior citizen reflects on life to determine if life was worth living -Despair: seniors who don't feel that they have developed a productive life may feel unsatisfied and feel that they have failed by focusing on "I should have done this"... They may have feelings of regret and fall into despair, depression, or anger

Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

-8 intelligences -It's not HOW smart you are... it's HOW you are smart -Musical -Spatial -Verbal -Logical- mathematical -Kinesthetic -Interpersonal -Intrapersonal -Naturalistic

PET scan

-A brain imaging method that maps brain activity by monitoring a harmless amount of short-lived radioactively tagged glucose introduced into the brain via the blood (metabolic process) -Indicates the area of the brain that are active during cognitive or motor tasks -PET scans are used in the detection and study of brain diseases including strokes, Alzheimer's disease, and Multiple Sclerosis (MS) -Can't be used on an individual a lot of times in a row -You can see areas used for specific functions... allows a detailed investigation on brain diseases -Can study activity of a specific neurotransmitter

fMRI scan

-A brain imaging method that uses magnetic fields to produce images of brain structure and tracks blood flow to study the function of an active brain -An fMRI tracks real-time brain activity by measuring oxygen levels changes in the blood flow (metabolic process) -No radiation involved

Approach-avoidance conflict

-A conflict in which there are both appealing and negative aspects to the decision to be made -someone offers you a delicious donut but you don't know if you want the calories

Electrical Simulation

-A method that involves activating a brain region by sending a weak electrical current via an electrode to examine the resulting impact on behavior or cognition -Example: stimulating the amygdala in mice results in aggressive reactions

EEG

-A noninvasive imaging method that is used to create amplified recordings of electrical activity across the brain's surface -An EEG uses electrodes placed on the scalp -Diagnosis of epilepsy and sleep disorders

Deindividuation

-A phenomenon that occurs when immersion in a group causes people to become less aware of their individual values -People in big cities are anonymous.. You can get away with bad behavior

MRI scan

-An imaging method that uses computer enhancement to create high-resolution images of brain anatomy from exposure to magnetic fields and radio waves -MRI images have greater detail than CT scans -Doesn't involve radiation -Can view much smaller areas of the brain in detail -Can be used to see brain shrinkage (due to alcohol use disorder)

Big 5 Model of Traits- Agreeableness: High vs Low Score

-Low: critical of others and doesn't often think of well-being of others -High: trusting and empathetic.. Thinks about feelings of others and their well being

Split brain surgery

-A procedure in which the corpus callosum (the network of fibers connecting the 2 hemispheres) is cut to treat severe epileptic seizures -Results: treated those with epilepsy and also provided an opportunity for neuroscientists to study the lateralization of the brain -Participants look at a central focal point, and images are briefly flashed to either their left or right visual field -Words or symbols shown to the Left Visual Field are sent to the RIGHT hemisphere... the right hemisphere controls the Left Hand -Words or symbols shown to the Right Visual Field are sent to the LEFT hemisphere... the left hemisphere controls the Right Hand -If given a pencil to the right hand, participants would not be able to draw because it's being controlled by their left hemisphere -If it's in the Left Visual Field, it's in the right side of the brain, which controls the left hand -If it's in the Right Visual Field, it's in the left hemisphere, which controls the right hand -Once the message is on the left side, the person can say it -Because the right hemisphere has no language, the individual can't name the object and can't write the word -Because the right hemisphere controls the left hand, the person can pick the object out of a group of other objects with their left hand

Rorschach inkblot test

-A projective personality test in which individual interpretations of the meaning of a set of unstructured inkblots are analyzed to identify a respondent's inner feelings and interpret his or her personality structure -a set of cards is shown.. Their responses will be interpreted for a pattern

Thematic Apperception Test

-A projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes -a neutral scene is shown and the client will write or narrate a caption or explanation

Blood-Brain Barrier

-A semipermeable network of tightly packed cells in the lining of the capillaries of the central nervous system. This network prevents many harmful substances, including poisons, from reaching the brain or spinal cord -Protects the brain from poisons, but also means that some potentially helpful medications can't enter the brain through the blood

Scaffolding

-Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance -Help child learn step by step (like a ladder)

Survey Research Advantages and Disadvantages

-Advantages: Cheap: free websites and software make distributing, collecting, and processing easy, Easy: people without training can make surveys, Multiple variables can be examined -Disadvantages: Questions might be poorly written or biased, people might misinterpret the questions, only provides "shallow" information (broad but not deep), Can't prove causality

Validity advantages and disadvantages

-Advantages: allows for scientific measurement -Disadvantages: oversimplifies the issue

Variable ratio

-After an unpredictable number, reinforcement after a random number of behaviors, as when playing slot machines or fly fishing -Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable (variable) number of correct behaviors (ratio) -Variable: unpredictable -Variable schedules are more resistant to extinction

independent variable

-Also called "the treatment" -If a hypothesis is a prediction, it's a "If ____, then ____" statement... the "i" in "if" matches with independent variable... if independent, then dependent -Independent variable is something the researcher does.. Something that will cause a result

Confounding variable

-Also known as lurking variable, research bias, or bias -Things that might affect the result or dependent variable

Hallucinogens

-Alter emotional and mental functioning -Result in distorted sensations and perceptions -Symptoms: hallucinations, mild delusions, mild euphoria, relaxation, panci, psychosis, reduced motivation -Examples: cannabis, LSD

Divided Attention

-Concentrating on more than one activity at the same time -Requires more automatic processing -Concurrent processing (2 things automatically)

Stage 2 of Erik Erikson's Psychosocial theory of development

-Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt -1.5 years to 3 years -Virtue: will -Autonomy: toddler learns to explore, experiment, make mistakes, and test limits to gain a sense of self-reliance... this is the period of "Terrible twos" (period of defiance and stubbornness)... to accomplish autonomy, toddler learns to explore within safe limits, perform tasks by himself, and say "no" to his primary caregivers without severe consequences -Shame and Doubt: if toddler is harshly punished, criticized, or overly controlled by primary caregivers, he may be unwilling to try or inhibited from trying new activities and may become overly dependent on others and have doubts in his abilities

Metacognition

-Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes -Thinking about thinking -Monitoring of your memory

Vestibular System

-Awareness of where your head is in relation to the ground -3 dimensions: nod, shake, twist -What your head is doing in relation to gravity

Stage 1 of Erik Erikson's Psychosocial theory of development

-Basic Trust vs Mistrust -Birth to 1.5 years -Virtue: hope -Trust: infants who have their needs must develop secure attachment by feeling safe, loved, and cared for by attentive primary caregivers -Mistrust: absence of attentive primary caregivers in infancy can result in insecure attachment with feelings of guardedness, unpredictability, and withdrawal from future relationships

B.F.Skinner

-Behaviorism -"Skinner Boxes" ← operant chamber allowed for experimental control -His research is precise, gives causes, replicable -No cognition because it's not empirical -Punishment doesn't teach behavior... but rewards do -Behavior is empirical (measureable)

collective unconscious

-Carl Jung's theory that we all share an inherited memory that contains our culture's most basic elements -explains why we have similar dreams as people we've never met

What bad things does sleep loss/disruption lead to?

-Changes in hunger hormones -Reduced immunity -High accident risk -Mood alteration -Reduced concentration -Reduced motivation -Attention problems -Reduced motor skills -Diabetes -High blood pressure -Heart disease

Evolutionary Approach

-Charles Darwin -Explains that anxiety disorders are the consequence of extreme versions of a behavior or mental process that was naturally selected because it gave early humans either a survival or reproductive advantage (simpler words: state of being anxious potentially provided humans with a survival advantage because it kept them away from dangerous things... may provide protection) -explains anxiety was naturally selected and remains in the human gene pool, but the problem is that modern conditions are so different from those in which the human species developed -Ex: A psychologist proposes altruism and aggression increased the chances of human survival and, as a result, remain today in the human gene pool -Theory that explains that behaviors and mental processes are present in humans today because they were naturally selected for creating a reproductive or survival advantage for species

Authoritative parents

-Children get a say and parents listen to what they have to say -Parents are firm, fair, and inconsistent -parents set reasonable goals and encourage independence -Rationale for rules is explained and the child understands why the rules change -Child generally has good social skills, is self-reliant, and independent

Cross-Sectional Study

-Compared 2 groups -Online vs face to face instruction -Males vs families -Advantages: comparison is science, can be used in other research methods -Disadvantages: only a snapshot, not a moving pictures

What did Pavlov learn from his classical conditioning experiment with dogs and meat powder?

-Conditioning is most effective if NS is present before the US (if he rang the bell after giving the dog the food, the conditioning didn't work as well) -Conditioning is most effective if NS and US are presented close together in time (if he rang the bell and then waited 45 minutes to give food, dog wouldn't have figured out the association) -Conditioning is most effective if NS is paired with US many times (but an example of an exception is if you were to eat sushi and get sick many hours later, then you still make that association) -Conditioning is most effective if NS standouts from other competing stimuli

Double approach-avoidance conflict

-Conflict in which the person must decide between two goals, with each goal possessing both positive and negative aspects -you get accepted to 2 colleges... one is in a warm climate but more expensive... other is in cold climate but less expensive

Depressants

-Decreases central nervous system activity -Symptoms: drowsiness, muscle relaxation, poor coordination, slurred speech, inhibition of the cognitive centers in the brain, reduced heart rate, reduced breathing, lowered blood pressure, loss of consciousness, coma, death -Examples: alcohol, opioids (morphine, codeine, oxycodone, heroin), sedatives, hypnotics, anxiolytics or antianxiety medications (benzodiazepines) -Depressant medication slows down respiratory breathing system so much that indiviudal stops breathing

Case Studies

-Deepy investigating one or a few unusual cases -Phineas Gage: 3-foot-steel shot through his cheek and went through his head... lived for twelve more years after that instead of dying on the spot -Advantages: can dig deep to find possible relationships or other ideas that could turn into hypothesis -Disadvantages: Time consuming, subjects aren't representative, can't prove causality

What is DSM-5?

-Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders -Created for reliability

Distress vs Eustress

-Distress: stress from unpleasant experiences -Eustress: positive stress resulting from pursuing challenging but achievable goals

Freud's wish-fulfillment dream theory

-Dreams preserve sleep and provide a "psychic safety valve"... expressing otherwise unacceptable feelings -Contain manifest (remembered) content and a deeper layer of latent content (a hidden meaning) -Lacks any scientific support -Dreams may be interpreted in many different ways

Antagonist drug

-Drugs or toxins that decrease neurotransmission often by binding to a receptor site in a way that doesn't cause the cell to fire and prevents the intended neurotransmitter from binding to the site -Drugs that block neurotransmission by occupying receptor sites and blocking transmission

Agonist drug

-Drugs or toxins that increase neurotransmission by either mimicking neurotransmitter action OR by blocking/delaying reuptake -Drugs mimic neurotransmitters in the synapse by binding with the receptor sites (counterfeit key) or by blocking reuptake -Heroin: endorphin and dopamine agonist (heroin fits right into receptor site designed for endorphin... acts as the counterfeit key)

Random Sample

-Each person in the large population (N) has the same chance to be chosen for the sample (n) -Nearly impossible to do

Random Selection

-Each person in the larger population (N) has the same chance to be chosen for the sample (n) -Nearly impossible to do

Functionalism

-Early approach or school of thought that focused on the evolved process (functions) of the elements of consciousness -William James (stream of consciousness)

Law of Effect

-Edward Thorndike -consequences of previous actions will influence future actions (every previous behavior trains us for a future behavior)

Big 5 Model of Traits- Openness: Low vs High Score

-Low score: prefers routine and doesn't enjoy change, new experiences, or new ideas -High score: curious, wants to try new experiences and ideas, looks at problems as opportunities

Cannon-Bard Theory

-Emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously -Emotion provoking stimuli (like a bear) → simultaneous messages from the thalamus to physiological (body) AND experience of an emotion (mind) -Strength:Explains rapid experience of both emotion and physiological arousal in some instances -Weakness:Thalamus is not the center for emotion -Weakness: Doesn't consider cognitive factors -Chava is given a new kitten and she experiences the physiological changes in her heart rate as she simultaneous realizes she is happy

Optimal arousal theory

-Escape from boredom (increase arousal) → check your phone, text a friend -Escape from stress (decrease arousal) -Aim of motivation is a personally preferred level of physiological stimulation -A sales executive is in a boring meeting, so they are motivated to check instagram on their phone

Fixed ratio

-Every so many.. Reinforcement after every nth behavior, such as buy 10 coffees, get 1 free, or pay workers per product unit produced -Reinforcement is given after a predictable (fixed) number of correct behaviors (ratio) -Fixed: predictable

Fixed interval

-Every so often... Reinforcement for behavior after a fixed time, such as Tuesday discount prices -Reinforcement is given for the first correct response after a predictable (fixed) amount of time (interval) of minutes, days, etc... has passed -Fixed: predictable

William James

-Everything has a function -Nothing is by accident -His idea of functionalism: all traits must serve an evolutionary purpose -Started the idea of consciousness -In humans, we can't see the cause of a trait or behavior

Humanistic Approach

-Explains psychological disorders -Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers -Related to Rogers: The humanistic approach would explain that anxiety disorders are the result of a lack of unconditional positive regard -Related to Rogers: The humanistic approach would explain that anxiety disorders are the result of a state of incongruence between a person's self-concept and reality -Related to Maslow: The humanistic take on the etiology of anxiety disorders is that they result from an inability to reach one's full potential because a person's lower needs on Maslow's pyramid are not being met (such as safety or belonging) -Ex: A psychologist believes that his patient has low self-esteem and anxiety because of their other needs, such as belongingness and love from others, have not been met -Theory that explains that behaviors and mental processes are influenced by the fact that humans are naturally good and trying to reach full potential through free will -Individuals are striving to meet all their needs on the hierarchy with the goal of self-actualization (Maslow) -Individuals need acceptance (unconditional positive regard), genuineness, and empathy to become the best version of themselves (Rogers)

Cognitive Approach

-Explains psychological disorders -Edward Tolman, Jean Piaget, Albert Bandura (social cognitive) -What the brain does (mind) -Explains that anxiety disorders are the consequence of dysfunctional or maladaptive thoughts -Ex: Depression is the result of the unrealistically negative interpretations as the individual has about who they are, events in their lives, and their future -Theory that explains that behaviors and mental processes are influenced by thoughts, attitudes, memories, and expectations -Ex: A psychologist believes depression is the result of irrational and excessively negative thoughts

Behaviorism Approach

-Explains psychological disorders -Ex: To help a child struggling at school, a psychologist highlights how reinforcements and punishments shape and change the child's behavior -John B Watson, B.F. Skinner -How Watson may explain it: The behaviorism approach would explain that anxiety disorders such as phobias are the result of learned involuntary associations created through classical conditioning -According to the behaviorism approach, anxiety disorders such as phobias, are the result of learned associations. These associations are the result of punishments or reinforcements that occur after voluntary behaviors -Theory that explains behaviors are learned and maintained through associations -Behaviors are learned as the result of operant consequences such as reinforcements and punishment (B.F.Skinner) -Behaviors are learned by watching and imitating others in observational or social learning (Bandura)

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Approach

-Explains psychological disorders -Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Erik Erikson -explain that anxiety disorders are the result of unresolved unconscious conflicts from childhood -explain the etiology of anxiety disorders as the result of fixation in an early psychosexual stage -explain the etiology of anxiety disorders as the result of the inability of the ego to successfully mediate the conflicting demands of the id and superego -Theory that explains that behaviors and mental processes are based on a modern interpretation of Freud's ideas about the influence of the unconscious

Extraverted vs Introverted

-Extraverted: restless, aggressive, excitable, changeable, impulse, optimistic, active, sociable, outgoing, talkative, responsive, easygoing, lively, carefree, leadership -Introverted: moody, anxious, sober, reserved, unsociable, quiet, passive, careful, thoughtful

Symptoms of manic episodes

-Extreme overactivity -Impaired judgement -Flight of ideas -Extreme preoccupation with ideas with negative consequences such as spending sprees -Decreased need for sleep -Grandiosity

A.P.A. Principles of Ethics

-Fiduciary Responsibility: Take care of your participants (most important one) -Informed consent: subjects must know what is being studied (also VERY important) -Includes minors and those with diminished capacity, like Alzheimer's patients -HOWEVER, if they know exactly what is being studied, it's the Hawthorne Effect, so you want to use single blind but be mindful of informed consent -Debriefing happens after the study, especially if deception was involved... must tell everything and even offer counseling if there was stress involved -Subjects must have the right to decline to participate at any time -Information obtained about the subject must be kept confidential

Perceptual Set

-a way of perceiving the world based on context, experiences, motivation, and emotions → EX: Teens see # as a hashtag while adults say it's a pound sign -Everything we "see" is upside down

Treatment Orientation Humanistic

-Focus on promoting personal growth and self-fulfillment -Methods: 1) Client-centered therapy: Carl didn't think therapy should be a CURE from an expert, but rather a genuine encounter between equals 2) Unconditional Positive Regard: acceptance and appreciation of an individual, despite flaws, which is needed for self-awareness and personal growth 3) Active listening: rephrasing and clarifying what is being said with empathy and understanding

Formal operations

-Fourth stage and final stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development -Adolescence (12 years till adulthood) -Adolescents and adults can think abstractly -Characterized by ability to formulate a hypothesis and systematically test it to critically arrive at a conclusion -Adolescent realizes the moral or ethical consequences of behavior

Charles Spearman

-G: general mental ability: where there is above average ability in X, there is probably above average ability is Y (if you're smart in one area, you're probably smart in a lot of other areas related to that) -Says that intelligence is measured by a general ability, the g factor

Alfred Binet

-His idea: compare an individual child against what most children his age can do (average child) - (Mental age)/(Chronological Age) * 100 = IQ --Kicked off Stanford-Binet test (popular test to measure cognitive abilities in 5 areas: knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial reasoning, working memory, and fluid reasoning

Heuristics

-Human thinking shortcuts -Common sense ("you just kinda know it") -Result oriented (you don't really read the directions) -You see a bear approaching you.. Would you use an algorithm, go on google, and search up the steps of how to get away from the bear? Or would you just bolt? You would just bolt

Stage 1 NREM

-Hypnagogic sensations (as you are falling asleep, you experience hallucinations or the feeling that you're falling or sudden jerk that wakes you up) -Light stage

Freud: Conciousness divided into 3 layers

-Id: unconscious energy...Unacceptable thoughts and wishes, memories that individuals can't bring into memory even if they want to -Superego: internalized ideals...contains all thoughts, knowledge, memory that you are aware of but not currently thinking about, like what you had for breakfast -Ego: mostly conscious; makes peace between id and superego

Overjustification effect

-If you pay someone for their hobby, they will stop liking it and doing it (stops intrinsic motivation) -A man loves to draw pictures of cats, which he does every day just for fun. Eventually, people start giving him money for his art. Soon he realizes that unless someone paid him to create a cat drawing, he doesn't draw.

Big 5 Model of Traits- Conscientiousness: Low vs High Score

-Low: can be impulsive and careless.. Doesn't like to have deadlines, rules, or structure... doesn't finish tasks or pay attention to details -High: hardworking, dependable, and thinks of future consequences.. Plan aheads and finishes tasks on time

Zone of Proximal Development

-In Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they receive proper guidance and instruction -in between when a child can do something by themself and when a child can't do something by themself... ability of a child to demonstrate learning with help -idea that what a child can do with help is more than what a child can do without help

Hindbrain

-Includes most of the survival functions (heart rate, breathing, areas for movements) -Includes brainstem, pons, medulla, cerebellum, thalamus, reticular formation

Stimulants

-Increases central nervous system activity -Symptoms: alertness, euphoria, increased physical and cognitive energy, reduced appetite, irritability, increased heart rate, paranoia, sleeplessness, increased body temperature, convulsions death -Examples: caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamine, MDMA (ecstasy)

Context-dependent memory

-Information that is encoded in one place or environment is best recalled when you're back in that specific place -When you go back to your Elementary school, you start having all these memories come back to you that you haven't thought about in a long time

Endorphins

-Inhibit pain -Released in response to pain or vigorous exercise and provide pain relief

Stage 3 of Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory of development

-Initiative vs Guilt -3-6 years -Virtue: purpose -Initiative: preschooler learns to take risks and "initiate" behaviors that will lead to his goals... this is the period of imaginative play -Guilt: if initiative is hampered, children develop a sense of guilt and inhibited creativity... the child may feel as if he is a "nuisance" to others

Wolfgang Kohler

-Insight learning (involves the demonstration of a new behavior as a result of a flash of understanding without a previous process of trial and error) -Said that animals think and plan and have insight (opposite of Thorndike) -"AHA moment"

4 reasons why you failed to encode something

-Insufficient Attention (weren't paying enough attention) -Ineffective encoding -Shallow processing -Task shifting (you were trying to do too many things at once)

What we sense and perceive is dependent upon which 4 stimuli?

-Intensity of stimulus -Our attention -Our motivation -Does the intensity change

Classical Conditioning

-Ivan Pavlov -If you get sprayed in the face with water, you WILL flinch or blink your eyes...if you pair a sound with the spray of water, you can get someone to flinch at a harmless sound -Learning happens when a reflex occurs to a new stimulus

Conditioning

-Learning -a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience

Inferential Statistics

-Let's say that "p" represents chance, error, and confounding variable -If "p" is less than 0.05 than there is a 95% chance that the study's results are not due to randomness, bias, or confounding variable -If "P" is less than 0.05, then it's significant

Big 5 Model of Traits- Neuroticism: High vs Low Score

-Low: even-tempered.. Doesn't often feel sad, depressed, or worried -High: prone to anxiety and worry.. Often thinks of worst outcome and can easily be upset

Psychiatrist

-Medical doctor (MD) who specializes in diagnosis and treatment of mental illnesses -Individual with schizophrenia may see a psychiatrist or medication management or a clinical psychologist

Prospective Memory

-Monitoring -Remembering to do things in the future (checking to make sure that your cookies don't burn or remembering to have your permission slip signed by your parents) -Prospective memory fails are common among all ages

Stage 3 NREM

-Most dreams occur here -Deep sleep -Sleep terrors -Sleepwalking -Sleep talking

Acetylcholine

-Muscle contraction, heart rate, memory, and learning -Excessive amounts result in severe muscle spasms to the point of making the individual have trouble breathing -Neurotransmitter -destruction of these neurons in hippocampus is related to memory loss symptoms of Alzheimers

Needs vs Drives

-Needs: biological requirements (food, water, sleep) -Drives: psychological tension states (primary and secondary), like thirst and hunger

Reticular formation

-Network of fibers that runs through brain stem running into the forebrain -helps control arousal -if a person's reticular formation isn't functioning, the individual won't be aroused

Norepinephrine

-Neurotransmitter related to alertness and arousal -can be in low levels in individuals with depression

Serotonin

-Neurotransmitter related to mood regulation and also to appetite and sleep-wake cycle -Most depression medication work on serotonin because serotonin levels are lower when one has depression -Mood, appetite, sleep, and impulse control -Low levels associated with depression, sleep-wake disorders, food cravings, and aggression

Hippocampus

-New explicit memories are encoded here and then sent on to frontal lobes for storing and further processing -Linked to conscious memory

Retroactive interference

-New info blocks recall of old info -Ex: Felix is trying to remember his high school art teacher's name, but the name of his current college art professor is disrupting the retrieval process.

Pons

-On brain stem above medulla -coordinates voluntary movement, responsible for sleep, related to facial expressions

Medulla

-On brainstem -controls vital functions, like heart rate, breathing, blood pressure and also controls reflexes (not withdrawal ones, but sneezing and coughing and vomiting and swallowing)

Crystallized Intelligence

-Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age -Related to experiences -Using heuristics

Biological Approach

-Paul Broca, Carl Wernicke, Roger Sperry -explains that anxiety disorders are the consequences of physical differences in the brain in terms of structure and function, such as problems with specific neurotransmitters and hormones -explains that anxiety disorders are the result of low levels of the inhibitory transmitter GABA -Ex: The hallucinations present in schizophrenia are caused by a thalamus that is too small, which may misdirect incoming sensory messages -Theory that explains that behaviors and mental processes are influenced by differences and changes in nervous system function -Ex: Researchers believe that individuals may inherit genes from their parents that increase the chances they develop an anxiety disorder

Multi-tasking

-People can only pay attention to one thing at a time -There is no such thing as mutli-tasking (you can walk and chew gum at the same time... they're almost automatic... you don't need to think about them... but you can't draw a square with your left hand while drawing a circle with your right hand at the same time) -People who have had their corpus callosum cut can do 2 different tasks at the same time

low self-efficacy

-Person is UNCONFIDENT and many not try to obtain goals -Reduced intrinsic motivation -Avoidance of challenges -Reduced persistence after setbacks

Null Hypothesis

-Predicts there will not be a significant relationship, so nothing significant will happen in your experiment or that you can't apply your results with a small group to a large group -Goal of researchers is to disprove the null hypothesis, which, in inferential statistics, predicts the results can't be applied to a larger population

Implicit/Automatic Processing

-Procedural (for skills and habits, like how to eat with chopsticks or how to snowboard... encoded in cerebellum), priming, conditioned responses (implicit memory! Long term unconscious memory for an association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus that creates the reflex) -Implicit memories (nondeclarative) without conscious recall -Processed in cerebellum and basal ganglia -Space, time, frequence (where you ate dinner yesterday) -Motor and cognitive skills (riding a bike) -Classical conditioning (Reaction to dentist's office) -Mental activities that require very little of attention, almost automatic (like how to ride a bike)

Imprinting

-Process by which certain animals form strong attachments during a critical period very early in life -Works with ducklings, but not humans (humans saw obstetricians as soon as they were born, and we don't follow them around, but ducks follow their mom around if their mom is the first one they see after being born)

John Watson

-Proved that emotions can be conditioned -Emotions aren't empirical (measured or observed), but let's say "emotions" are tears -Little Albert experiment ← unethical

Alcohol

-Psychoactive drug → Type: depressant → Pleasurable Effects: initial high followed by relaxation and disinhibition → Negative After Effects: depression, memory loss organ damage, impaired reactions

Heroin

-Psychoactive drug → Type: depressant → Pleasurable Effects: rush of euphoria, relief from pain → Negative After Effects: depressed physiology, agonizing withdrawal

Nicotine

-Psychoactive drug → Type: stimulant → Pleasurable Effects: arousal and relaxation, sense of well-being → Negative After Effects: heart disease, cancer

Caffeine

-Psychoactive drug → Type: stimulant → Pleasurable Effects: increased alertness and wakefulness → Negative After Effects: anxiety, restlessness, and insomnia in high doses, uncomfortable withdrawal

Surveys

-Questionnaires and interviews that ask people directly about their experiences, attitudes, or opinions -You can collect information easily -You don't go too much in depth about people -People may be dishonest

REM

-Rapid eye movements -Blood pressure and heart rate increase -Have sense of muscle relaxation -As the night progresses, there is less deep sleep and more REM -If you only have 4 hours of sleep, you won't have all the REM that you're supposed to have

Glutamate

-Related to learning and memory -Primary excitatory neurotransmitter -Oversupply linked to numerous brain diseases and problems following brain injury or stroke -neurotransmitter associated with long term potentiation -Release of glutamate facilitates learning and long term potentiation -Critical to growth and strengthening of synaptic connections and critical to learning

Continuous reinforcement

-Rewards follow every correct response -Learning is rapid -Learning is vulnerable to rapid extinction if reinforcement stops

Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement

-Rewards follow some correct responses -Learning is slower -Learning is more resistant to extinction

Functions of sleep

-Safety and energy conservation -Repairs cells -Strengthens immune system -Consolidates memories -Growth hormones released

Genetics

-Scientific study of heredity -A small percentage of our genes are different from others

Psychology

-Scientific study of the behaviors and mental processes of animals -Earliest psychology focused on mental processes

Explicit/Effortful Processing

-Semantic (facts and general knowledge, like Paris is capital of Europe) -Episodic Memory (events that are personal experiences, like your personal trip to Paris or day you took an AP exam) -Explicit memories (declarative) with conscious recall -Processed in hippocampus and frontal lobes -EX: complex behaviors (texting, talking in class, solving a difficult problem) that require a lot of conscious attention -Conscious processing -Requires rehearsal and is improved with attention and motivation

Hawthorne Effect

-Similar to demand characteristic (in an experiment where they might be measuring how kind of a person you are, you are going to act more kind because that's what you think you should do) -If you are being watched, you don't act naturally

Stage 2 NREM

-Sleep spindles (unique brain wave patterns that represent short, rapid bursts of brain wave activity with increased frequency) -K complexes (simple, extremely high spike in amplitude)

Sociocultural Approach

-Solomon Asch, Stanley Milgram, Phillip Zimbardo, Leon Festinge -explains that anxiety disorders are behaviors and mental processes that are influenced by norms associated with ethnic, gender, or other groups -explains that disorders such as anxiety disorders exist across cultures but that some are culture specific or prevalent due to group norms -Theory that explains that behaviors and mental processes are influenced by ethnicity, religion, gender, language, nationality, and economic status and the learned norms associated with these groups

Representative Sample

-Some proportion of the demographic characteristics (if you school is 50% male and 50% female, make sure that your sample is 50% and 50% female) -If the average age of the US population is 38 years old, does the sample have that same age?

Distributed practice

-Spaced learning -doing a little bit each night -is more effective than massed practice (cramming)

Algorithm

-Step by step -Slow -Recipe -Scientific Method ← slow... you can't skip anything -Process oriented -Formal reasoning -Follow specific rules and steps -Guarantees a solution

Naturalistic Observation

-Studying subjects without them being aware that they are being watched -Advantages: "Real" behavior (humans don't live in a laboratory), No or reduced Hawthorne effect (people act different when they are being watched) or Demand Characteristic (if you know that you're going to be in a study, you're going to try to figure out what the researchers want and then act in a way that makes you look good) -Disadvantages: Might not be studying what you think you're studying, no control, can't prove causality

Social Loafing

-Tendency for people to put less effort into a simple task when working with others on that task -tendency for people to contribute less to a shared task because they assume others will do more of the work

Correlational Studies

-The act of you waking up is connected to the sun rising -Relationship between 2 events -Advantage: it can happen outside of a lab -Disadvantage: because it's not a lab, we cannot prove causality (can't say that one thing caused another) -Not enough to simply find a relationship -Scatterplots are used to display the relationship between data -Correlation coefficient: a statistical measure of how strongly related any two sets of scores are -Positive 1: one set of scores increases in direct proportion to increase in the other set -Negative 1: one set of scores goes up precisely as the other goes down -The stronger the relationship, the closer to negative 1 or positive 1... the weaker the relationship, the closer to 0 Positive or negative 1 is a perfect correlation

incongruence

-The degree of disparity between one's self-concept and one's actual experience -there's a difference between what people see themselves as and what they want to be or think they should be

Fetus

-The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth -There's brain activity

wave amplitude

-The higher the wave, the more amplitude -Amplitude focuses on intensity of signal

Left Hemisphere of Brain

-The left motor cortex controls the movement of the right half of the body -The left somatosensory cortex controls the perception of touch on the right side of the body -The left hemisphere contains most language-related functions (Broca's and Wernicke's areas)

Yerkes-Dodson Law

-The principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases -Not the same as Optimal Arousal Theory -A coach is preparing her team for an especially challenging matchup against the top team in the state, and her players are very anxious. She has her players do a short mindfulness activity and visualization exercise to reduce their stress levels in order to perform at their best.

Right hemisphere of brain

-The right motor cortex controls the movement of the left half of the body -The right somatosensory cortex controls the perception of touch on the left side of the body -The right hemisphere contains areas specializing in recognizing faces and emotional responses

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

-The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent, causing anxiety -A recent college graduate who majored in business and thinks he is financially responsible is unhappy because he cannot seem to save money. He spends a lot each week on expensive coffee drinks and buys a lot of clothes online. His discomfort motivates him to make a budget and stick to it.

Drive-reduction theory

-Theory of motivation stating that motivation arises from imbalances in homeostasis -Need (food water) → Drive (hunger, thirst) → Drive-reducing behaviors (eating, drinkings) -Doesn't explain curiosity or thrill-seeking (nothing motivates something like sky diving) -You are motivated to get a glass of water to decrease your body temperature, which is overheated, to return your body to a balanced state -individuals are motivated to act in order to reduce the physiological tension (drive) created when a biological need is not met in order to return the body to homeostasis

Richard Lazarus' Cognitive Appraisal Theory

-Theory that cognition (Effortful or unconscious) happens before subjective experience of emotion -Two components of appraisal... primary: deciding if an event will affect an individual personally... secondary: deciding how one should deal with the event

Diathesis-Stress Model

-Theory that examines the relative influences of both nature and nurture as causes of psychosocial disorders -Often discussed in terms of schizophrenia, but also applies to other mental illnesses and conditions

Treatment Orientation Cognitive

-Therapy based on treating mental illnesses by changing the thinking and reasoning processes of the client -thoughts influence one's behavior and mood so treatment focuses on replacing dysfunctional thoughts with adaptive and realistic ones

Treatment Orientation Biological

-Therapy that focuses on eliminating symptoms by altering physiological processes with medications or other medical procedures (ECT or psychosurgery) -Used for depression, bipolar, anxiety, obsessive-compulsive, trauma and stressor, and other conditions -Used for treatment of anxiety, obsessive-compulsive, trauma and stressor and insomnia disorders -Used for treatment of mania, hypomania, and bipolar disorder

Paul Ekman and Cross-Cultural Displays of Emotion

-There are 6 emotions that are cultural -No culture frowns when they're happy -Depends on when and to what degree you display emotion

Joseph LeDoux's Dual Pathway Theory

-Thinking high road (slow) -Low road (Fast) -One will get there faster than the other, but yes, simultaneous messages -states that messages about fear travel through the brain simultaneously on two tracks or "roads" (one fast and one slow)... the slow road involves analysis by the cortex, while the fast road travels directly to the limbic system

Functional fixedness

-Thinking that a hammer can pound in nails... there's a back of the hammer that can be used to pull out nails -Thinking that an object has only one purpose/function

Post-Conventional

-Third and final stage of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development -Based on social contract (Heinz should steal but also accept the consequences) -Based on universe ethical principles (Heinz should steal because every human life is worth more than laws, medicine, or money)

Negligent parents

-Uninvolved -parents don't pay any attention to their children -parents are emotionally detached and let the child do anything -little emotional warmth or communication

Variable interval

-Unpredictably often... reinforcement for behavior after a random amount of time, as when studying for an unpredictable pop quiz -Reinforcement is given for the first correct response after an unpredictable (variable) amount of time (interval) of minutes, days, etc... has passed -Variable: unpredictable -Variable schedules are more resistant to extinction

Descriptive Statistics

-Used to describe the population or sample that is being studied -3 Types of Central Tendency 1) Mean: "the average"... all of scores summed and divided 2)Median: the score that appears exactly in the middle of the whole set 3)Mode: most frequently occurring score -The median and the mode are relatively unaffected by the presence of a few extreme scores (outlier) but one extreme score can throw off the mean (school grades)

Dependent variable

-What is being measured -Also called the "result" -Dependent variable is what the research GETS -We hope it's a significant change from baseline or from control group

Longitudinal Studies

-When the researcher follows the same participant or small group (cohort) of participants for a long time -Advantages: Uncover possible confounding variables, can be used in a variety of other research methods -Disadvantages: Time consuming, expensive, difficult to control, difficult to prove causality

Structuralism

-Wilhelm Wundt (Established the first research laboratory in psychology at the University of Leipzig) -Early approach or school of thought that focused on the elements or building blocks of consciousness (structures) -Tried to break thought into structures -Sensation, Perception, Images, Emotion, Thinking

Retrospective Memory

-Working memory -Retrieving past events (LTM episodes) -Retrieving known facts, ideas, and concepts (LTM semantic)

Avoidance-avoidance conflict

-a choice must be made between two unattractive goals -mow the lawn or clean the garage

extrinsic motivation

-a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment -seeking rewards, avoid punishment, for grades, for praise, for money, for competition -Ex: if you're learning French because it will boost up your GPA and look good on college apps

Forgetting curve

-a graphic depiction of how recall steadily declines over time -forgetting happens mostly in first day after learning

Classical conditioning

-a learned association in which a neutral stimulus when paired with an unconditioned stimulus creates an unlearned involuntary response -NS and CS will be the same if learning occurs -Unconditioned Stimulus (US), Unconditioned Response (UR), Neutral Stimulus (NS), Conditioned Stimulus (CS), Conditioned Response (CR)

GABA

-a major inhibitory neurotransmitter -is responsible for relaxation and sleep -low levels of Gaba can correlate with higher levels of anxiety -Low levels relate to anxiety disorders, seizures, and insomnia

Iris

-a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening -muscle that, as it closes together, it lets less light in and as it opens up, it lets more light in

Depth perception

-ability to judge distance and to be able to perceive the world in three-dimensions -If you only had 1 eye, you can still have an idea of where something is -if something is moving across your visual field, if it's farther away from you, it looks slower but looks faster if it's closer to you

Anxiety Disorder Signs and Symptoms

-accelerated heart rate and breathing, shaking hands, sweating, dizziness, muscle tension or trembling, nausea, panic attack -worry, fear, irritability, distraction, trouble concentrating -avoidance, escape, aggression, appetite changes, social withdrawal

Positive punishment

-adding or presenting a stimulus after a voluntary behavior that makes the behavior less likely to occur again → If Erin fumbled the ball and his coach makes him run 10 extra laps and he hates it... the addition of laps is a positive punishment, which he dislikes, so he fumbles less frequently -Behavior decreases

Positive reinforcement

-adding or presenting a stimulus, after a voluntary behavior that makes the behavior more likely to occur again -Ex: Marisol eats Thai food for the first time, and it's delicious. She decides to begin eating Thai food more often for more delicious tasting food -Ex: 2-year-old Trixie says a bad word at dinner, and her parents scold her but spend the rest of the meal paying attention to Trixie. Later, Trixie repeats the bad word.

Case study

-an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles -detailed information on their personality, medical history, friend interactions, but it's resource intensive and time consuming

Cerebellum

-area of the hindbrain responsible for coordinating movement and balance -related to implicit memories and loss of memories and memories related to movement -an area of the brain responsible for procedural memory (type of long-term memory for how to do things like how to drive a car or how to ride a bike) -in charge of balance, fine motor coordination, implicit conscious memories of how to do things like how to ride a bike or walk -coordinates voluntary movement and supports learning and memories of such -responsible for controlling balance, coordinating fine motor movement, and the creation of procedural implicit memories

Systematic Desensitization

-behavior therapy that gradually reduces the bond between the stimulus (like heights) and the response (like fear) by slowly introducing more intense versions of the stimulus and pairing it with relaxation (way to gradually relax the reaction) -behavioral therapy for phobias by creating a hierarchy of fers and moving the client through each step in the hierarchy while having the client patient muscle relaxation

Hypothalamus

-brain region controlling the pituitary gland -receives information -in charge of feeding, fighting, fleeting -very related to hunger and anger -related to various maintenance functions... hunger drive, thirst, maintaining a stable body temperature -below the thalamus and just above the pituitary gland -helps govern endocrine system -Linked to emotion and reward

Proximal Distal

-closer to and farther from the origin of the body -idea that babies gain control of their bodies from their torso outwards towards their limbs

Approach-approach conflict

-conflict occurring when a person must choose between two desirable goals -a free cookie or a free brownie

Permissive parents

-cool fun mom in movie Mean Girls -don't generally have structure -parents are inconsistent, don't give much direction, discipline, or structure, but parents are warm and nurturing... sometimes, these parents take more of a "friend" role than a parent role, saying "kids will be kids" -Child is dependent, moody, and lacks self-control

Factor analysis

-correlations among many variables are analyzed to identify closely related clusters of variables -mathematical technique to find significant relationships between variables

Instrinsic motivation

-curiosity, pride, interest, autonomy, mastery, meaning, achievement -Ex: if you're learning French because you are interested in the language and want to learn more about the culture

Statistics

-data exploration techniques, meaning a way to take a large amount of data and turn it into information... help us make sense of large amounts of data

Intellectual disability

-difficulties in cognitive processing, reasoning, learning, problem-solving, and adaptive functioning -Typically represented by an IQ that is 2 standard deviations below the mean (70)

PYY

-digestive tract hormone - tells brain "I'm not hungry"

Limbic System

-donut shaped group of structures including the hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus... hole-shape in the donut would be filled by thalamus

Confidentiality

-ethical duty of therapist to maintain client privacy (required by law and professional guidelines) -A therapist can break it ONLY with the permission of the client or if it is causing the client or others serious harm

Zygote

-fertilized egg -undifferentiated ball of cells

Priming

-getting someone ready to think a certain way -Ex: you see or hear the word "rabbit" and it activates the concept of a rabbit, and it primes spelling the spoken word hair/hare as "hare" -type of implicit long term memory, but also a retrieval cue

Ghrelin

-hormone secreted by empty stomach -sends "I'm hungry" signals to the brain

Treatment Orientation Psychodynamic

-individuals are influenced by unconscious drives and motivations... this perspective considers childhood experiences, but also focuses on current social relationships -focus on change and developing greater self-understanding

PTSD symptoms

-intrusive thoughts, reliving the event, flashbacks, nightmares, insomnia, numbness, increased arousal, irritability, exaggerated startle response

Random Assignment

-involves placing participants into either the control or experimental group by chance to reduce confounding variables -Once the participants are chosen, does each participant (or animal subject) have an equal chance of being in either the experimental group or control group? -The response must refer to minimizing the impact of subject variables (like age, gender, weight) between groups -Placing participants into groups by chance allows for the creation of groups that are more like each other with the exception of the independent variable -Using random assignment to put participants into groups by chance reduces the chance that subject variables will confound the experiment.

Personalities inventories

-longer and more specialized survey -constructed carefully -Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory are hundreds of true/false questions that look at personality types that might correlate with certain troubles -Objective

Biopsychosocial Approach

-modern psychology combines approaches to create the best description to explain behavior and mental processes -Theory that explains that behaviors and mental processes are best explained by combining multiple approaches

Schizophrenia

-more severe diagnosis of the 2, significant disturbances in cognition -Positive symptoms: thoughts, behaviors, emotions, and movements that are added to normal experience, hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech, disorganized behavior -Negative symptoms: thoughts, behaviors, emotions and movements that are missing from normal experience, flattened emotions, flat or toneless speech, impaired attention, social withdrawal, lack of speech, no initiation of goal directed behavior, anhedonia (lack of pleasure) -Frontal lobes are involved in planning and technician... those with schizophrenia have difficult planning and organizing thoughts -disruptions in basal ganglia are linked to hallucinations and paranoia, excessive blocking of dopamine here may cause motor problems of antipsychotic medications -If one twin develops schizophrenia, the other twin has a 50% chance of developing it

Secondary sex characteristics

-nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair -traits that don't have effect on physical reproduction

Self-concept

-our understanding and evaluation of who we are -your set of unique characteristics about yourself

Thalamus

-part of forebrain and is the sensory relay station of the brain -visual information from all senses except smell are first sense to the thalamus -thalamus sends that information to the visual area of the cortex (which is in other lobes) -auditory nature or sound information gets sent to temporal lobes, to the auditory cortex -if it's information about how somethings feels to the touch, it gets sent to somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe -relays messages between lower brain centers and cerebral cortex

Sympathetic Nervous System

-part of the autonomic nervous system which creates the fight-or-flight response that prepares the body for emergencies -Activation of the sympathetic nervous system is characterized by increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, raised blood sugar, dilated pupils, decreased digestion processes

Dopamine

-part of the pleasure circuit so a drug like cocaine works in parts by blocking the uptake of dopamine but flooding the system and creating pleasurable affect -Pleasure, reward, voluntary movement, posture, learning, cognition, and attention -Schizophrenia: illness involved in disturbances in cognition, movement, motion, perception... related to excess levels of dopamine -Parkinson's Disease: often related to destruction of dopamine-producing cells

Anterograde Amnesia

-partial or complete inability to create new memories that happened after the trauma/disease (antero means after) -Ex: An individual suffered a mild stroke. He made a full recovery, but he can't remember what happened just after the stroke or the ambulance ride due to the damage in his brain

Frontal lobes

-planning, higher level thought -Voluntary movement -short term memory, working memory, recalling episodic memories, determining the order of which things happen

Operant Conditioning

-process in which voluntary responses are learned as a result of consequences (Reinforcements and punishments) -Stimulus leads to voluntary behavior, which receives a consequence, which leads to future behavior BUT reinforcement increases a voluntary behavior and a punishment decreases a voluntary behavior -If a previous behavior was reinforced, we're likely to repeat it, and if a previous behavior was punished, less likely to repeat it

Psychoanalyst

-provides therapy based on methods and theories of Sigmund Freud -Behaviors and mental processes are caused by unconscious forces such as unresolved childhood conflicts (like fixation) -Behaviors and mental processes are impacted by the ability of the ego to meet conflicting demands of the id and superego

Relearning

-reacquiring knowledge that has been forgotten overtime -the amount of time in minutes it takes to remember or relearn a list of 20 words that had been forgotten

Licensed Professional Social Worker

-treatment for mental illnesses and access to social supports -Coordinate access to occupational training, housing, and financial assistance

Parietal lobes

-responsible for processing sensory information related to somatic senses like touch

Clinical Psychologist

-specialist who focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of mental illnesses -Most work as treatment providers (work with patients) but some conduct research

Self-serving bias

-tendency to make decisions based on what allows people to feel good about themselves -similar to the fundamental attribution theory

Projective tests

-tests designed to reveal inner aspects of individuals' personalities by analysis of their responses to a standard series of ambiguous stimuli -a person is shown an ambiguous stimuli (picture or scene) and a trained professional interprets it -Some people don't have insight into themselves (blind to our own flaws) -This is used to help explore unconscious issues → Pros: Removes Hawthorne Effect → Cons: relies on other people to interpret results (what if your diagnostician is having a bad day?)

Neuroplasticity

-the ability of the human brain to modify itself in response to experience OR repair itself after damage -Changes in the brain occurring as a result of learning through the strengthening or adding of synapses to neural networks -Changes that occur after an injury or illness in which non-damaged areas take over the functions of lost cells... most powerful in young children... sometimes left hemisphere can take over to help move right arm

High Self-Efficacy

-the belief that there is a high probability for success -Greater intrinsic motivation -Increased willingness to accept challenges -Persistence after setbacks

Fovea

-the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

Facial Feedback

-the effect of facial expressions on experienced emotions -tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

Selective attention

-the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus -Requires less automatic processing -Processing of one and blocking of another → You're focusing on the teacher and blocking out sound of conversation between 2 people behind you -Cocktail Effect

Licensed Professional Counselor

-treatment for coping with everyday problems including making career decisions, marriage counseling, and social skills training -Help individuals with treatment and coping

High-order learning

-the process of turning a second neutral stimulus (new NS) into a conditioned stimulus (new CS) by pairing it with the already established conditioned stimulus (original CS) -Pavlov Example: A light (new NS) is turned into a conditioned stimulus that makes the dog salivate by pairing it with the existing CS (tone) but NOT ever pairing it with meat powder (US)

Different Threshold

-the smallest change in a physical stimulus that can be detected half the time -can you notice a change in what you are seeing? If you're lifting 100 lbs, will you notice another pound? (probs not)

Just World Phenomenon

-the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get -Allows us to not help and still feel good about ourselves (we see something that didn't happen near us and we say "they kinda deserved it" or "if they weren't there, it wouldn't have happened" or "if they worked harder, it wouldn't have turned out like that" or "if they hadn't dressed like that, they wouldn't have been raped"... something about THEIR behavior brought on that consequence) -If someone is suffering, we unconsciously think it's their fault

James-Lange Theory

-the theory that emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment -idea that physiological responses precede and automatically create the experience of each emotion -Arousal comes before emotion -strength: Stimuli create physiological responses which may lead to emotion -strength: Cross-cultural consistency in description of emotions and their corresponding bodily reactions -Weakness: Diverse emotions (anger, fear, love) can have similar autonomic responses -Weakness: Doesn't consider cognitive factors -Weakness: Arousal can occur without emotion (exercise)

Opponent Process Theory

-the theory that opposing retinal processes enable color vision -Blue and yellow are opponent pairs -Red and green are opponent pairs -Black and white are opponent pairs

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory

-theory that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal -Emotion provoking stimulus → Factor #1 Physiological reaction (body) → Factor #2 Cognitive label (mind) where brain labels the emotion... your interpretation → Experience of an emotion -Strengths: theory is supported with experimental research -Weakness: doesn't account for emotional experiences that happen too quickly for cognitive labeling -Two tourists both reach the top of Empire State Building in NYC at the same time after running up the stairs. Their hearts are racing from the exercise, they look at each other, and label their physical response by determining they are in love

Cerebral cortex

-ultimate control and information-processing center -includes the motor cortex, somatosensory cortex, auditory cortex, visual cortex, and olfactory and gustatory areas... it also contains numerous association areas for thought, language, and reasoning

Sunk cost fallacy

-we are reluctant to waste something we have paid for -idea to keep going or previous efforts will be wasted

Counseling Psychologist

-work mostly with everyday adjustment problems (marriage, social or career concerns) and also may work with people with diagnosis (like depression or anxiety) -Most work as treatment providers but some conduct research

How to make your own classical conditioning example

1) Choose a subject (person or animal) 2) Start with involuntary responses (uses shivering for this example) 3) For the US, choose something that would automatically or innately cause that reaction 4) For the NS and CS, choose something that the person or animal would have to learn to respond by pairing it repeatedly with the US

List 3 ways that mental disorders can be diagnosed

1) Clinical interview 2) Testing (toxicity or sleep) 3) Psychometric assessment (depression screening, IQ, personality)

Signs that a person is addicted to substances

1) Diminished control: might be using more for longer... might have repeated or failed attempts to reduce or control use 2) Diminished social functioning: use has disrupted their ability to care about their regular life (prevents them from work or school) 3) Hazardous use: continuing to use despite medical problems or driving under the influence 4) Drug action: biological piece.. May have developed tolerance (more drug to get same affect) or withdrawal pain that occurs after use

List the 7 different types of research

1) Experiments 2) Correlational Studies 3) Survey research 4) Naturalistic observation 5) Case studies 6) Longitudinal studies 7) Cross-Sectional Studies

List the 3 common confounding variables

1) Hawthorne Effect 2) Experimenter Bias 3) Representation Bias

Adolescence broken down to 5 parts

1) Physical: puberty 2) Intellectual 3) Emotional 4) Social 5) Financial: are you still living in your parent's house and not spending money that you earned?

Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

1) Physiological Needs (water, food, sex) 2) Safety 3) Belongingness and love 4) Self-esteem 5) Self-actualization and self-transcendence (people are striving for a meaning or purpose beyond themselves)

What to do with operant conditioning examples

1) Underline voluntary behavior → If behavior is involuntary, it's not an example 2) Determine reinforcement or punishment → If behavior increases, write reinforcement → If behavior decreases, write punishment → If behavior is not influenced, it's not an example 3) Identify whether the example was positive or negative

Average IQ on Wechsler Intelligence scale

100

Cognitive map

3-D mental representation a person has about an area or place and their relative location (Edward Tollman)

Clinical Psychology

A domain or area of psychology that focuses on researching, diagnosing, treating, and preventing mental illness

What does it mean when a sound has a high-amplitude sound wave?

Loud sound

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

When a behavior is reinforced, what happens?

Behaviors increases in the future

Incentive Theory

A theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli

Delayed gratification

A willingness to give up something now in return for something later

Heinz Dilemma

A woman is dying and needs an expensive medication. Husband cannot afford the medication, should he steal it or should she die?

Luis constructed a flip-block with 30 different still images of a cartoon cat. When Luis quickly flipped through successive images of the cat, the cat appeared to move. Which of the following concepts does the example illustrate? A) Stroboscopic movement, because the book is a series of images presented at separate time intervals B) Perceptual constancy, because Luis still views the cat as a cat even though it appears as a moving picture C) Depth perception, because Luis needs both eyes to view the movement D) Color constancy, because the cat doesn't appear to change color Interposition, because the pictures are in a sequence that is logical

A: Stroboscopic movement, because the book is a series of images presented at separate time intervals

Pavlov attached a device that created a vibration to the thigh of the dog and conditioned the animal to salivate by pairing this with meat powder. What is the name for the period in which Pavlov repeatedly presented the vibration before the meat powder?

Acquisition

During which period is the axon depolarized?

Action potential

What category of drug is THC, the active ingredient in cannabis, considered because it mimics the neurotransmitter anandamide?

Agonist

Inferential Errors

Anything that allows us or encourages us to link a small group to a larger group where a link shouldn't exist (numerically, we didn't disprove null)

Representation Bias

Are the participants representative of the larger population? Do the demographics match?

Classical Conditioning: associative learning

Associate one stimulus with another, learning the association

What is the term for the places on the cerebral cortex that is not dedicated to either sensory or motor functions? Name 2 of these areas that are specific to language functions

Association areas (Broca's area and Wernicke's area)

Problem-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

When a behavior is punished, what happens?

Behavior decreases in the future

Soma

Body

In an experiment of the effectiveness of a new medication for individuals with depression, which of the following describes the independent variable? a) Participants in the study who receive a placebo b) Participants in the study who receive the antidepressants c) Type of medicine being taken d) Self-reported level of depression of participants on a scale of 1-5 e) The requirement that participants are not taking any other medications

C: type of medicine being taken

When Rocco views the image to the lower right, he sees it as a 13 when it is part of a larger number sequence, but he sees it as a B when it's a part of a word. Rocco's response shows the importance of which perceptual concept?

Context effects

Motor cortex

Controls voluntary movement

Reality Monitoring

Determining if memories based on actual events (external) or our thoughts (internal) --> You remember getting your permission slip signed but it's actually not signed

Source Monitoring

Determining the origins (sources) of our memories

When cells responsible for producing this neurotransmitter die, it results in the tremors and decreased mobility associated with Parkinson's disease

Dopamine

Which 2 neurotransmitters are linked to the symptoms of schizophrenia?

Dopamine (involved in learning, attention, and movement) and glutamate (excitatory... cognitive processing, sensory and motor functioning)

Which of the following scenarios best demonstrates a context effect? A) Carol performs better in her recital when she practices in short sessions, several times a day B) Edgar solves his jigsaw puzzles faster when he completes the edges first C) Rosemarie shoots more accurately at her archery competition when other people are around D) Vernon is more social at parties when he has had caffeine E) Jeannette does better on her exam when she takes it in the same room where she studies

E: Jeannette does better on her exam when she takes it in the same room where she studies

Balance is influenced by the....? A) Cochlea B) Basilar membrane C) Eardrum D) Auditory nerve E) Semicircular canals (nodding your head... as you nod your head, fluids in semicircular canals get sloshed around and tells receptors in that semicircular canal your head is moving on this angle)

E: Semicircular canals (nodding your head... as you nod your head, fluids in semicircular canals get sloshed around and tells receptors in that semicircular canal your head is moving on this angle)

Neural communication in the form of the action potential is electrical. Which technologies that we discussed are based on this premise?

EEG and Electrical Stimulation

Mood-dependent memory

Emotional state.. If you're in a happy mood, you're most likely to think in a positive state

If flooded with opiates like heroin and morphine, the blood may stop producing these natural opiates

Endorphins

Anxious resistant

Fearful when mother is present, demands attention, shows distress when she leaves but is not soothed when she returns -Aggressive actions, like hitting, towards mom

Lens

Focuses light onto retina

Which early approach sought out the evolved purposes of behaviors and mental processes?

Functionalism

The whole of the conscious experience is more meaningful than the sum of its parts is most closely related to which historical school of thought?

Gestalt

Memory Decay example

Hank is trying to remember the phone number of his best friend when he was a child. He wants to contact her, but he can't remember her phone number.

What does it mean if the sound has a short wavelength?

High frequency (doesn't have much to do with loudness)

A group of friends watched a recent episode of a crime investigation show and concluded that they would have been able to figure out who was responsible for a crime more proficient than did the television investigators. The friends' overestimation of their ability to determine who committed the crime is most likely due to a reasoning error known as...?

Hindsight bias

The memory disruptions and auditory hallucinations of individuals with schizophrnia may be related to problems in the limbic system. What are 3 structures of the limbic system and what are their functions?

Hippocampus (memory formation), amygdala (emotions like fear and aggression), hypothalamus (motivation and drives like hunger and thirst... maintaining a stable body temperature)

Chemicals secretes by glands, organs, or tissues that travel long distances in the bloodstream are called _____. Chemicals that travel across tiny gaps between nerve cells are called _______

Hormones; neurotransmitters

Methamphetamine interferes with the body's ability to regulate internal temperature. This can lead to a sharp increase in body temperature (hyperthermia), which can result in organ failure or even death. What area of the brain is being disrupted when hyperthermia occurs as a result of methamphetamine use?

Hypothalamus

What does it mean if a sound has a long wavelength?

Low pitch sound

Anxious avoidant

Infant does not seek closeness or contact with the mother and shows little emotion when the mother departs or returns

Depressive disorders

Involves symptoms such as extreme sadness or loss of interest in normal activities that cause significant distress or dysfunction

MDMA or ecstasy can lead to the experience of strong emotions related to fear and anxiety and may alter memory. Which group of brain structures is being disrupted when MDMA alters emotions and memory?

Limbic system

Collectivist

More family and group oriented

Are we tabula rasa (blank slate) when we are born?

NO

Are babies born already knowing how to breast-feed?

NO! They have to learn how to latch on

If classical conditioning, which two will be the same IF learning occurs?

NS and CS

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Neurochemicals that decrease the likelihood that a neuron will fire an action potential

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Neurochemicals that increase the likelihood that a neuron will fire an action potential

Sensory Habituation

Our perception of sensations is partially determined by how focused we are on them

Neural communication in the form of neurotransmitters crossing the synapse is chemical. Which technologies that we discussed are based on this premise because they examine biochemical or metabolic processes?

PET and fMRI

What does it mean when the sound has a low-amplitude sound wave?

Quiet sound

Post-synpatic cell

Receives the message

Amygdala

Related to strong emotions, like fear and aggression

Pre-synpatic cell

Sends the message

General Adaptation Syndrome

Seyle's concept that the body responds to stress with alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

Which early approach trained subjects to describe their conscious experience to identify the elements of thought?

Structuralism