AP Psychology Chapters 1-13 (Minus 12)

operant

"active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences."

Described three patterns of behavior that individuals use to defend against basic anxiety.

(1) Those who move toward other people have an excessive need for approval and affection. (2) Those who move against others have an excessive need for power. (3) Those who move away from other people have an excessive need for independence and self- sufficiency.

WAIS had two advantages over the Stanford-Binet Scale

(1) it was specifically designed for adults, rather than for children, and (2) it provided scores on 11 subtests measuring different abilities. These subtest scores were grouped to provide an overall verbal score and an overall performance score.

some change must occur in the workings of the brain when a new LTM is stored.

(1) the functioning of the neurons could change (2) the structure of the neurons could change.

episodic memories

(personally experienced events) need slow-wave sleep

Trait theories fail to:

*truly explain human personality *explain how or why individual differences developed *address other important personality issues, such as the basic motives that drive

Psych for Your Life: Minimizing the Effects of Stress

- Avoid or minimize the use of stimulants - Exercise regularly - Get enough sleep - Practice a relaxation technique

Stressors that can influence the immune system

- Even commonplace negative life events can adversely affect the immune system. - Studies show that people who are experiencing high levels of stress are more susceptible to infection than people who are not under stress. - Physical health is affected by the interaction of many factors, including heredity, nutrition, health-related habits, access to medical care, and exposure to sources of infection and disease.

adaptive coping responses serve many functions

- They involve realistically evaluating the situation and determining what can be done to minimize the impact of the stressor. - They involve dealing with the emotional aspects of the situation. - They are directed toward preserving important relationships during stressful experiences

Criticisms of Piaget's theory

-Generally, scientific research has supported Piaget's most fundamental idea: that infants, young children, and older children use distinctly different cognitive abilities to construct their understanding of the world -Underestimates cognitive abilities of kids, underestimates social/cultural environment, overestimated the degree to which people achieve formal operational

Social Development

-Generally, when parent-child relationships have been good before adolescence, they continue to be relatively smooth during adolescence. -While susceptibility to peer influences peaks in early adolescence, peer relationships tend to reinforce the traits and goals that parents fostered during childhood

Transition to Parenthood

-Marital satisfaction tends to decline after the birth of the first child and rise again after children leave the home. -Multiple roles seem to provide both men and women with a greater potential for increased feelings of self-esteem, happiness, and competence

Neuroscience: Boosting the Aging Brain

-Various studies suggest that remaining mentally and physically active decreases age- related risks for cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease. -Research by Kirk Erickson and colleagues (2011) tested whether aerobic exercise could improve brain health and cognitive functioning in sedentary older adults who were in good physical health. -Results of this study found that after a year of regular exercise both groups improved on measures of spatial memory and likely benefitted from social interactions. Participants in the control group showed an average decline in hippocampal volume whereas, the experimental group increased in the volume of their hippocampus by an average of 2 percent. -These findings suggest that declines in cognitive abilities and brain functions are neither inevitable nor unalterable.

percentage of life on normal functions

-about 1/3 of your body's energy is expended for the routine physical activities of daily life (walking, lifting objects, brushing teeth, digesting food) -the other 2/3 of body's energy is used for continuous body functions that are essential to life (creating body heat, heartbeat, respiration, and brain activity)

social cognitive perspective differs several ways

-it relies heavily on experimental findings -it emphasizes conscious, self-regulated behavior emphasizes that our sense of self can vary, depending on our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in a given situation

The newborn's senses are strongly attuned to people, helping the infant quickly learn to differentiate between the mother and other humans

-within hours of birth, newborns display a preference for their mother's voice and face over that of a stranger -vision is the least developed sense at birth

Basic Characteristics Associated with Motivation

1) Activation 2) Persistence 3) Intensity

Anal Stage:

1-3 years

humanistic perspective has been criticized on two counts:

1. Humanistic theories are hard to validate or test scientifically, because they tend to be based on philosophical assumptions or clinical observations, rather than on emnirical research.

5 ethical principles in psychology

1. Informed consent 2. Extra credit=other available 3. Deception used when- not feasible not to or when outcome could outweigh deception 4. Confidentiality 5. Informed about entirety of study

four possible patterns of acculturation

1. Integrated 2. Assimilated 3. Separation 4. Marginalized

Any psychological test goals:

1. It accurately and consistently reflects a person's characteristics on some dimension. 2. It predicts a person's future psychological functioning or behavior.

Eric Kandel has studied the neuron changes that occur when Aplysia forms a new memory for a simple classically conditioned response.

1. The function of the neuron is altered; there is an increase in the amount of the neurotransmitter produced by the neurons. 2. The structure of the snail's neurons also changes; the number of interconnecting branches between the neurons increases, as do the number of synapses, or communication points, on each branch. 3. Collectively, these changes are called long-term potentiation which refers to a long-lasting increase in synaptic strength. 4. Forming a memory seems to produce distinct functional and structural changes in specific neurons. These changes create a memory circuit. As the changes in the neurons strengthen the communication links in this circuit, the memory becomes established in LTM.

human characteristic could be considered "basic"

1. its absence breeds illness its 2. presence prevents illness 3. its restoration cures illness 4. under certain free choice situations, it is preferred over other satisfactions or needs

humanistic perspective criticized

2. Many psychologists believe that this view of human nature is too optimistic.

Phallic Stage:

3-6 years

different wavelengths correspond to our subjective experience of different colors

400 nanometers violet. 700 nanometers red. everything in middle is orange, yellow, green, blue and indigo

Latency Stage:

7 - 11 years

action potential

A brief electrical impulse by which information is transmitted along the axon of a neuron.

episodic memory

A category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations and experiences.

Trait

A characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports. Ex: Dana possesses the trait of being outgoing and positive even in complicated situations and is considered by her peers to be a very optimistic person.

humanistic psychology.

A clinical viewpoint emphasizing human ability, growth, potential, and free will.

individualistic culture

A culture in which people believe that their primary responsibility is to themselves.

Confounding/extraneous variable

A factor other than the ones being studied that if not controlled could affect outcome

Variable

A factor that can change in an experiment

Pseudoscience

A fake or false science that makes claims based on little or no scientific evidence.

Muller-Lyer Illusion

A famous visual illusion involving the misperception of the identical length of two lines, one with arrows pointed inward, one with arrows pointed outward.

Heuristic

A general rule of thumb or shortcut that is used to reduce the number of possible solutions. (Common types are subgoals and working backwards)

Corticosteroids

A group of hormones, including cortisol, released by the adrenal glands at times of stress

Evaluating Social Cognitive Perspective

A key strength of the social cognitive perspective theory is that it is grounded in research in learning, cognitive psychology, and social psychology, rather than on clinical impressions.

Statistically significant

A mathematical indication that research results are not very likely to have occurred by chance.

tip of the tongue experience

A memory phenomenon that involves the sensation of knowing that specific information is stored in long-term memory, but being temporarily unable to retrieve it.

misinformation effect

A memory-distortion phenomenon in which a person's existing memories can be altered if the person is exposed to misleading information.

Experimental research

A method of investigation used to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships by purposely manipulating one factor thought to produce change in another factor.

semantic network model

A model that describes units of information in long-term memory as being organized in a complex network of associations.

moratorium period

A period of time in high school or college when young adults are relatively free of responsibilities and can experiment with different roles to find their identities.

Sleep paralysis

A person is unable to move upon waking in the morning and during rem sleep

Projective Test

A personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics. Ex: (Refer to Image). Looking at either random inkblot patterns, or ambiguous images (Rorschach or TAT), one can complete a projective test.

Weber's Law

A principle of sensation that holds that the size of the just noticeable difference will vary depending on its relation to the strength of the original stimulus.

Trial and Error

A problem-solving strategy that involves attempting different solutions and eliminating those that do not work.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

A projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes. Ex: (Refer to Image). One may describe this image as depicting a conflict between one's ego and id.

Personality Inventory

A questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits. Ex: (Refer to Image). The MMPI and Empirically derived test are examples of these inventories.

Survey

A questionnaire or interview designed to investigate the opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a particular group.

Id

A reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification. Ex: Many newborns are driven by their id, as they begin to cry when they are hungry (for the immediate satisfaction of their appetite).

Scientific method

A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions.

fovea

A small area in the center of the retina, composed entirely of cones, where visual information is most sharply focused.

basilar membrane

A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells.

immune system

A system (including the thymus and bone marrow and lymphoid tissues) that protects the body from foreign substances and pathogenic organisms by producing the immune response

Hypothesis

A tentative statement that describes the relationship between 2 or more variables

Empirically Derived Test

A test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups. Ex: (Refer to Image) The MMPI, or the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory is an example of this test.

recognition

A test of long-term memory that involves identifying correct information out of several possible choices.

cued recall

A test of long-term memory that involves remembering an item of information in response to a retrieval cue.

recall

A test of long-term memory that involves retrieving information without the aid of retrieval cues; also called free recall.

Terror-Management Theory

A theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death. Ex: (Refer to Image). When Hailey was reminded that she was getting to an age where the likelihood of death is much higher, she began to act on better moral standards, and treated people better.

ion channels

A transmembrane protein channel that allows a specific ion to diffuse across the membrane down its concentration or electrochemical gradient.

afterimage

A visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed.

myelin sheath

A white, fatty covering wrapped around the axons of some neurons that increases their communication speed.

Short-Term Signals that Regulate Eating

About 30 minutes before eating, you have a slight increase in blood levels of insulin and a slight decrease in blood levels of glucose. Once the meal begins, levels of glucose return to a normal level

Adult development goals

According to Erikson, the primary psychosocial task of early adulthood is to form a committed intimate relationship with another person. During middle adulthood, the primary task becomes one of generatively , to contribute to future generations through your children, your career, and other meaningful activities

Oedipus Complex

According to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father. Ex: (Refer to Image).

Fixation

According to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved. Ex: A person who was early weaned off of bottles might continue to seek oral gratification by smoking or excessive eating. Freud would consider them to be fixated in the oral stage.

Unconscious

According to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware. Ex: (Refer to Image). According to Freud, one's unconscious drives slip through and can be discovered through the analyzation of dreams and the use of free association therapy.

Personality Development:

According to Freud, people progress through five psychosexual stages of development. *The foundations of adult personality are established during the first five years of life.

Psych for Your Life: Possible Selves

According to Hazel Markus and colleagues, possible selves are the aspect of the self-concept that includes images of the selves that you hope, fear, or expect to become in the future.

archetypes.

According to Jung, emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning.

Self-Actualization

According to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential. Ex: (Refer to Image).

Unconditional Positive Regard

According to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance towards another person. Ex: This often times occurs in close relationships as both individuals feel that they can be spontaneous without fearing the loss of others' esteem.

Pessimistic explanatory style

Accounting for negative events or situations with internal, stable, and global explanations

Genital Stage:

Adolescence

Sleep Cycle.

After stage 4 sleeper cycles through 3/2 and goes into first REM phase; first 90 minutes of the nights sleep

Self-Concept

All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "who am I?" Ex: (Refer to Image) Self concept usually develops at the age of 12, and is different from self-awareness which develops at the age of 15 months.

Safety Needs

All people need to feel safe: BOTH physical safety and emotional safety

Richard F. Thompson

American psychologist and neuroscientist, you conducted extensive research on the knurl biological foundations of learning and memory.

B. F. Skinner

American psychologist searched for the "lawful processes" that would explain "order in behavior." He believed that psychology should restrict itself to studying only topics that could be objectively measured and verified those outwardly observable behaviors and environmental events.

John B. Watson

American psychologists, founded the behavioral perspective which emphasizes the scientific study of how behavior is the result of past experience and environmental influences. (Behaviorism dominated psychology in the US for more than 50 years.)

Robert Rescorla

American psychologists; stated that classical conditioning depends on the information the conditioned stimulus provides about the unconditioned stimulus.

cultures effects on early memories

Americans typically remember individual experiences as their first memories, where Taiwanese/Chinese remember group events as their first memory

Amphetamines

Amphetamines elevate mood and suppress appetite. They include Benzedrine, Dexedrine, and methamphetamine.

moral reasoning

An important aspect of cognitive development during adolescence is a change; how an individual thinks about moral decisions

Personality

An individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. Ex: (Refer to Image) Mark's personality is different from Lindsay's as he is more outgoing and boisterous, while she is more quiet and shy.

Jerome Kagan classified temperaments in terms of reactivity

An infant may be either a high-reactive infant or a low-reactive infant

army alpha

An intelligence test developed during World War I and used by the army for soldiers who can read.

Army Beta

An intelligence test developed during World War I and used by the army for soldiers who cannot read.

animal cognition, or comparative cognition

Animal language research reflects an active area of psychological research

Emotion in Nonhuman Animals

Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, motives, emotions, or behaviors to nonhuman animals or inanimate objects. Animals clearly demonstrate diverse emotions- fear, anger, and surprise

optic disk

Area of the retina without rods or cones, where the optic nerve exits the back of the eye.

superiority complex.

At the other extreme, people can overcompensate for their feelings of inferiority and develop a

problem-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

Alfred Adler:

Austrian physician who broke away from Freud and focused his theory on how feelings of inferiority and striving for superiority impact personality development.

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.

basal metabolic rate

BMR, refers to the rate at which your body uses energy for vital body functions when you are resting/lying down

Barbiturates

Barbiturates decrease activity in the brain centers that control arousal, wakefulness, and alertness.

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats

Oral Stage:

Birth to 1 year

Body temperature and metabolism

Body temperature rises and metabolism decreases before eating. As your meal is consumed, body temperature lowers and metabolism increases

REM sleep behavior disorder

Brain fails to shut down coluntary actuons and person acts out dreams

Physiology

Branch of biology that studies functions and parts of living organisms

Comparative psychology

Branch of psychology that studies the behavior of different animal species

axon terminals

Branches at the end of the axon that contain tiny pouches, or sacs, called synaptic vesicles.

Evaluating the Social Cognitive Perspective on Personality:

By emphasizing the self-regulation of behavior, the social cognitive perspective places most of the responsibility for our behavior, and for the consequences we experiences, squarely on our own shoulders.

Edward B. Titchener

Came up with structuralism- emphasis on studying the most basic components or structures of conscious experiences (first formal school of psychology) (used introspection only)

aptitude

Capacity for learning; natural ability

Collective Unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history. Ex: (Refer to Image) One archetype which appears in the stories of many different cultures is that of the wicked fairy-tale stepmother.

semantic memory

Category of long-term memory that includes memories of general knowledge, concepts, facts, and names.

Interneurons

Central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

pheromones

Chemical signals released by an animal that communicate information and affect the behavior of other animals of the same species.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another

Emotional Safety

Child psychologists and teacher have found that children need a predictable world; a child prefers consistency, fairness, and a certain amount of routine. When these elements are absent, he/she becomes anxious and insecure. Freedom within limits rather than total permissiveness is preferred.

ways to enhance your creativity

Choose the goal of creativity Reinforce creative behavior Engage in problem finding Acquire relevant knowledge Try different approaches Exert effort and expect setbacks

Circadian Rhythms

Circadian are the cyclical daily fluctuations in many different biological and psychological processes. roughly 24 hours long.

Statistics

Collection of methods for planning experiments, obtaining data, organizing, summarizing, presenting, analyzing, interpreting, and drawing conclusions based on data.

schemas

Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.

(In Focus Box)

David Lykkens refers to certain traits as emergenic: that is, they result from unique configurations of many interacting genes. The influence of environmental factors is at least equal to the influence of genetic factors.

Single-Feature Model

Decision based on a single feature

Repression

Defense mechanism by which anxiety-provoking thoughts and feelings are forced to the unconscious.

Sublimation

Defense mechanism by which people redirect socially unacceptable impulses toward acceptable goals.

Denial

Defense mechanism by which people refuse to accept reality.

Reaction formation

Defense mechanism that involves acting in the opposite way than what you are feeling

Alzheimer's disease Stage 1

Deficits in recent memory and the inability to recall certain information from long-term memory, accompanied by efforts to cover up the memory loss.

Availability Heuristics

Determine the likelihood of an event based on how readily we remember other instances of the event

representativeness heuristic

Determine the likelihood of an event by comparing it to the prototype for the event

René Descartes

Early French philosopher that came up with interactive dualism- idea that brain and body were separate entities that interact to produce sensations, emotions and other conscious experiments

Thomas and Chess (1950s) rated young infants on a variety of characteristics, such as activity level, mood, regularity in sleeping and eating, and attention span

Easy; Difficult; Slow-to-warm-up

Ecstasy's effects

Ecstasy's effects may result from its causing the release of serotonin and its ability to block serotonin reuptake. Several studies have shown potential irreversible damage to serotonin nerve endings in the brain. Long-term effects include depression with memory and verbal reasoning.

Ecstasy:

Ecstasy: chemical MDMA; at low doses has stimulant effects; at high doses it has psychedelic effects.

The Roles of Genetics and Environment in Determining Intelligence

Environmental factors influence which genes are switched on, or activated. Individuals inherit a potential range for a trait, and environmental factors determine how close they come to realizing that genetic potential. The genetic range of intellectual potential is influenced by many genes, not by a simple gene.

William James

Established functionalism- early school of psychology that emphasized studying the purpose/ function of behavior and mental experiences (included direct observation)

elimination by aspects

Evaluate all alternative, one characteristic at a time, starting with the most important feature; eliminate failures immediately

Francis C. Sumner

First African American to receive a Ph.D in psychology, helped more African Americans in psychology field

Marcharte Floy Washburn

First American women to earn PhD, advocated for study of different animals for research, second women president of APA

Mary Whitin Calkins

First female president of APA, write introduction to psychology, earned but never reviewed PhD

cerebrospinal fluid

Fluid in the space between the meninges that acts as a shock absorber that protects the central nervous system.

Hypnosis:

Focused attention; increased responsiveness to suggestions- best canidates are creative and positive about experience

reliable signal

For learning to occur, the conditioned stimulus must be a reliable signal that predicts the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus.

Pierre Paul Broca

French surgeon and neuroanatomist who treated people with difficulty speaking but could comprehend writing- led to discover cause was damage to the lower left frontal lobe

Freud vs. Rogers on Human Nature:

Freud and Rogers saw human nature quite differently!

Freud versus Bandura on Human Aggression:

Freud viewed aggression as a universal, unconscious instinct that must be controlled by internal and external restraints. Social cognitive theorists emphasize that behaviors, even aggression, are driven by conscious goals and motives.

Neo-Freudians disagreed (1)

Freud's belief that behavior was primarily motivated by sexual urges.

Neo-Freudians disagreed (2)

Freud's contention that personality is fundamentally determined by early

Neo-Freudians disagreed (3)

Freud's generally pessimistic view of human nature and society.

Psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions. Ex: Freud would say that, in relating to his psychoanalytic theory, one's characteristic aggressive and assertive personality may be a result of a manifesting of one's own internal conflict.

predictive value

From Rescorla's studies on rats, animals assess the predictive value of stimuli. Based on other studies, classical conditioning seems to involve learning the relationship between events.

mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

Alzheimer's disease Stage 4

Gait and motor disturbances worsen. Patient becomes mute and bedridden. Edema develops, and patient is close to death.

alleles

Genes can come in different versions; The best-known pattern of variation is the simple dominant-recessive gene pair

karl wernicke

German neurologist who in 1874 discovered an area on the left temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex that , when damaged, produces meaningless or nonsensical speech and difficulties in verbal or written comprehension

Karen Horney:

German-born American psychoanalyst who stressed the importance of cultural and social factors and social relationship (especially parent-child) in personality development.

figure-ground relationship

Gestalt principle stating that a perception is automatically separated into the figure, which clearly stands out, from its less distinct background, the ground

Individualism

Giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications. Ex: Guilt is often used as a punishment in individualistic nations such as the U.S. and Canada, for not fulfilling or achieving one's own goals.

Collectivism

Giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly. Ex: Shame is often used as a punishment in collectivist nations such as China and Japan, for not fulfilling or achieving the country's goals that would've furthered the society as a whole.

induction

Giving specific reasoning as to why they are being punished or have to do something

personal control and stress

Having a sense of control may reduce the negative impact of the stressor and it increases positive emotions, and self-efficacy. If they are unrealistic expectations of control, they increase amount of stress you have over something

Canadian endocrinologist Hans Selye

He found that rats exposed to a variety of prolonged stressors had the same pattern of physical changes: the adrenal glands became enlarged; stomach ulcers and loss of weight occurred; and there was shrinkage of the thymus gland and lymph glands, two key components of the immune system.

Maslow work

He studied historical figures (past and present) and found that members of this self- actualized group shared some characteristics: they enjoyed life; were able to form deep, positive relationships; they respected themselves; were able to make mistakes and take risks; they were highly creative; dedicated to their jobs and ideas; and they had little self-conflict

Karl Lashley

He was an American psychologist and behaviorist well-remembered for his influential contributions to the study of learning and memory. His failure to find a single biological locus of memory in the rat's brain (or "engram", as he called it) suggested to him that memories were not localized to one part of the brain, but were widely distributed throughout the cerebral cortex.

Edward L. Thorndike experiments

He would place hungry cats in a "puzzle box" that allowed escape by some simple action. Through trial and error, the cats learned to unlatch the puzzle box door and escape

Kenneth Bancroft Clark

Helped end segregation, first African American president of APA

Learned Helplessness:

Helplessness: the phenomenon in which exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behavior.

Elizabeth Loftus

Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony

Brain structures involved in memory

Hippocampus- necessary for encoding new explicit memory Cerebellum- learning skills and conditioned associations Amygdala- assoc. Emotion with memories, especially the negative ones. Medial temporal lobes- involved in encoding complex memories by forming links among the information stored in different areas of the brain Prefrontal cortex-memory involving the sequence of events but not the events themselves

Carl Rogers

Humanisic; self-concept and unconditional positive regard drive personality

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic perspective, Theory of motivation for emphasizes psychological growth

Cultural differences in test-taking behavior

If standardized intelligence tests reflect white, middle-class cultural knowledge and values, minority-group members might do poorly on the tests not because of lower intelligence but because of unfamiliarity with the white, middle-class culture. It is generally recognized that it is impossible to design a completely culture-free test. A test will tend to favor the people from the culture in which it was developed

Focus on Neuroscience:

In 1990s, research by Rizzolatti and colleagues discovered mirror neurons, which are neurons that fire both when an action is performed and when the action is simple perceived. Many neuroscientists and psychologists believe that mirror neurons play and important role in imitation and observational learning.

successful intelligence

In Robert Sternberg's framework, the optimal form of cognition, involving having a good balance of analytic, creative, and practical intelligence.

Self

In contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions. Ex: (Refer to Image). One's self can play a significant role in any situation, as it helps one to organize one's thoughts, and help one to organize these thoughts into their resulting actions.

The Neo-Freudians

In general, the neo-Freudian's disagreed with Freud on three key points.

Adult Development

In his theory of psychosocial development, Erik Erikson described two fundamental themes that dominate adulthood: love and work

Free Association

In psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing. Ex: (Refer to Image).

Repression

In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. Ex: This may manifest when one banishes feelings of sorrow, by not being able to remember one's loved one's funeral.

Defense Mechanisms

In psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality. Ex: If a husband wanted to banish unwanted feelings of wanting to be unfaithful to his wife, he may use defense mechanisms such as projection, displacement, reaction formation, sublimation, rationalization, denial, regression, or repression to do so.

critical thinking

In the 1990s, proponents of recovery therapy (trauma therapy, repressed memory therapy) claimed to have identified the root cause of many psychological problems - sexual abuse in childhood. They asserted that many adult "survivors" had completely repressed all memories of the abuse. Critics contend that many of the supposedly "recovered" memories are actually false memories produced by the suggestions of well-intentioned but misguided therapists.

Pineal gland

In the endocrine gland and regulates melotonin

ganglion cells

In the retina, the specialized neurons that connect to the bipolar cells; the bundled axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerve.

Freudian theory several valid criticisms.

Inadequacy of evidence. Lack of testability. Sexism.

temperament

Inborn predispositions to consistently behave and react in a certain way define

Prolonged wakefulness

Increase in adenosine levels and sleepiness; NREM sleep reduces adenosine levels; caffeine blocks adenosine receptors

Chunking

Increasing the amount of information that can be held in short-term memory by grouping related items together into a single unit, or chunk.

Neurons

Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information.

explicit memory

Information or knowledge that can be consciously recollected; also called declarative memory.

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

Is a tiny cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus in the brain that controls the timing of circadian rhythms.

Caffeine

It increases mental alertness and wakefulness by blocking adenosine receptors in the brain.

Differences within groups vs. differences between groups

It is possible to estimate the degree of difference within a specific group that is due to heredity, but not the difference between groups that is due to heredity

Cocaine

It works by blocking reuptake in neurotransmitters. Cocaine produces intense euphoria, mental alertness, and self-confidence.

Loss of entrainment for circadian rhythms

Jetlag- physical and mental fatigue, depression, irritability, disrupted sleep

postconventional level

Kohlberg's highest level of moral development, in which moral actions are judged on the basis of personal codes of ethics that are general and abstract and that may not agree with societal norms

Alzheimer's disease Stage 3

Language loss becomes pronounced. Often, hostility, hallucinations, and delusions are present. Institutional care is often needed at this stage.

Additive Model

List important factors, give varying weights to each factor and add the ratings for each factor

Lying

Lying is inferred when people show arousal patterns typically associated with anxiety or fear during a polygraph interview. -It is generally agreed in the scientific community that polygraphs aren't a valid method to detect lies and that their results should not be used as evidence.

Focus on Neuroscience: The Adolescent Brain

MRI scans have revealed 2 distinct spurts of brain development - one during prenatal development and one during late childhood just prior to puberty. The last brain area to experience pruning and maturity is the prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex does not reach full maturity until the mid-20s.

Self-Esteem Needs

Maslow found that people have two categories of esteem or self-respect needs: Self-esteem and Esteem from other people

Love and Belongingness Needs and Maslow

Maslow found that the absence of love stifles growth and the development of one's potential. Love involves a healthy, loving relationship and includes mutual trust and respect. In a proper relationship, there is a lack of fear, and a dropping of the defenses. Maslow states that, "the Love Needs involve both giving and receiving love...we must understand love, we must be able to teach it to others, to predict it ...or else the world is lost to hostility and suspicion."

Maslow

Maslow worked to create a description of happy and mentally healthy people, whom he called self-actualized persons or persons who have developed to their full abilities.

Culture and Coping Strategies

Members of individualistic cultures tend to emphasize personal autonomy and personal responsibility in dealing with problems; thus, they are less likely to seek social support in stressful situations than are members of collectivistic cultures. In collectivistic cultures, however, a greater emphasis is placed on controlling personal reactions to a stressful situation than on trying to control the situation itself

Alzheimer's disease Stage 2

Memory loss becomes worse, and the patient is no longer able to cover it up. Often, the person becomes more irritable and has difficulty remembering how to get home or to other places. Depression is noticeable.

Effects of early versus late maturation

Most adolescents are "on time" - maturational changes are occurring at roughly the same time for them as for others in their peer group.

Factors that Involve Obesity

Nature vs. Nurture Leptin Resistance Dieting/Weight Cycling

Neuropeptide Y

Neurotransmitter manufactured in brain (including hypothalamus); during negative energy balance times, NPY is secreted triggering eating behavior, reducing metabolism, and promoting fat storage; During positive energy balance times, NPY production decreases

Science versus Pseudoscience: Can a DVD help your baby be a genius

No- kids learn more if you talk to them

color blindness

One of several inherited forms of color deficiency or weakness in which an individual cannot distinguish between certain colors.

Aristotle

One of the first to write about sleep, dreams, the senses and memory- remained influential until modern science in 17th century

Self-Esteem

One's feelings of high or low self-worth. Ex: (Refer to Image) The individual in the image obviously has a high self-esteem.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning deals with the learning of active, voluntary behaviors that are shaped and maintained by their consequences

Spotlight Effect

Overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us). Ex: (Refer to Image). When dancing at a party one may falsely believe that if one falls, others will automatically notice and judge oneself.

Methamphetamine

PET scans of former meth users show a significant reduction in the number of dopamine receptors and transporters. Memory and motor skill problems are common in former abusers

Chronic Negative Emotions and Positive Emotions

People who are habitually anxious, depressed, angry, or hostile are more likely to develop a chronic disease. Such people experience more stress than do happier people. Research has shown that positive emotions are associated with increased resistance to infection, decreased illnesses, fewer reports of illness symptoms, less pain, and longevity.

Emotion facts

People who experience very intense positive emotions will also experience very intense negative emotions. - People who are more emotionally expressive are more liked than people who are more inhibited in their expression of emotions. - Men and women do not differ in their experience of emotions, but they do differ in their expression of emotions. (Women are more expressive.)

Henry Murray and Christiana Morgan in the 1930s came up with a test to measure human motives: Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Person being tested makes up a story about a picture and the story is coded for different motivational themes

Psychological Factors

Personal control research consistently shows that having a sense of control over a stressful situation reduces the impact of stressors and decreases feelings of anxiety and depression

Pyschoanalysis

Personality theory and form of psychotherapy that emphasizes unconscious factors in personality and behavior

Biological

Physical bases of human and animal behavior

Physical Changes in Adulthood

Physical strength typically peaks in early adulthood, (20s/30s); by middle adulthood, roughly from the 40s to mid-60s, physical strength and endurance gradually decline; and during late adulthood, from the mid-60s+, physical stamina and reaction time tend to decline further and faster

Strategies for resisting the temptation of short-term reinforcers and improving self-control:

Precommitment Self-Reinforcement Stimulus Control Focus on the Delayed Observe Good Role Models

Stimulant-induced psychosis

Prolonged amohetamines or cocaine use that results in schizophrenia like symptoms called

Psychoactive Drugs

Psychoactive are chemical substances that can alter arousal, mood, thinking, sensation, and perception. depressants, opiates, stimulants, and psychedelic drugs.

Projection

Psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others. Ex: This can be shown when a wife is mad at her husband, but then insists that he is the one mad at her.

Sublimation

Psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people re-channel their unacceptable impulses into socially approved activities. Ex: When Tony was angry after receiving a bad grade on a test, he went to the gym to lift weights.

Denial

Psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even perceive painful realities. Ex: (Refer to Image). This is demonstrated when dying patients deny the severity of their illness.

Reaction Formation

Psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Ex: This can occur when one repeats over and over than they are not mad, when her or she is actually enraged.

Regression

Psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated. Ex: This can be shown in that if one becomes anxious, they will begin to suck his or her thumb for comfort (reverting back to a childhood behavior).

Rationalization

Psychoanalytic defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions. Ex: If one did not study for a test, then they may rationalize that they were too tired, so any studying would not have made any difference.

Displacement

Psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger towards a safer outlet. Ex: When Sara's boyfriend broke up with her, she came home and screamed at her mom.

Do Personality Factors Cause Disease

Psychologists and scientists are cautious in their statements about connections between personality and health, because... (1) Many studies investigating the role of psychological factors in disease are correlational. (2) Personality factors might indirectly lead to disease via poor health habits. (3) It may be that disease influences a person's emotions, rather than the other way around.

Punishment effectiveness

Punishment is more effective if it immediately and consistently follows a response.

Myoclonic jerks

Quick, involuntary muscle movement while falling asleep

Throught the night

REM gets longer and NREM gets shorter

Yawning

Regulates and increases level of arousal; is contagious; may be related to our ability to feel empathy

Positive Reinforcement

Reinforcement involves following an operant with the addition of a reinforcing stimulus. behavior is strengthened

Microglia (type of glial cell)

Removes waste products from nervous system including dead and damaged neurons.

Whorfian hypothesis

Research does not support the Whorf's argument that language determines perception and the structure of thought. Research does support the idea that language can influence perception and thought.

Traits five-factor model of personality,

Research has shown that traits are remarkably stable over time. Traits are also generally consistent across different situations, but situational influences may affect their expression.

Talking while sleeping

Researchers have been unsuccessful in having extended dialogues with people who talk in their sleep

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who 1st described the basic process of conditioning. He received the Nobel Prize for his work on the role of saliva in digestion

Two-Factor Theory:

Schachter and Singer a) experience something; b) physiological changes; c) interpret changes and label them; d) label is your emotion

Behaviorism

School of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes the study of observable negocios and how they obtain o the process of learning

Descriptive research

Scientific procedures that involve systematically observing behavior in order to describe the relationship among behaviors and events.

general adaptation syndrome

Selye's term for the three-stage progression of physical changes that occurs when an organism is exposed to intense and prolonged stress. 1. During the initial alarm stage, intense arousal occurs as the body mobilizes internal physical resources to meet the demands of the stress-producing event. 2. In the resistance stage, the body actively tries to resist or adjust to the continuing stressful situation. 3. If the stress-producing event persists, the exhaustion stage may occur, leading to exhaustion, physical disorders, and potentially death.

Proprioceptors

Sensory receptors, located in the muscles and joints, that provide information about body position and movement.

The Bilingual Mind

Several studies have found that bilingual speakers are better able to control attention and inhibit distracting information than are monolinguals Research suggests that bilinguals are better at taking the perspective of others such as imagining how another person might view a particular situation

delirium tremens (the DTs).

Shaking, hallucinations and confusion

Horney:

She believed that disturbances in human relationships, not sexual conflicts, were the cause of psychological problems. Such problems arise from the attempt to deal with basic anxiety.

Evaluating the Social Cognitive Perspective

Social cognitive perspective has been criticized for its limited view of personality; it focuses on very limited areas of psychology- learning, the effects of situations, and the effects of beliefs about the self - and ignores unconscious influences, emotions, and conflicts.

Intuition

Solutions achieved without conscious awareness of thought processes

Evaluating the Social Cognitive Perspective

Some psychologists feel that this approach applies best to laboratory research; they feel that clinical data rather than laboratory data may be more reflective of human personality.

cognitive reserve

Speaking two or more languages fluently seems to build up what researchers call a cognitive reserve that can help protect against cognitive decline in late adulthood

sensory receptors

Specialized cells unique to each sense organ that respond to a particular form of sensory stimulation.

Dreaming

Story like perception diring sleep; mlst often during REM but can occur less frequently in NREM; has characters and is creative

Eric Kandel

Studied the sea slug Aplysia and posited that learning and memory are evidenced by changes in synapses and neural pathways.

free-running cycle

Sunlight entrains (sets) the SCN so when we are in the absence of sunlight, we will drift towards a more natural rhythm- cycle-which is a little longer than a day (24.2-25 hours).

Carl Jung:

Swiss psychologist who broke from Freud to develop his own theory. Jung believed that people are motivated by a more general psychological energy that pushes them to achieve psychological growth, self-realization, and psychic wholeness and harmony.

Factors Involved in Becoming Overweight

The "SuperSize It" Syndrome Positive Incentive Value The Cafeteria Diet Effect Sedentary Lifestyles BMR: Individual Differences/Lifespan Changes Too Little Sleep

key psychosocial conflict facing adolescents is identity vs. role confusion

The adolescent's path to successful identity achievement begins with role confusion. This is followed by a moratorium period. Gradually, the adolescent arrives at an integrated identity

Late Adulthood and Aging

The average life expectancy for men in the U. S. in about 76 years; for women, it is about 81 years. The majority of older adults live healthy, active, and self-sufficient lives

Classical Conditioning:

The basic idea is that the organism learns an association between two stimuli because they have been paired together. The stimuli is unlearned (automatic) and is paired with a neutral stimulus. The unlearned stimuli will elicit a reflexive response

Physical Development

The basic sequence of motor skill development during infancy is universal, but the average ages can be a little deceptive (Each infant has its own genetically programmed timetable of physical maturation and developmental readiness to master different motor skills.)

nervous system

The body's communication network

Stuctural Plasticity

The brain's ability to change its physical structure in response to learning, active practice, or environmental influences.

Psychosexual Stages

The childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones. Ex: (Refer to Image). These stages, while interesting, are deemed to be of little importance to modern psychologists in truly understanding one's personality.

Contemporary Views of Classical Conditioning

The contemporary view of learning acknowledges the importance of both mental and evolutionary factors

AD progressively destroys neurons in the brain.

The disease first attacks the temporal lobe affecting areas involved in memory. Next it affects the frontal areas, which are involved in thinking, reasoning, self-control, and planning. There is also significant loss in the limbic areas, involved in regulating emotions.

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Personal Control

The extent to which people perceive control over their environment rather than feeling helpless. Ex: Someone with a lack of personal control may contribute their poor grades in a class to their unchangeable amount of intellect (helplessness), and will fail to see that they could receive better grades if they would study more.

social cognitive perspective.

The idea that one's conscious thoughts in different situations strongly influence his/her actions is one important characteristic of the

forgetting

The inability to recall information that was previously available

loudness

The intensity (or amplitude) of a sound wave, measured in decibels.

Reciprocal Determinism

The interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment. Ex: (Refer to Image). Using reciprocal determinism, one can conclude that a person's characteristic love for loud music and the atmosphere of concerts can be influenced, by their friends (environment), own behavior, as well as their own optimum level of arousal (cognition).

Ego

The largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain. Ex: A few weeks ago, my favorite show began to air its new season the night before an environmental science test. Though I wanted to watch the episode, my ego helped me to realize that if I didn't study I would receive a poor grade. As a result, I ended up studying for the test, and watched the show later.

axon

The long, fluid-filled tube that carries a neuron's messages to other body areas.

Rods

The long, thin, blunt sensory receptors of the eye that are highly sensitive to light, but not to color, and that are primarily responsible for peripheral vision and night vision. 125 million

maintenance rehearsal

The mental or verbal repetition of information in order to maintain it beyond the usual 20-second duration of short-term memory.

stimulus threshold

The minimum level of stimulation required to activate a particular neuron.

Frequency of conditioning

The more frequently the conditioned stimulus (neutral) and unconditioned stimulus are paired, the stronger the association between the two will get

Source Traits

The most fundamental dimensions of personality; the broad, basic traits that are hypothesized to be universal and relatively few in number.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

The most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Ex: Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered the most appropriate use), this test is not used for many other screening purposes.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

The most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots. Ex: (Refer to Image) One may describe this image as depicting a wolf or a woman's body.

dendrites

The multiple short fibers that extend from a neuron's cell body and receive information from other neurons or from sensory receptor cells.

brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions. made up of the hindbrain and the midbrain

cell body

The part of a cell that processes nutrients and provides energy for the neuron to function; contains the cell's nucleus; also called the soma.

Superego

The part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement (the conscience) and for future aspirations. Ex: (Refer to Image). A few weeks ago, my favorite show began to air its new season the night before an environmental science test. Though I wanted to watch the episode, my superego helped me realize that if I didn't study for the test, I would be acting lackadaisical, and feel bad about my poor performance later. As a result, I ended up studying for the test, and watching the show later.

middle ear

The part of the ear that amplifies sound waves; consists of three small bones: the hammer, the anvil, and the stirrup.

outer ear

The part of the ear that collects sound waves; consists of the pinna, the ear canal, and the eardrum.

central executive

The part of working memory that is responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources.

Brightness

The perceived intensity of a color, which corresponds to the amplitude of the light wave.

External Locus of Control

The perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate. Ex: (Refer to Image). Many religions encourage the external locus of control as many of them believe that a higher power controls people's fate.

Internal Locus of Control

The perception that you control your own fate. Ex: (Refer to Image).

color

The perceptual experience of different wavelengths of light, involving hue, saturation (purity), and brightness (intensity).

Emerging Adulthood

The period of life from the late teens until the mid- to late-20s is a distinct stage of the lifespan now; Many emerging adults feel "in between" since they are no longer adolescents, but not quite adults.

The Mysterious Placebo Effect

The placebo effect refers to the benefits that research participants derive from placebos. To test why placebos reduce pain, researchers placed painfully hot metal on the back of each volunteer's hand and then injected either an actual opioid painkiller or a saline solution placebo. Both groups reported pain relief, and on PET scans, both groups showed activation of the anterior cingulate cortex. Results: This study shows that cognitive expectations, learned associations, and emotional responses can have a profound effect on the perception of pain.

Detecting Lies

The polygraph measures physiological changes associated with emotion like fear, tension, and anxiety. Heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and other indicators.

encoding specificity principle

The principle that when the conditions of information retrieval are similar to the conditions of information encoding, retrieval is more likely to be successful.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitter molecules detach from a postsynaptic neuron and are reabsorbed by a synaptic neuron so they can be recycled reused

Identification

The process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos. Ex: Children eventually cope with the threatened feelings by repressing them and by identifying with (trying to become like) the rival parent—form gender identities (sense of being male or female). Through this identification process, children's superegos gain strength as they incorporate many of their parents' values.

Sensation

The process of detecting a physical stimulus, such as light, sound, heat, or pressure.

Critical Thinking/Effects of Childcare

The quality of the day care center will determine the benefit to the child

frequency

The rate of vibration, or the number of sound waves per second.

synaptic transmissions

The relaying of information across the synapse by means of chemical neurotransmitters.

cerebral hemispheres

The right and left halves of the cerebrum.

Positive Psychology

The scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive. Ex: (Refer to Image). In order to help heal one of a mental ailment, one that supports positive psychology may help the person to instead of reflecting on where things have gone wrong in their life, one may help the patient to focus on the positive aspects in their life, along with positive ways to better the person's mental state.

cones

The short, thick, pointed sensory receptors of the eye that detect color and are responsible for color vision and visual acuity. 6-7 million

difference threshold

The smallest possible difference between two stimuli that can be detected half the time; also called just noticeable difference.

biological psychology

The specialized branch of psychology that studies the relationship between behavior and bodily processes and systems; also called biopsychology or psychobiology.

prenatal stage

The stage of development before birth; divided into the germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods.

resting potential

The state in which a neuron is prepared to activate and communicate its message if it receives sufficient stimulation.

neuroscience

The study of the nervous system, especially the brain.

Watson study (infamously known)

The subject was 9-mth-old "Little Albert" eventually Little Albert was conditioned to fear a thing that he previously liked (white rat) because it was paired with a feared stimulus (clang of a steel bar)

glial cells or glia

The support cells that assist neurons by providing structural support, nutrition, and removal of cell wastes; glial cells manufacture myelin.

working memory

The temporary storage and active, conscious manipulation of information needed for complex cognitive tasks, such as reasoning, learning, and problem solving.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute one's success to internal factors while attributing one's failures to external factors. Ex: When Daniel gets a good grade on his test, he says that it's because he studied hard, but when he receives poor grades, he says that it's because he had too much work to do, and that his parents made him go to sleep early.

overestimation effect

The tendency to overestimate the rarity of events

trichromatic theory of color vision

The theory that the sensation of color results because cones in the retina are especially sensitive to red light (long wavelengths), green light (medium wavelengths), or blue light (short wavelengths).

optic nerve

The thick nerve that exits from the back of the eye and carries visual information to the visual cortex in the brain.

Timing of conditioning

The timing of the stimulus presentations also affects the strength of the conditioned response; conditioning most effective when the conditioned stimulus is presented immediately before the unconditioned stimulus. A half-second is the optimal time interval

synaptic gap

The tiny space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of an adjoining neuron

intelligence

The use of mental images and concepts, problem solving and decision-making, and the use of language

place theory

The view that different frequencies cause larger vibrations at different locations along the basilar membrane.

frequency theory

The view that the basilar membrane vibrates at the same frequency as the sound wave

In 1921, Terman identified 1,500 California children with IQ's above 140 and began a longitudinal research study to see how genius-level intelligence would affect the course of their lives

These children tended to be socially well adjusted. They were taller, stronger, and healthier than average children and had fewer illnesses and accidents. As adults (as a group) their incomes were very high, 2/3's graduated from college, and many became successful professional. Personality factors seemed to account for the difference in the level of accomplishment of the 100 most successful and the 100 least successful men. (The most successful were more goal-oriented, had greater perseverance, and had greater self-confidence.) IQ scores reliably predict academic success, but success in school is no guarantee of success beyond school

Self-Actualization Needs

This high level will only appear after all others have been satisfied and according to Maslow, all people need to feel self-actualized in order to be mentally healthy and happy

synaptic vesicles

Tiny pouches or sacs in the axon terminals that contain chemicals called neurotransmitters.

Shaping and Maintaining Behavior

To scientifically study the relationship between behavior and its consequences in the laboratory, Skinner invented the Skinner Box, Operant Chamber;

Maslow finds that the need for self-actualization generally emerges after the love and esteem needs have been reasonably satisfied. Values held by self-actualized individuals are as follows

Truth Justice Goodness Order Beauty Simplicity Aliveness Richness Individuality Playfulness Perfection Effortlessness Necessity Completion Self-sufficiency Meaningfulness

Turning Your Goals into Reality

Turn your goals into action: form an actual goal and set specific concrete ways to reach it, be intentional about your behaviors

hertz

Unit of frequency

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

Used to evaluate potential recruits for ww1

Social Development in Adulthood

Variations in the Paths of Adult Social Development -in 2012, well over 8 million unmarried couples were living together -more than 30% of children are being raised by a single parent -more than half of all first marriages end in divorce, so remarrying and starting a "second family" later in life is not unusual -there are also gay and lesbian couples in committed, long-term, relationships -in the end, any relationship that promotes the overall sense of happiness and well-being of the people involved is a successful one

Social-Cognitive Perspective

Views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context. Ex: (Refer to Image).

REM sleep

Visual and motor muerons in the brain activate repeatedly just as they do wakefulness; sleepers eyes move and sleeper is paraliysed; heart rate, blood pressure, respirations can fluctuate

Hypnagogic hallucinations

Vivid dreamlike hallucination that occurs while you are falling asleep

Watson study

Watson and graduate student Rosalie Rayner were set to demonstrate that classical conditioning could be used to deliberately establish conditioned emotional response in a human subject.

how do classical conditioning and operant conditioning impact your motivation to eat

We should stop eating when we feel satiated. This feeling is due to the CCK hormone (short for cholecystokinin) secreted by the small intestine that promotes a "full" feeling. *unless we experience "sensory-specific satiety" and are now tired of our main meal, but we can be ready for that piece of chocolate cake

Sleep patterns throughout lifetime

We slend less time sleeping/ less time in NREM 3/4; up to an hour is spent dozing- less time in REM too

Relationships with others also can be a significant source of stress

When other people are perceived as being judgmental, their presence may increase the individual's physical reaction to a stressor. Women may be particularly vulnerable to some of the problematic aspects of social support. Women are more likely than men to serve as providers of support, which can be a very stressful role. Women may be more likely to suffer from the stress contagion effect Men tend to rely heavily on a close relationship with their spouse, placing less importance on relationships with other people

inferiority complex.

When people are unable to compensate for specific weaknesses or when their feelings of inferiority are excessive, they can develop

Ongoing or chronic stress may result in

When people live in an environment that is inherently stressful. People in the lowest socioeconomic levels of society tend to have the highest levels of psychological distress, illness, and death. They also experience more health and economic problems and more incidents of violence.

Love and Belongingness Needs

When the physiological and safety needs are met, needs for love, affection, and belonging appear. The person hungers for affectionate relations with people, for a place in a group, and will strive with great intensity to achieve this goal.

the drug rebound effect

When the withdrawal symptoms experienced are the opposite of the drug's action

neodissociation theory of hypnosis.

While one stream is "hidden observer" and has responding to the hypnotist's suggestions, the other dissociated stream is operating as suspended judgement on the behavior and actions taking place.

consciousness

Your immediate awareness of thoughts, sensations, memories, and the world around you

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

Antagonist

a chemical substance that blocks or reduces the effects of a neurotransmitter

cornea

a clear membrane covering the visible part of the eye that helps gather and direct incoming light

retrieval cues

a clue, prompt, or hint that helps trigger recall of a given piece of information stored in long-term memory

amygdala

a cluster of neurons in the brain that largely controls the body's fear response and emotions

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

intellectual disabilities

a condition in which IQ is 70 or below, has little empirical evidence to support it

astigmatism

a condition in which the eye does not focus properly because of uneven curvatures of the cornea

Howard Gardner

a contemporary American psychologist, contends that there are "multiple intelligences" - eight independent intelligences- with each being defined within the context of a particular culture

Intellectualization

a coping mechanism in which the person analyzes a situation from an emotionally detached viewpoint

false memory

a distorted or fabricated recollection of something that did not actually occur

Ghrelin

a hormone manufactured in the stomach stimulates appetite and secretes growth hormone by the pituitary gland. Levels of this hormone rise sharply before eating and fall abruptly after eating

Leptin

a hormone produced by fat cells that signals hypothalamus, regulating hunger and eating behaviors; it is directly correlated to the amount of body fat one has

long-term potentiation

a long-lasting increase in synaptic strength between two neurons

"Club Drugs"

a loose collection of psychoactive drugs that are popular at dance clubs, parties, and "raves." Many are designer drugs that were manufactured in a laboratory.

Mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance

source confusion

a memory distortion that occurs when the true source of the memory is forgotten

deja vu experience

a memory illusion characterized by brief but intense feelings of familiarity in a situation that has never been experienced before

imagination inflation

a memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred

stage model of memory

a model describing memory as consisting of three distinct stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

substance p

a neurotransmitter involved in pain perception

Epigenetics

a new field that studies the mechanisms that control gene expression (which genes are activated) and their effects on behaviors and health

Correlation coefficient

a numerical indication of the magnitude and direction of the relationship between two variables

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

operational definition

a precise description of how the variables in a study will be manipulated or measured

Punishment

a process in which a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated

top-down processing

a progression from the whole to the elements

Alzheimer's disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning

positive correlation

a relationship between variables in which one variable increases as the other variable also increases

correlational study

a research project designed to discover the degree to which two variables are related to each other

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

Representative sample

a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole

script

a schema for the typical sequence of an everyday event

prolonged stress activates

a second endocrine pathway that involves the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the adrenal cortex

meta-analysis

a statistical technique that averages the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable

Algorithms

a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem

visuospatial sketchpad

a storage component of working memory that maintains visual images and spatial material

Natural experiment

a study investigating the effects of a naturally occurring event on the research participants

Insight

a sudden realization of the solution to a problem

Biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

Confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

retina

a thin, light-sensitive membrane, located at the back of the eye, that contains the sensory receptors for vision

ear drum

a tightly stretched membrane at the end of the ear canal that vibrates when hit by sound waves

Facial feedback hypothesis

a) experience something; b) belief that if one expresses a certain emotion, especially facially, they will "trigger" the subjective experience (feeling) of that emotion

Cannon Bard Theory:

a) experience something; b) physiological change and experience emotion simultaneously (due to thalamus sending message to multiple parts of brain at the same time)

James-Lange Theory

a) experience something; b) physiological changes; c) experience emotion

Unconditional positive regard

according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person

Optimistic explanatory style

accounting for negative events or situations with external, unstable, and specific explanations

ions

action potential is produced by the movement of electricity charged particles across the membrane of the axon

Formal Operational Stage

ages 12+ (adolescence into adulthood); this stage is characterized by the ability to think logically about abstract principles and hypothetical situations

Preoperational Stage

ages 2-7 years; in Piaget's theory, the word operations refers to logical mental activities; thus, this stage reflects type of pre logical thinking in a child characterized by symbolic thought, egocentrism, irreversibility, centration, and a lack of conservation understanding.

Concrete Operational Stage

ages 7-11; stage is characterized by the ability to think logically about concrete (tangible) objects and situations

Sensorimotor Stage (Piaget)

ages birth to 2 years; infants acquire knowledge about the world through actions that allow them to directly experience and manipulate objects; object permanence; schemas

Robert Sternberg

agrees with Gardner that intelligence is a much broader quality than is reflected in the narrow range of mental abilities measured by a conventional IQ test

pheripheral nervous system

all nerves outside the central nervous system

directly affected by stress

altering bodily functions, leading to symptoms, illness, or disease.

G. Stanley Hall

american psychologist who established the first psychology research laboratory in the United States and founded the American Psychological Association (first Phd in America)

humanistic psychology

an approach to understanding human nature that emphasizes the potential growth and self direction

mood congruence

an encoding specificity phenomenon in which a given mood tends to evoke memories that are consistent with that mood

Attachment Theory developed by John Bowlby and Mary D. Salter Ainsworth

an infant's ability to thrive physically and psychologically depends in part on the quality of attachment

Case study

an intensive study of a single individual or small group of individuals

schema

an organized cluster of information about a particular topic

Cognitive abilities

analyzing situations, solving problems, making decisions, and using language, are widely regarded as key dimensions of intelligence.

Dissociative anesthetics

another class of club drugs that deaden pain, at high doses, they can induce a stupor or coma.

Behavior Modification

application of learning principles to help people develop more effective or adaptive behaviors. The (systematic) use of reinforcements and shaping that results in getting an increased desired behavior from the organism.

Break Set

approaching a problem in a novel, new, workable way; this is when one is demonstrating creativity

Tranquilizers

are depressants that relieve anxiety. (Common prescription drugs are Xanax, Valium, Librium, and Ativan.)

Traumatic events

are events or situations that are negative, severe, and far beyond our normal expectations for everyday life. Some psychologically vulnerable people may develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Teratogens

are harmful agents or substances that can cause abnormal development or birth defects. (Ex: radiation; toxic chemicals; viruses or bacteria; and/or drugs.)

Chromosomes

are long, threadlike structures composed of twisted parallel strands of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) found in the nucleus of the cell.

Exemplars

are our stored memories of individual instances/examples of a concept... they will differ from person to person or culture to culture

Surface Traits

are personality elements that can be directly observed

Self-Report inventories

are psychological tests in which people's responses to standardized questions are compared with established norms.

Telomeres

are repeated, duplicate DNA sequences that are found at the very tips of chromosomes. They protect the genetic data in the chromosomes from being broken or scrambled during cell division. With each cell division, the string of telomeres gets shorter.

substania nigra

area of the midbrain that is involved in motor control and contains a large concentration of dopamine-producing neurons

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

linguistic relativity hypothesis or Whorfian hypothesis

argues that differences among languages causes differences in the thoughts of their speakers.

Negative correlation

as one variable increases, the other decreases or vice versa

Psychological tests

assess a person's abilities, aptitudes, interests, or personality on the basis of systematically obtained sample of behavior.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

assesses personality characteristics and psychology disorders; it is used to assess both normal and disturbed populations.

California Personality Inventory

assesses personality characteristics on normal populations.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

assesses personality types by measuring a person's preferred way of dealing with information, making decisions, and interacting with others, through 4 categories of preferences assumed to be dichotomies. (There are 16 different types.)

Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe's Social Readjustment Rating Scale

assessment that measures the amount of stress in a person's life over a one-year period resulting from major life events (43 events)

insecure attachment

attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence

Secure attachment

attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction

A personality theory

attempts to describe and explain similarities and differences in people's patterns of thinking, feeling, and behavior.

Attention in our daily lives

attention has a limited capacity attention is selective attention can be blind

VR;

because of the unpredictability, this produces a steady high rate of responding

Behavior Modification Has

been successful in improving worker performance, increasing social skills in children, and promoting sleep at night

FI;

behavior increases closer to end of preset time

twin studies and adoption studies,

behavioral genetics have found that certain personality traits are substantially influenced by genetics, especially extraversion and neuroticism. Openness to experience and conscientiousness are also substantially influenced by genetics, although to a lesser degree than extraversion and neuroticism.

John B. Watson

behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat

Jean Piaget

believed that children actively try to make sense out of their environment rather than passively soaking up information about the world

S. Freud-

believed that dreams represent our urges and wishes. They serve as a "safety valve" for the unconscious.

Louis L. Thurstone

believed that there were seven different "primary mental abilities," each a relatively independent element of intelligence

Albert Bandura

believes that observational learning is the result of cognitive processes that are "actively judgmental and constructive," not merely "mechanical copying."

Deci and Ryan's Self-Determination Theory

believes that people are growth oriented and strive toward harmony with others; said we have 3 innate needs that we are motivated to satisfy... 1) autonomy (control over own behavior and goals), 2) competence (learn and master tasks), and 3) relatedness (feel connected to others).

The brains of AD patients develop an abundance of two abnormal structures

beta-amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles.

glucose

blood sugar in the body, this is the main source of energy for all mammals

adipose tissue

body fat; the main source of stored calories; can be used if necessary

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

Sleep Thinking

brain functions during sleep; produce vague, repetitive, bland, uncreative images about real-life events; occur during NREM sleep

Hypothalamus

brain region controlling the pituitary gland

cross-cultural psychology

branch of psychology that studies the effects of culture on behavior and mental processes

nerves

bundles of neuron axons that carry information in the peripheral nervous system

media violence

can cause short-term aggressive behavior Psychologists generally agree that some viewers are highly susceptible to the negative effects of media violence

procedual memory

category of long-term memory that included memories of different skills, operations, and actions

ventricles

cerebrospinal fluid that fills four hollow cavities in the brain called

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

agonist

chemical substance that binds to a receptor site and triggers a response in the cell

Noam Chomsky

children are born with a biological predisposition to learn language; "universal grammar"

integrated identity

choosing among the alternatives and making commitments

Paul Ekman and Walter Friesen

coded different facial expressions by analyzing facial muscles involved in producing each facial expression. (Ekman found possible 7,000 facial expressions)

Edward C. Tolman

cognitive processes played an important role in the learning of complex behaviors

identity-acheivement

commitment to values, beliefs, and goals following a period of exploration

microaggressions

common, everyday verbal or behavioral indignities and slights that communicate hostile, derogatory, and negative messages about someone's race, gender, sexual orientation, or religion

presynaptic neuron

conducts impulses toward the synapse

three different levels of awareness

conscious level, the preconscious/subconscious level, and the unconscious level

Reliability

consistency of measurement

Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development

consists of 8 stages of life, each associated with a particular psychosocial conflict that can be resolved in either a positive or negative direction.

Psychedelic drugs

create sensory and perceptual distortions, alter moods, and affect thinking.

self-efficacy.

critical self-system our beliefs of self-efficacy.

demand characteristics

cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected

Collectivistic cultures

cultures that emphasize the needs and goals of the group over the needs and goals of the individual

inhibitory message

decreases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will activate

collective unconscious,

deepest part of the individual psyche which is shared by all people and reflects humanity's collective evolutionary history.

Compartmentalization

defense mechanism by which neurotics alleviate tensions by separating beliefs and actions within themselves

Rationalization

defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions

Stress

defined as a negative emotional state occurring in response to events that are perceived as taxing or exceeding a person's resources or ability to cope

Standardization

defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

John Garcia

demonstrated that taste aversions could be produced in laboratory rats under controlled conditions. His findings challenged several of the basic beliefs of classical conditioning.

Inhalants:

depress the central nervous system

Alcohol:

depresses the neurons throughout the brain and impairs cognitive and speech, as well as physical abilities

monocular cues

depth cues available to either eye alone

binocular cues

depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes

Marijuana

derived from the hemp plant (cannabis sativa) and is one of the most widely used illegal drugs. The chemical THC is the active ingredient in marijuana.

Basic goals of psychology

describe, predict, explain, control/influence

Cardiologists Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman

described the Type A behavior pattern as a behavioral and emotional style characterized by a sense of time urgency, hostility, and intense ambition and competitiveness. (risk of heart disease) In contrast, people who were more relaxed and laid back were classified as displaying the Type B behavior pattern.

Richard Lazarus

developed a scale to measure daily hassles- everyday occurrences that annoy and upset people

Hans Eysenck

developed a trait theory of personality that includes three basic dimensions. Eysenck believed that individual differences in personality were due to biological differences among people. (1) Introversion - Extroversion (2) Neuroticism- Emotional Stability (3) Psychoticism

David Wechsler

developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) - first published in 1955. He believed that intelligence involved a variety of different mental abilities. The 4th edition of WAIS (WAIS-IV) is the most commonly administered intelligence test

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon

devised a series of tests to measure different mental abilities

polarized

difference between inside and outside of neuron (description of neuron waiting fo stimulation)

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

myopia

distant objects appear blurry because the light reflected off the objects focuses in front of the retina

Aplysia

do not have a true brain and are capable of only basic responses to the environment

Gestalt Psychology

early perspective in psychology focusing on perception and sensation, particularly the perception of patterns and whole figures or gestalts founded by max wertheimer

serotonin

emotional states, sleep, sensory perception (depression)

3 broad categories of social suppor

emotional, tangible, and informational

triarchic theory of intelligence

emphasizes both the universal aspects of intelligent behavior and the importance of adapting to a particular social and cultural environment

social cognitive theory

emphasizes the social origins of thoughts and actions but also stresses active cognitive processes and the human capacity for self-regulation.

Acetylcholine

enables muscle action, learning, and memory (Alzheimer's)

The currently accepted heritability

estimate for intelligence is about 50 percent for the general population... that is, about 50 percent of the difference in IQ scores within a given population is due to genetic factors

Narcolepsy-

excessive daytime sleepiness and brief episodes of sleep at any time sleep attacks or microsleep; can last seconds to several minutes

Glutamate

excitatory messages (seizures, Alzheimer's)

andropause

experience a gradual decline in testosterone levels

white matter

extending inward from the cerebral cortex are white myelinated axons

Nicotine

extremely addictive stimulant found in all tobacco products. It increases mental alertness and reduces fatigue or drowsiness.

presbyopia

farsightedness caused by loss of elasticity of the lens of the eye, occurring typically in middle and old age.

Watson identified three emotions that he believed were innate

fear, rage, and love He believed that each emotion could be reflexively triggered by small number of specific stimuli.

intrinsic

find task inherently satisfying and enjoyable

Polarized concentration of particular ions while in resting potential

fluid surrounding axon contains larger concentration of sodium ions, the fluid within the axon contains a larger concentration of potassium ions

Trait theories

focus on identifying, describing, and measuring individual differences in behavioral predispositions.

Physiological Needs

food, water, warmth, sex, sleep, oxygen, freedom from pain, and elimination

retroactive interference

forgetting in which a new memory interferes with remembering an old memory; backward-acting memory interference

proactive memory

forgetting in which an old memory interferes with remembering a new memory; forward-acting memory interference

Martin Seligman

found that how people characteristically explain their failures and defeats makes a difference (optimistic vs. pessimistic theories)

brent strickland and frank keil

found that pre-existing schemas can distort memories for events within seconds of viewing them

Personality theories grouped

four basic perspectives: psychoanalytic; humanistic; social cognitive; and the trait perspectives.

FMRI

functional magnetic resonance imaging

nodes of ranvier

gaps in the myelin sheath

Karl Duncker

german gestalt psychologist who is nest known for his studies on the perception of motion

Wilhelm Wundt

german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879, emphasized experimental methods to study and measure consciousness

gray matter

glial cells, neuron bodies and axons that make up the cerebral cortex and have a grayish appearance

limbic system

group of forebrain structures that form a border around brainstem and involved in emotion, motivation, learning and memory

K. Warner Schaie

has found that general intellectual abilities gradually increase until one's early forties, then become relatively stable until about age 60, when a small but steadily increasing percentage of older adults experience slight declines on tests of general intellectual abilities.

Bandura's research

has shown that we observe the consequences that follow people's actions, the rules and standards that apply to behavior in specific situations, and the ways in which people regulate their own behavior.

temporal lobe

hearing

FR;

high rate of response followed by a pause after reinforcement (knows it's a long time until next reinforcer)

Catecholamines

hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla that affect the sympathetic nervous system in stress response

animus.

hostile feeling or intent; animosity; hostility; disposition

Observational Learning

how we acquire new behaviors by watching the actions of others.

human chemosignals

human pheromones

adrenal glands, adrenal cortex, adrenal medulla

human stress response, outer portion of glands, inner portion-secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine

"Third force"

humanistic psychology.

types of sensory memory

iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory)

"actualizing tendency."

in Roger's theory, the innate drive to maintain and enhance the human organism

corpus callosum

in forebrain and is a thick band of axons connecting the 2 hemispheres of the cerebral cortex

Cerebellum

in the hindbrain-Balance and coordination and posture

medulla

in the hindbrain-controls heartbeat and breathing

pons

in the hindbrain-coordinates movement on left and right sides of body

reticular formation

in the hindbrain-regulates attention and alertness

bipolar cells

in the retina the specialized neurons that connect the rods and the cones with the ganglion cells

aphasia

inability to speak

Respect from others

includes such concepts as prestige, recognition,acceptance, attention, status, reputation, and appreciation

Self-Esteem

includes such needs as a desire for confidence, competence,mastery, adequacy, achievement, independence, and freedom

Stimulants

increase brain activity. produce a level of distortion to the person's mood, and thinking.

excitatory message

increases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will activate

implicit memory

information or knowledge that affects behavior or task performance but cannot be consciously recollected; also called non-declarative memory

GABA

inhibitory messages (anxiety disorders)

EEG-electroencephalograph

introduced in the 1920s and gave sleep researchers a tool for measuring the rhythmic electrical activity of the brain. The EEG produces a graphic record called an EEG or electroencephalogram

Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire

inventory developed by Raymond Cattell that generates a personality profile with ratings on 16 traits dimensions.

Dyssomnias:

involve disruptions in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep inability

Parasomnias:

involve undesirable physical arousal, behaviors, or events during sleep or sleep transition times

midbrain

involved in processing visual and auditory information

Negative Reinforcement

involves an operant that is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus.

Thinking

involves manipulating mental representations of information in order to draw inferences and conclusions

Shaping

involves reinforcing successively closer approximations of a behavior until the correct behavior is displayed

taste aversion

is a classically conditioned intense dislike for and the avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food.

Absentmindedness

is a form of encoding failure that occurs because you don't pay enough attention to a bit of information when you should be encoding it - often because your attention was divided

Creativity

is a group of cognitive processes used to generate useful, original, and novel ideas or solutions to problems

concept

is a mental category of objects, events, or situations that share similar features or characteristics

mental image

is a mental representation of objects or events that are not physically present. We scan a mental image in much the same way we would scan the actual image. Can involve any of the senses.

Reciprocal determinism

is a model proposed by Bandura that explains human functioning and personality as caused by the interaction of *behavioral, *cognitive, and *environmental factors.

Neurodiversity

is a new approach to spectrum disorders, viewing autism as a disability or difference (not a disease or disorder)

Identity

is a person's definition or description of themselves, including the values, beliefs, and ideals that guide the individual's behavior

Learning

is a process that produces a relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge or as a result of an individual's experience

Graphology

is a pseudoscience that claims that your handwriting reveals your temperament, personality traits, intelligence, and reasoning ability.

fight-or-flight response

is a rapidly occurring chain of internal physical reactions that prepare people either to fight or take flight from an immediate threat

Language

is a system for combining random symbols to produce an unlimited number of meaningful statements

Stimulus control therapy

is a technique you can implement on you own for treating insomnia. It is designed to help you establish a consistent sleep-wake schedule and associate your bedroom and bedtime with falling asleep.

gene

is a unit of DNA instructions for making a particular protein molecule. Proteins are used in virtually all of the body's functions

Personality

is an individual's unique and relatively consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving

Psychoneuroimmunology

is an interdisciplinary field which studies the connections among psychological processes (psycho-), the nervous system (-neuro-), and the immune system (-immunology)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS):

is an originally neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a reflexive response when you hear the word "conditioned" think "learned!"

Albert Bandura

is best known for his classic research on observational learning (ch. 5) and his more recent research on self-efficacy (ch. 8). Both topics are reflected his social cognitive theory.

Authoritarian parenting style

is demanding and unresponsive toward the child's needs and wishes. Children tend to grow up to be moody, unhappy, fearful, withdrawn, unspontaneous, and irritable;this style promotes resentment and rebellion

number of daily hassles

is linked to both psychological distress and physical symptoms, and it is a better predictor of physical illness than is the number of major life events experienced. (daily hassles can take a toll on us is that minor stressors are cumulative.)

*A conditioned (secondary) reinforcer

is one that has acquired reinforcing value by being associated with a primary reinforcer; is conditioned reinforcer.

*A primary reinforcer

is one that is naturally reinforcing for a given species, such as food, water, adequate warmth, and sexual contact.

Emotional Intelligence

is one's ability to manage their own emotions, comprehend emotions of others, and respond appropriately to emotions of others

Multi-tasking

is paying attention to 2+ sources of stimuli at once. Tasks that are very different and call upon a different sense are less likely to interfere with each other. However, this is not the case when one task requires a great deal of concentration!

Stage 3

is referred to as a transition stage; the brain and body are slowing down and relaxing more as you are falling into a deeper sleep; theta +50%/delta 20-50%

Permissive - Indulgent parenting style

is responsive, warm, and accepting, but imposes few rules and rarely punishes

Health psychology

is the branch of psychology that studies how biological, behavioral, and social factors influence health, illness, medical treatment, and health-related behaviors.

Once delta waves are +50% and theta are -50% and you are in Stage 4

is the deepest these stages last 20-40 minutes; sleepwalking/sleep talking would occur in this stage sleep of the night; the body and brain are at the lowest/laziest/most relaxed points;

Self-efficacy

is the degree to which you are convinced of your ability to effectively meet the demands of a situation

Extinction

is the gradual weakening and apparent disappearance of the conditioned response. Extinction will occur when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without being paired with the unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Response (CR):

is the learned, reflexive response to a previously neutral stimulus (HINT: The UCR and the CR are essentially the same thing.)

Conditioning

is the process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses. There are two basic types of 1. Classical 2. Operant

Spontaneous Recovery

is the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period without exposure to the conditioned stimulus

zygote

is the single cell formed at conception; it contains the unique set of genetic instructions inherited from your biological parents

Puberty

is the stage of adolescence in which an individual reaches sexual maturity and becomes physiologically capable of sexual reproduction

Acculturative stress

is the stress that results from the pressure of adapting to a new culture.

Confirmation bias

is the strong tendency to search for information or evidence that confirms a belief, while making little or no effort to search for information that might disprove the belief

fallacy of positive instances

is the tendency to remember uncommon events that seem to confirm our beliefs and to forget events that disconfirm out beliefs

Sigmund Freud/Psychoanalysis

is the theory of personality that emphasizes the unconscious elements of behavior, sexual and aggressive instinctual drives, and the enduring effects of early childhood experience on later personality development.

Adolescence

is the transitional stage between late childhood and the beginning of adulthood

Permissive - Indifferent parenting style

is unresponsive and uncontrolling; uninvolved

Punishment can have several drawbacks

it does not teach a more appropriate response; it may have undesirable results, such as complete passivity, fear, anxiety, or hostility; and its effects likely to be temporary

frontal lobe

largest lobe in cerebral hemisphere involved in voluntary movements and thinking, planning and emotional control

Humanistic Theories of Motivation

late 1950s; motivated to realize highest potential; Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Cognitive-Appraisal (Mediational) Theory:

lazarus a) experience something; b) cognitive appraisal of the situation; c) experience emotion due to your cognitive appraisal

learning learning

learning that is not immediately demonstrated in overt behaviors occurred.

Eros:

life instinct, biological urges that perpetuate the existence of the individual and the species such as hunger, thirst, physical comfort, and sexuality.

activity theory of aging

life satisfaction in late adulthood is highest when people maintain their previous level of activity

anima

life, breath; spirit

c fibers

long, dull pain

Colin DeYoung and his colleagues

looked at whether personality traits were associated with specific brain structures.

anterograde amnesia

loss of memory caused by the inability to store new memories

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past

MRI

magnetic resonance imaging

Asperger's syndrome

may have normal language development but may exhibit unusually narrow interests and inflexible behavior

hindbrain

medulla, pons, cerebellum

Hippocampous

memory

Source memory (monitoring)

memory for when, where, and how a particular experience or piece of information was acquired

Physiologically gender differences

men and women show the same hormonal and sympathetic nervous system activation in response to stress

behavioral gender differences

men usually fight or flee and women usually tend and befriend (According to the evolutionary perspective, the most adaptive response is one that promotes the survival of the individual and his or her offspring. The level of the hormone oxytocin is higher in females than in males. Oxytocin-related changes seem to help turn down the physiological intensity of the fight-or-fight response for women.)

Natural Concepts

mental category that is formed as a result of everyday experiences; its boundaries are more "fuzzy" and not clearly defined

Formal Concepts

mental category that is formed by learning the rules or features that define it (geometric shapes)

cognitive map

mental representation of an area

Mental Rehearsal

mentally visualizing yourself in the process of dealing effectively with a situation can enhance your performance

conventional level

middle stage of moral development; at this level, strict adherence to societal rules and the approval of others determine what is moral

Body Mass Index (BMI)

most widely used scale involving adult height and weight to determine status of underweight, healthy weight, overweight, or obese

Stage 2 NREM

mostly theta waves and the first signs of delta waves; brief bursts of brain activity (sleep spindles) and single high-voltage spikes of activity (K complexes) happen stage; lasts about 15-20 minutes

Suppression

motivated forgetting that occurs consciously; a deliberate attempt to not think about and remember specific information

repression

motivated forgetting that occurs unconsciously; a memory that is blocked and unavailable to consciousness

Arousal Theory

motivated to maintain optimal level of arousal—not too high, not too low! Level varies from person to person; "sensation-seeking;""manipulation motive;" "curiosity motive;" Harry Harlow's need for "contact comfort"

Incentive Motivation

motivation that is derived from some property of the reinforcer, as opposed to an internal drive state

Dopamine

movement, thought processes and rewarding sensations (parkinson's, schizophrenia, addiction)

multiple sclerosis

myelin sheath destruction. disruptions in nerve impulse conduction

Mescaline

naturally occurring drug derived from the peyote cactus. (Psychedelic)

burnout

negative changes in thoughts, emotions, and behavior When work stress is prolonged and becomes chronic, it can produce a stress response. There are three key components of burnout: people feel exhausted; they experience feelings of cynicism; and they feel a sense of failure or inadequacy

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

repolarizes

neuron reestablishes negative-inside/positive-outside condition

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

cortical localization

notion that different functions are located in different areas of the brain

hyperopia

objects near the eyes appear blurry because light reflected off the objects is focused behind the retina

Neurocognitive Model of Dreaming-

occur because we are cut off from external sensory stimuli during sleep, so we generate our own sensory data. We are unable to control our thoughts, so dreams mirror our waking concerns. Dreaming emphasizes the continuity of waking and dreaming cognition it reflects our interests, personality, and worries

Stimulus Discrimination

occurs when a particular conditioned response is made to one specific stimuli but not to other, similar stimuli

Reinforcement

occurs when a stimulus or an event follows an operant and increases the likelihood of the operant being repeated; it encourages the behavior to continue/happen again in the future

Negative Energy Balance

occurs when caloric intake falls short of the calories expended for energy. Body fat stores shrink as the reserve energy in fat cells is used

Positive Energy Balance

occurs when calorie intake exceeds calories expended for energy. The excess glucose is converted to body fat.

belief-bias effect

occurs when people accept only the evidence that conforms to their beliefs, rejecting or ignoring any evidence that does not.

Stimulus Generalization

occurs when stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response, even though they have never been paired with the unconditioned stimulus

Self-Control

often involves choosing between two reinforces: 1) a long-term reinforcer that will provide gratification at some point in the future, or 2) a short-term reinforcer that provides immediate gratification bit gets in the way of obtaining a long-term reinforcer.

Abraham Maslow

one of two important contributors to humanism; developed the hierarchy of needs and the concept of self-actualization.

opiates

opiates are a group of drugs that relieve pain and produce- heroin, opium

Punishment by removal

or negative punishment involves a response being followed by the loss or withdrawal of a reinforcing stimulus. The behavior is weakened and the organism is less likely to repeat the operant in similar situations in the future.

Clustering

organizing items into related groups during recall from long-term memory

J. Hobson and R. McCarley-Activation-Synthesis Model of Dreaming

our brain's activity produces the random images that we see in our dreams; it is triggering memories, images, emotions, sensations we've experienced. This theory says that our dreams are NOT meaningless; the meaning is found by analyzing the way the dreamer makes sense out of the chaotic dream images.

endorphins

pain perception, positive emotions (opioid addiction)

Nociceptors

pain receptors

Free Association:

patients spontaneously report their uncensored thoughts, mental images, and feelings as they come to mind; a way to reveal unconscious conflicts and traumatic events.

Bandura suggests that four cognitive processes interact to determine whether imitation will occur

paying attention to the other person's behavior forming and storing mental representations of behavior to be imitated transforming this mental representation into actions you are capable of reproducing being motivated to imitate the behavior by some expectation that doing so will produce reinforcement or reward

instinct theories

people are motivated to engage in certain behaviors because of evolutionary programming

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

people are motivated to meet needs in order from the most basic physical needs to self-actualization. One will not be motivated to meet a need until the need below it is fulfilled; order of needs: 1) physiological, 2) safety, 3) belongingness and love, 4) self-esteem, and 5) self-actualization

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change

extrasensory perception (ESP)

perception of events outside the known channels of sensation

Obstructive Sleep Apnea-

person's airway becomes blocked causing shallow or stopped breathing; could happen up to 300 times a night; 2x more common in men than women; second most common sleep disorder

Projective tests

personality tests that involve a person interpreting an ambiguous image; they are used to assess unconscious motives, conflicts, psychological defenses, and personality traits.

norepinephrine

physical arousal, learning, memory, regulation of sleep (Depression, stress)

Psychologist Carol Gilligan

pointed out that Kohlberg's model is based on an ethic of individual rights and justice, which is a more common perspective for men. In contrast, women tend to have an ethic of care and responsibility

Punishment by application

positive punishment, involves a response being followed by the presentation of an aversive stimulus. The behavior is weakened and the organism is less likely to repeat the operant in similar situations in the future.

PET

positron emission tomography

LSD

powerful synthetic psychedelic drug. LSD and psilocybin are very similar chemically to the neurotransmitter serotonin, which is involved is regulating moods and sensations.

thalamus

processes and relays all sense but smell to cerebral cortex

PCP (angel dust) and ketamine (special K)

produce marked feelings of dissociation and depersonalization.

Dementia

progressive deterioration and impairment of memory, reasoning, and other cognitive functions occurring as the result of a disease or a condition

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

projective test requiring examinees to tell a story in response to ambiguous pictures

indirectly affected by stress

prompting behavior that jeopardizes physical well-being

Alan Baddeley

proposed the concept of a working memory that underlies human thought processes

Lawrence Kohlberg

proposed the most influential theory of moral development. He believed there were three levels of moral reasoning: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional; each level has two stages

Astrocytes (type of glial cell)

provide connection between neurons and blood cells

Projection

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

Regression

psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated

Displacement

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet

emotion

psychological state involving 3 distinct components 1) subjective experience 2) physiological response 3) behavioral/expressive component

George Sperling

psychologist who first studied iconic memory and discovered the duration of iconic memory is around half a second

a-delta fibers

quick, sharp pain

parietal lobe

receives sensory input for touch and body position

hair cells

receptor cells for hearing found in the cochlea

phenotype

refers to the characteristics that are actually observed

Genotype

refers to the genetic makeup of an individual organism

Cognition

refers to the mental activities involved in acquiring, retaining, and using knowledge

Social support

refers to the resources provided by other people in times of need. It may benefit our health and improve our ability to cope with stressors in several ways

Coping

refers to the ways in which we try to change circumstances, or interpretations

elaborative rehearsal

rehearsal that involves focusing on the meaning of information to help encode and transfer it to long-term memory

Variable-Ratio: VR;

reinforcement given after a changing (unpredictable) number of responses (behaviors) has occurred; averaged; hardly any pausing between trials

Fixed-Ratio: FR;

reinforcement given after a preset number of responses (behaviors) has occurred; burst pause-burst pattern

Variable-Interval: VI;

reinforcement given for the first response occurring after a changing amount of time has passed; averaged

Fixed-Interval: FI;

reinforcement given for the first response occurring after a preset amount of time interval has passed

pitch

relative highness or lowness of a sound

trait

relatively stable, enduring predisposition to behave in a certain way.

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

Lewis Terman

revised Binet's I.Q. tests and established norms for American children

extrinsic

rewards, evaluations, rules, and responsibilities

syntax

rules for combining words

S. Freud

saw personality and behavior as resulting from a constant interaction between conflicting psychological forces that operate at three different levels of awareness.

Empirical evidence

scientific evidence obtained by careful observation and experimentation

Roger Sperry

scientist who won a Nobel Prize for work with split brain patients

insulin

secreted by the pancreas and helps control blood levels of glucose; it also helps regulate eating behaviors and maintain stable body weight

vestibular sense

sense of balance

olfaction

sense of smell

gustation

sense of taste

kinesthetic sense

sense of the location of body parts in relation to the ground and each other

retinal detachment

separation of the retina from the underlying epithelium, disrupting vision and resulting in blindness if not repaired surgically

Baseline Body Weight

set-point theory is similar; your typical body weight; the constant weight for individual

Authoritative parenting style

sets clear standards for their child's behavior but are warm, responsive,and involved with their child. Child tends to be cheerful, socially competent, energetic, and friendly. The child shows high levels of self-esteem, self-reliance, and self-control. Use induction to teach and discipline

gonads

sex glands

libido

sexual energy or motivation

spinal reflexes

simple, automatic behaviors that are processed in the spinal cord

Memory Consolidation:

sleep is needed to strengthen our memories

Stage 3 and 4 NREM-

slow-wave sleep (SWS); defined by the amount of delta waves present-once there is more than 50 % delta , you have moved from Stage 3 into Stage 4;

Stage 1 NREM-

slower theta waves replace your drowsy alpha waves; this stage lasts onyo a few minutes and the personloses track of time; hypnagogic hallucinations can occur here, too!

achievement

something done successfully; something gained by working or trying hard

-posthypnotic suggestion

something that the person is told during hypnosis that they will carry out after hypnosis is over; can last months, day, or even just minutes.

neural stem cells

specialized cells that generate neurons in the developing brain

stressors

specific events or chronic pressures that place demands on a person or threaten the person's well-being

NREM:

stands for non-rapid-eye movement, is a quiet sleep where the body and brain are slowing down and it is divided into 4 separate stages

REM:

stands for rapid-eye movement, is an active sleep also called paradoxical sleep, the body and brain are at a heightened state and dreaming constantly occurs

Prenatal Brain Development

starts 3 weeks after conception with formation of a neural tube , lined with stem cells, which can divide infinitely, renew themselves, and give rise to other types of cells. The neural tube develops into 3 bulges to become 3 major regions of the brain

Social-cognitive view of hypnosis

states that subjects are merely responding to the social demands of the hypnosis situation-they want to be "good subjects."

Claude Steele

stereotype threat occurs when members of a particular group fear that they will be evaluated in terms of a negative stereotype about their group

Adler believed

striving for superiority was the most fundamental human motive. Striving arises from universal feelings of inferiority. These feelings motivate people to compensate for their real or imagined weaknesses.

Brenda Milner and Suzanne Corkin

studied HM for 50 years, learning much about anterograde amnesia and memory

Behavioral genetics studies

studies the effects of genes and heredity on behavior.

Ernest R. Hilgard

subjects are to be Ernest R. Hilgard believed that the hypnotized person experience a form of dissociation activity. While one stream is a "hidden observer" and has splitting of 2 or more simultaneous streams of mental responding to the hypnotist's suggestions, the other dissociated stream is operating as suspended judgement on the behavior and actions taking place. He called this the neodissociation theory of hypnosis.

Children of permissive styles

tend to be immature, impulsive, and aggressive, and they may never learn self-control. They fail to understand that actions have consequences

Mental Sets

tendency to persist in solving problems with solutions that have worked in the past (being stuck in a rut); approach things the same way over and over and over

serial position effect

tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

primary effect

tendency to recall the first terms of list

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

Functional Fixedness

tendency to view objects as functioning only in their usual or customary way

emergenic

that is, they result unique configurations of many interacting genes.

Combined, the findings of Lashley and Thompson indicate

that memories have the potential to be both localized and distributed; very simple memories may be localized in a specific area, whereas more complex memories seem to be distributed throughout the brain.

displacement

the ability to communicate meaningfully about ideas, objects, and activities that are not physically present

visual acuity

the ability to see fine detail

short-term memory

the active stage of memory in which information is stored up to about 20 seconds

bottom-up processing

the analysis of the smaller features to build up to a complete perception

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

grasping reflex

the baby will grip your fingers so tightly that he or she can be lifted upright

biopsychosocial model

the belief that physical health and illness are determined by the complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors

Restorative theory of sleep

the belief that sleep and dreaming are needed for normal physical and mental functioning. It maintains our immune system functioning, enhances learning, consolidates memories, improves brain functioning, and helps regulate our moods and emotions.

Evolutionary Adaptation/Adaptive Theory of Sleep-

the belief that unique sleep patterns of different animals evolved over time to help promote survival and environmental adaptation (also called evolutionary theory of sleep)

motivation

the biological, emotional, cognitive, or social forces that activate and direct behavior

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

functional plasticity

the brain's ability to shift functions from damaged to undamaged brain areas

Attention:

the capacity to selectively focus senses and awareness on particular stimuli or aspects of the environment.

Menopause

the cessation of menstruation that signals the end of reproductive capacity in women, may occur anywhere from the late 30s to the early 50s

iris

the colored part of the eye, which is the muscle that controls the size of the pupil

higher-order conditioning.

the conditioned stimulus could itself function as an unconditioned stimulus in a conditioning trial; the new conditioned stimulus has never been paired with the unconditioned stimulus

Ebbinghaus forgetting curve

the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

Thanatos:

the death instinct, refers specifically to the destructive energy that is reflected in aggressive, reckless, and life-threatening behaviors

sensory adaptation

the decline in sensitivity to a constant stimulus

Phrenology

the detailed study of the shape and size of the cranium as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities.

subliminal perception

the detection of stimuli that are below the threshold of conscious awareness; nonconscious perception

Wavelength

the distance from one wave peak to another

timbre

the distinctive quality of a sound, determined by the complexity of the sound wave

Sypathetic Nervous System

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

Manifest content

the dream image

Conditional positive regard

the expression of love or esteem given only when an individual exhibits suitable behavior

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Fetal Period

the fetal period is the final and longest of the prenatal development stages

mere exposure effect

the finding that repeated exposure to a stimulus increases a person's preference for that stimulus

olfactory bulb

the first brain structure to pick up smell information from the nose

preconventional level

the first level in Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning, focusing on avoiding punishment or maximizing rewards

Hermann Ebbinghaus

the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well

neurogeneisis

the formation of new neurons

memory consolidation

the gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes

Latent content

the hidden, unconscious meaning

perception of a threat

the hypothalamus and lower brain structures activate the sympathetic nervous system, which stimulates the adrenal medulla to secrete hormone called catecholamines, including adrenaline and noradrenaline.

memory trace (engram)

the hypothetical brain changes associated with a particular stored memory

Psychological energy evolves to form the three basic structures of personality

the id, ego, and superego.

homeostasis

the idea that the body monitors and maintains internal states, such as body temperature and energy supplies at relatively constant levels

retrieval cue failure

the inability to recall long-term memories because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues

encoding failure

the inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory

inner ear

the inner part of the ear where sound is transduced into neural impulses and consists of the cochlea and semicircular canals

amplitude

the intensity or amount of energy of a wave reflected in the height of the wave, the amplitude of a sound wave determines a sound's loudness

cognitive appraisal

the interpretation of an event that helps determine its stress impact

ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

Two conflicting instinctual drives fuel the id:

the life instinct and the death instinct.

nature-nurture issue

the long-standing controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

oval window

the membrane at the entrance to the cochlea through which the ossicles transmit vibrations

memory

the mental processes that enable you to retain and retrieve information over time

autism

the most severe of these spectrum disorders, may exhibit severely impaired communication, highly repetitive behaviors, social unresponsiveness, and highly restricted routines

Prototypes

the most typical instance of a particular concept; the "best" example of a category.often when we encounter a new item in a category, we compare it to our existing exemplars to see if it matches that concept

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS):

the natural stimulus that reflexively produces a response without prior learning *when you hear the word "unconditioned" think "unlearned!"

laterization of function

the notion that specific psychological or cognitive functions are processed primarily on one side of the brain

Partial Schedules of Reinforcement:

the occurrence of a behavior/response is only sometimes followed by reinforcement; this encourages a more consistent change in behavior; behaviors are less prone to experience extinction

pupil

the opening in the middle of the iris that changes size to let in different amounts of light

Carl Rogers

the other important contributor to humanism; developed his theory from his clinical experiences with his "clients". Rogers, believed the most basic human motive is the "actualizing tendency."

superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the involuntary functions

phonological loop

the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

optic chiasm

the point in the brain where the optic nerve fibers from each eye meet and partly cross over to the opposite side of the brain

synapse

the point of communication between 2 neurons

Transduction

the process by which a form of physical energy is converted into a coded neural signal that can be processed by the nervous system

Depolarizes

the process by which an axon becomes more positive

accommodation

the process by which the lens changes shape to focus incoming light so that it falls on the retina

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Retrieval

the process of recovering information stored in memory so that we are consciously aware of it

retrieval

the process of recovering information stored in memory so that we are consciously aware of it

storage

the process of retaining information in memory so that is can be used at a later time

encoding

the process of transforming information into a form that can be entered into and retained by the memory system

saturation

the property of color that corresponds to the purity of the light wave (highly saturated=vivid/rich) (less saturated is faded)

hue

the property of wavelengths of light known as color; different wavelengths correspond to our subjective experience of different colors

flashbulb memory

the recall of very specific images of details surrounding a vivid, rare of significant personal event. Details may or may not be accurate

receptive field

the region of the sensory surface that, when stimulated, causes a change in the firing rate of that neuron

all or none law

the rule that neurons are either on or off

Cognitive psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

audition

the sense or act of hearing

Alpha Waves-

the slightly larger and slower waves associated with relaxed wakefulness; you are drowsy and relaxed and your thoughts start to wander

Beta Waves-

the small, fast brain waves when we are awake and alert

absolute threshold

the smallest possible strength of a stimulus that can be detected half the time

lymphocytes

the specialized white blood cells that fight bacteria, viruses, and other foreign invaders

sensory memory

the stage of memory that registers information from the environment and holds it for a very brief period of time

long-term memory

the stage of memory that represents the long-term storage of information

Developmental psychology

the study of how people change physically, mentally, and socially throughout the lifespan (Changes=basic stages)

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

naturalistic observation

the systematic observation and recording of behaviors as they occur in their natural setting

Instinctive drift

the tendency of an animal to revert to its instinctive behaviors and it can then interfere with the performance of an operantly conditioned response.

Stroop Effect

the tendency to read the words instead of saying the color of ink

context effect

the tendency to recover information more easily when the retrieval occurs in the same setting as the original learning of the information

state-dependent learning

the tendency to remember information more easily when the physiological/biological conditions are similar to the physiological conditions when learning took place.

interference theory

the theory that forgetting is caused by one memory competing with or replacing another

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

Set-Point Theory

the theory that the body has a natural or optimal weight it tries to maintain; it will defend this weight from going higher or lower by balancing hunger and metabolism

NREM Rebound-

the time spent in NREM will increase when deprived of stages 3 and 4, when allowed to get a good night's sleep

REM Rebound-

the time spent in REM will increase (up to 50% more ) after having been deprived of it for several nights; will experience more vivid dreams

lens

the transparent structure located behind the pupil that actively focuses or bends light as it enters the eye

decibel

the unit of measurement for loudness

Unconditioned Response (UCR):

the unlearned, reflexive response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus; occurs without our control

VI;

the unpredictable aspect produces a steady rate of responding-especially when time averages are short

drive theories

the view that behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs

Settling-Point Models of Weight Regulation

the view that explains how we tend to "settle" around the point at which a balance is achieved between energy expenditure and food consumption; this may drift to a higher or lower body weight as these factors change

decay theory

the view that forgetting is due to normal metabolic processes that occur in the brain over time

production vocabulary

the words that an infant or child understands and can speak

comprehension vocabulary

the words that are understood by an infant or child

cerebral cortex

the wrinkled outer portion of the forebrain, which contains the most sophisticated brain centers

Charles Spearmans

theory had a factor he called general intelligence, or the g factor, this factor represented a person's overall performance on tests of mental ability

Elizabeth Kubler-Ross

theory proposes that the terminally ill pass through a sequence of 5 stages- [1]denial, [2]anger/resentment, [3]bargaining, [4]depression, [5]acceptance

gate-control theory

theory that pain is a product of physiological and psychological factors that cause spinal gates to relay stimulation to the brain

Diana Baumrind explained various parenting styles

these demonstrated how different levels of (1) parental control and (2) parental responsiveness impact the child

five-factor model of personality

these five dimensions (extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience) represent the structural organization of personality traits.

Problem Solving

thinking and behavior that is directed toward attaining a goal that is not readily available

meninges

three protective membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord

rooting reflex

touching its cheek triggers

sucking reflex

touching its lips triggers

postsynaptic neuron

transmits impulses away from the synapse

forebrain

uppermost and largest

Raymond Cattell

used a statistical technique called factor analysis to identify traits that were most closely related to one another, eventually reducing his list to 16 key personality factors. (Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire -16PF)

Rorschach Inkblot Test

uses the interpretation of inkblots and was developed by Swiss psychologist Hermann in 1921.

Aversive stimuli

usually involve physical or psychological discomfort that one seeks to escape or avoid

occipital lobe

vision

Nightmare-

vivid and frightening or unpleasant anxiety dream that occurs during REM sleep; common in childhood, but adults have also; can be triggered by daytime stresses; often wakes the sleeper

intelligence quotient (IQ)

was derived by dividing the individual's mental age by their chronological age and multiplying the result by 100.

Edward L. Thorndike

was the 1st psychologist to study animal behavior and how voluntary behaviors are influenced by their consequences.

Henry Gustav Molaison, infamously known as H.M.

was unable to form new declarative memories. He suffered from what psychologists call anterograde amnesia

Ego Defense Mechanisms:

we use these (mostly unconsciously) when the demands of the id or superego threaten to overwhelm the ego and anxiety results.

depressants

weaken or inhibit central nervous system activity.

The Embryotic Period

weeks 3 -8; during this time of rapid growth and intensive cell differentiation, the organs and major systems of the body form

Physical Safety

when an adult or child does not feel safe, he/she is motivated to act in ways to assure a sense of safety. (Ex: if your house has been broken into, you probably put more locks on the doors/get security system.)

Continuous Reinforcement:

when every occurrence of a behavior/response is followed by reinforcement

Psilocybin

which is derived from the Psilocybe mushroom and is called "magic mushroom.

heritability

which is the percentage of variation within a given population that is due to heredity

self-concept

which is the set of perceptions and beliefs that you have about yourself.

symbols

which may be sounds, written words, or formalized gestures.

Sclera

white of the eye

Walter Cannon

who found that the fight-or-flight response involves both the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system.

The Germinal Period

zygotic period; represents the first two weeks of prenatal development; by the end of the two weeks, the single-celled zygote has developed into a cluster of cells called the embryo