AP Psychology: Semester 1

Gender Differences: Sexuality

-arose from when males and females faced differing adaptive challenges (mainly reproductive) Examples: -men more likely to initiate sexual activity & more casually, lower threshold for perceiving warm responses (why men initiate more rape/harassment)

Adoption Studies

-compares if child more like biological parents (genes) or adoptive parents (environment) -studies show adoptees' personality (outgoingness, agreeableness, etc.) more like biological, but adoptees' attitude, values, faith, manners more like adopted -environmental factors shared by a family's children have virtually no impact on their personalities

Erik Erikson

-contended that each stage of life has its own psychosocial task, a crisis that needs resolution -Infancy (to 1): trust/mistrust -Toddlerhood (1-2): autonomy/shame and doubt -Preschooler (3-5): initiative/guilt -Elementary (6-puberty): competence/inferiority -Adolescence (teen-20s): identity/role confusion -Young Adulthood (20s-40s): intimacy/isolation -Middle Adulthood (40s-60s): generativity/stagnation -Late Adulthood (60+): integrity/despair

Self-Regulating

-genes are self-regulating and react differently depending on the environement

Proximity

-grouping rule where we group nearby figures together

Connectedness

-grouping rule where we perceive objects connected together as a single unit

Judy DeLoache

-hid object in scale model of room and then saw if children could find it in the actual room

Perceptual Organization

-need to organize sensory info for meaningful perceptions: perceive objects distinct from surroundings, constant form, distance, and motion

Grief

-no "normal reaction" to death of a loved one -most severe when death is sudden or before its expected time (death of a child) -meet death with attitude that you accomplished something in life

Lightness Constancy

-perceive an object having constant lightness even while illumination varies -depends on relative luminance: amount of light an objects reflects to its surroundings; changes based on context

Size Constancy

-perceive object as having a constant size, despite our changing distance from the object

Shape Constancy

-perceive objects as having a constant size, despite our viewing angle

Mary Ainsworth

-performed "strange situation" study -observed infants in strange situation without mother -saw that sensitive responsive mothers had infants with secure attachment while insensitive unresponsive mothers had insecurely attached infants

Lawrence Kohlberg

-sought to describe the development of moral reasoning (thinking that occurs as we consider right from wrong) -posed moral dilemmas, analyzed answers for evidence of stages of moral thinking

Context Effects

-stimulus can trigger different perceptions because of immediate context -emotional contexts also affect social perceptions -perception is a bio (sensory analysis, critical period for sensory development), psych (selective attention, schemas, Gestalt principles, emotion context effects), and social (cultural assumptions/expectations) phenomenon

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

-thought kids experience spurts of change followed by greater stability as they move from one cognitive plateau to the next -children actively construct and modify their understanding of the world as they interact with it -form schemas, assimilate, accommodate -sensorimotor (birth-2 yrs old), pre operational (2-7), concrete operational (7-11), formal operational (12-adult) -Current View: agree with his sequence, but logic plays smaller role and more continuous

Touch

-very important in nurturing and early development -sense of touch mixture of at least 4 distinct skin senses: pressure, warmth, cold, and pain -have different, specialized nerve endings so some places more sensitive to pressure, temp, pain -no direct relationship between what we feel and type of specialized nerve ending there; only pressure has identifiable receptors -some top-down processing (can't tickle yourself)

Phantom Limb Sensations

-when amputees may feel pain or movement in nonexistent limbs

Konrad Lorenz

-wondered what ducklings would do if he was the first moving creature they observed -ducklings began to follow hom

Biological Psychology

D: a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavoir

Schemas

D: a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Alzheimer's Disease

D: a progressive and irreversible brain disorder by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and finally physical functioning -loss of brain cells and deterioration of neurons that produce ACh

Mutation

D: a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Surface Structure of a Language

D: according to Chomsky, specific phonemes, morphemes, words, and sentences, and the rules by which we combine them -varies between languages -ex: English speakers put object last (She ate an apple) while Japanese speakers put object before verb (She an apple ate) -same deep structure but different surface structure

Association

D: adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

Stroboscopic Movement

D: brain will perceive continuous movement in a rapid series of slightly varying images -flip book

Plasticity

D: brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (esp. kids) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development

Morpheme

D: in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix or suffix) -some may be phoneme (ex: I, s) but most combo of two

Frequency Theory

D: in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch -explains how we hear low-pitched sounds

Gender

D: in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

Nerves

D: neural cables containing many axons; are part of the PNS; connect the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

D: physical and cognitive abnormalities in children cause by a pregnant women's heavy drinking; in severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions

Reuptake

D: process by which excess neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron

Cornea

D: protects eyes and bends light to provide focus -where light enters the eye

Angular Gyrus

D: receives visual info and recoded it into auditory form

Pancreas

D: regulates the level of sugar in the blood

Ovary

D: secretes female sex hormones

Testes

D: secretes male sex hormones

McGurk Effect

D: see mouth move for "ga," hear "ba" and think "da" -mixture of visual and auditory conflict

Acuity

D: sharpness of vision -affected by small distortions in the eye shape

One Word Stage

D: stage in speech development, about 1 to 2 years, during which infants speak mostly in single words -know sounds carry meaning, can learn to associate, begin to use sounds to communicate meaning

Pop-Out

D: strikingly distinct stimulus draws our eye

Cognitive Psychologists

D: studies cognition, including the logical and sometimes illogical ways in which we create concepts to organize our world, solve problems, and make efficient decisions and judgments

Object Permanence

D: the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Medulla

D: the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing, blood pressure, reflexes regarding mouth (vomiting, swallowing, etc.)

Thalamus

D: the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Dendrite

D: the bushy, branching extension of a neuron that receives messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body ("listen")

Cell Body (soma)

D: the cell's life supporting center (organelles)

Fovea

D: the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

Genome

D: the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

Parasympathetic Nervous System

D: the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Axon

D: the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages are passed to other neurons or to muscles or glands ("speak")

Stranger Anxiety

D: the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age -helps protect baby -have schemas for familiar faces, become distressed when faces don't match schemas

Zygote

D: the fertilized egg; it enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo -conception to 2 weeks -less than 1/2 survive -within 1st week (about 100 cells), cells differentiate -@ 10 days, outer zygote attaches to uterine wall to form placenta

Fixation

D: the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, an impediment to problem solving -examples: mental set, functional fixedness

Inner Ear

D: the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

Retina

D: the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

Cognition

D: the mental activities associated with processing, understanding, remembering, and communicating

Optic Nerve

D: the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain (made up of axons of ganglion cells)

Brain Stem

D: the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

Figure-Ground

D: the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

Autonomic Nervous System

D: the part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart); its sympathetic division arouses, its parasympathetic calms -usually AUTOMATIC but can be consciously overidden -controls SELF-REGULATED actions of internal organs and glands

Conservation

D: the principle (which Piaget believed to be part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the form of objects

Natural Selection

D: the principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations -similarities arise from shared human genome and natural selection among early ancestors, and most genetic differences exists within population not between

Audition

D: the sense or act of hearing -transduce air pressure waves into neural messages -sound waves are just moving particles of air, and our ears can detect these pressure changes -amplitude of ^ = loudness -measured in decibels

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

D: the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body -links the CNS with the body's sense receptors, muscles, and glands

Gender Schema Theory

D: the theory that children learn from cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly

Social Learning Theory

D: the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory

D: theory that retina contains 3 different color receptors (one most sensitive to red, one to green one to blue) which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color -"additive color mixing" bc adding wavelengths and increases light -people colorblind because one of their cones doesn't work

Chromosomes

D: threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

Eardrum

D: tight membrane that vibrates with sound waves

Lesion

D: tissue destruction; a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

Lens

D: transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

Amygdala

D: two lima bean sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion -fear and aggression, perception of emotions, processing of emotional memories

Resting Potential

D: when the fluid interior of a resting axon is negative (anions) and the fluid exterior is positive (cations) -inside negative, outside positive

Glutamate

F: A major excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in memory Too Much: Oversupply can overstimulate brain, producing migraines or seizures -why a lot of people avoid MSG (monosodium glutamate) in food

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

F: A major inhibitory neurotransmitter Too Little: Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia

Right Hemisphere

F: understands simple requests, easily perceives objects, more engaged with quick intuitive responses, easily recognizes faces (emotional processing and social conduct) -controls left side of the body

Standard Deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Functionalism

a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function (how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish)

Survey

a technique for ascertaining thyself-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them

Hebrew Scholars

anticipated today's psychology by linking mind and emotion to the body

John B Watson and Rosalie Rayner

championed psychology as the science of behavior and demonstrated conditioned responses on a bay who became famous as "Little Albert"

Humanistic Psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people; used personalized methods to study personality in hopes of fostering personal growth

Alcohol

NTM: GABA (inhibits) and Glutamate (excites) -interacts with GABA to make them more inhibitory -binds to glutamate receptors, preventing glutamate from binding to and exciting the cell

Confucius

stressed the power of ideas and of an educate mind

Visual Information Processing

Scene, Retinal Processing (cones/rods/bipolar/ganglion), Feature Detection, Abstraction (combine info from feature detectors), Recognition (match constructed images w/stored images)

Counseling Psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well being

Clinical Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

Taste

-5 basic sensations: sweet, sour, slaty, bitter, umami -chemical sense where taste buds have pores for food chemicals -food molecules sensed by 50-100 taste receptors cells in the pore -cells send info to temporal lobe near where olfactory info is received (leads to sensory interaction) -different receptors have different tastes -# of taste buds decrease as you age so less sensitivity

Language Development

-@ 4 mon. can read lips and discriminate speech sounds -receptive language (ability to comprehend speech) before productive language (ability to produce words) -babbling stage: wide range of sounds found in languages located around the world (4 mon.) -baby's babbling resembles household language (10 mon.) -one word stage (1-2 yrs) -go from 1 wd/wk to 1 wd/day (18 months) -two word stage (2 yrs) -telegraphic speech -24+ mon. kids begin to learn long phrases and follow syntax rules -10 wds/day between ages 1-18

Twin Studies

-IT usually more alike than FT (reflects genetic influence) -even IT separated at birth still show show more similarities than FT separated at birth (effect of genes on personality) -Critics of Separated Twin Studies:coincidence, similar appearance led to similar treatment, similar households, etc. -helped shift scientific thinking towards a greater appreciation of genetic influences

Relationship between Sensation & Perception

-Input (sensation, bottom up processing) ---> -Processing (perception, top down processing) ---> -Output

Motor Development

-Sequence of Physical Development (mostly universal): roll over, sit, crawl, walk, run (reflect maturing NS, not imitation) -individual differences in timing of ^ -experience has little effect; genes and biological maturation play big role

Secure Attachment

-about 60% of infants -when mother in room, play comfortably and explore new environment -avoidant of stanger when alone but friendly when mother present -when she leaves, they are distressed -when she returns, positive/happy, seek contact with her -will use mother as a safe base to explore their environment

Do Animals Exhibit Language?

-animals definitely able to communicate -dog has 200 word vocab and able to infer unfamiliar sound as novel object (indicates comprehension) -able to teach chimps (closest genetic relative) how to sign -people think language evolved from gestured communications, so makes sense that monkeys learn to sign and people still use gesture in convo today -studies of apes indicate little lower than humans, able to make simple sentences -Counter Argument against Apes: more effort compared to people, other animals can do similar things, can communicate but little/no syntax, signing could just be imitation to get reward, confirmation bias -humans alone possess language if we mean verbal or signed expression of complex grammar -includes apes if we mean ability to communicate through meaningful set of symbols

Do Animals Think?

-animals, esp. apes, have remarkable capacities for thinking (ex: able to form concepts) -Kohler showed animals have insight with chimp studies -some animals also know how to use tools -have cultural diversity/innovation: different chimps have different customs -most don't have theory of mind (infer mental states in themselves and their peers), but some have self-recognition -some monkeys know how to use deception: indicates can comprehend others perceptions -apes capacity for reasoning, self-recognition, empathy, imitations, and understanding of another's mind mental equivalent to human 2 year old

Muller-Lyer Illusion

-arrows <--> vs >--< -tricks us because of experiences with corners (top down) -people who live in round houses not tricks as easily

Brain Development

-as infants, have a lot of nerve cells but all immature -in first few months, a lot of growth in neural networks, particularly frontal lobe; association areas last -keeps growing and growing until puberty (pruning)

Motion Perception

-assume shrinking objects retreating and enlarging objects approaching -big objects seem to move slower than small objects

Puberty Landmarks

-begins at age 10 for girls with breast development -1st ejaculation (spermarche) @ 14 and 1st menustration (menarche) @ 12 -sequence of physical changes more predictable than timing

Skinner: Theory of Language Development

-behaviorist: nurture POV -thought people develop language through association (of the sights of things with the sound of word), imitation (of the words and syntax modeled by others), and reinforcement (with success, smiles, hugs) -"filling a bottle with water"

Bilingual Advantage

-bilinguals have to inhibit language while using other so able to focus more and inhibit attention to irrelevant info

Pain

-body's way of telling you something has gone wrong -affected by biological (activity of nervous system, endorphin production), psychological (attention to pain, expectations), and social cultural influences (presence of others, cultural expectations) -memory of pain worse if short and abrupt -distraction can be effective too because pain mental and physicall

Harry and Margaret Harlow

-bred monkeys isolated from mother, raised in cages with blanket and became very attached -also created 2 artificial mothers (one with wire and bottle and other just cloth), where monkeys preferred cloth even though no food -proved attachment doesn't derive from association with nourishment

Smell

-chemical sense where molecules of a substance in air (odorants) bind to the 5 million receptor cells at the top of each nasal cavity -olfactory receptors are activated and send electrical signals -signals relayed to converged axons in olfactory bulb which are transmitted to the brain -smells broken down into components so combo of receptors for smell -no basic smell receptors (like cones, touch senses, and taste sensations) -have 350 receptor proteins that combine to recognize odors -smell cortex near limbic system associated with memory and emotions so can stimulate one with the other

Critical Period

-childhood is a critical period to learn language -birth to 1 year for first language, up to 7 years for second language before window for learning language gradually closes -people become linguistically stunted if isolated from any language during critical period -late learners are never as fluent as early learners and will eventually lose ability to learn language if never exposed

Signs of Parasympathetic Nervous System

-contracts pupils -slows heartbeat -stimulates digestion -stimulates gallbladder -contracts bladder -allows blood to flow to sex organs -lowers blood sugar

Importance of Parenting

-correlation between parenting and social competence in children -those with high self-esteem, self-reliance, social competence have authoritative parenting -Explanation: child traits influence parenting or vice versa, some other 3rd factor (genes)

John Bowlby

-created Theory of Attachment that suggests children come into the world biologically pre-programmed to form attachments with others, because this will help them to survive -very important for normal development

Signs of Sympathetic Nervous System

-dilates pupils -accelerates heartbeat -inhibits digestion -stimulates glucose release by liver -stimulates secretion of epinephrine/norepinephrine -relaxes bladder -stimulations ejaculation in males -raise blood pressure -raise blood sugar -cool you with perspiration

Prenatal Environment

-embryos can receive differing nutrition and varying levels of exposure to toxic agents (depends on placenta)

Color Constancy

-enables us to perceive the color of an object as unchanging even when its illumination changes -relative to surroundings

Well Being Across the Life Span

-for most part, people at different age groups satisfied with life as a whole equally -early-middle adulthood, identity and self-esteem increase -older people able to pursue personal interests -feelings mellow out as you grow older

Size-Distance Relationship

-given an object's perceived distance and the size of the image on our retinas, able to infer object's size -able to do vice versa -knowing size gives clues to distance, knowing distance gives clues to size

Closure

-grouping rule where we fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object

Similarity

-grouping rule where we group together figures that are similar to each other

Continuity

-grouping rule where we perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones

Evolutionary Persepective Critiques

-hindsight bias: starts with effect and works backward for explanation -people worry about social consequences, so people lose morals (hardwired and can't change) -under estimates cultural expectations, environment, socialization -Response: sexes more similar than different, don't have to let past dictate how we act; understanding predispositions can help us overcome them

Human Attachment

-humans also prefer war reception (touch) -consists of 1 person providing another a safe haven when distressed and secure base from which to explore -needs contact and familiarity

Continuity and Stages

-if emphasize learning and experience, development continuous -if emphasize biological maturation, development steps -everyone passes through stages in same order, not speed

Health

-immune system weakens so more susceptible to long term illnesses, but lifetime accumulation of antibodies means less susceptible to short term illnesses -exercising reduces rate of aging -brain loses 5% of mass

Jean Piaget

-in 1920s, Piaget, while writing kid IQ tests, focused on how kids answered questions wrong and believed adults and kid's mind very different (kid not miniature adult) -children reason differently, not less -also thought kid's mind develops though a series of stages

Life Expectancy

-increasing worldwide (about 67 in 2004) -combined with decreasing birth rates, increasing elderly population -more males born than females, but males have shorter life expectancy by about 5 years -evolutionary perspective: age bc pass genes best when raise young and stop consuming resources

Avoidant Attachment

-infant shows no sign of distress when mother leaves -infant is okay with the stranger and plays normally when stranger present -infant shows little interest when mother returns -mother and stranger are able to equally comfort infant

Insecure/Ambivalent Attachment

-less likely to explore surroundings and cling to mother-when she leaves -show signs of intense distress when mother leaves -infant avoid stranger (fearful) -child approaches mother but resist contact, or may even push her away upon reunion -infant cries more and explore less

How We See

-light enters via cornea -goes through pupil, whose size is controlled by the iris -lens adjusts shape to focus light on retina (accommodation) -the rods and cones in the retina are triggered by the light to produce chemical changes that generate neural signals (images on retina upside down and reversed, which the brain corrects to right side up) -signals activate neighboring bipolar and ganglion cells -axons of ganglion cells form optic nerve, which transmits info to the visual cortex (via the thalamus) in brain's occipital lobe

Chomsky: Theory of Language Development

-linguist: nature POV -born with language acquisition device (LAD) that needs to be switched on -thought language almost entirely inborn, minimal environmental influence -^ incorrect bc children learn their environment's language -however, children acquire untaught words and grammar at a rate too extraordinary to be explained solely by learning principles -many language errors from kids overgeneralizing grammar rules (supports universal grammar) -"helping flower to grow" -believed all human languages have same building blocks, so there is an underlying universal grammar (6000+ languages are dialects of universal grammar) -exposure = kids learn language, isolation = no language, isolated group of children will make up their own

Deprivation of Attachment

-low attachment causes people to be withdrawn, frightened -earlier the abuse, less likely to affect future -abuse can cause substance abuse, depression, etc. -can leave lasting effects on brain: less neurons and serotonin, more aggression

Texture Gradient

-monocular cue in which a gradual change from a coarse, distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture signals increasing distance (objects farther away appear smaller and more densely packed) -when texture changes, coarse distinct objects are close and fine indistinct objects are distant

Relative Motion (motion parallax)

-monocular cue in which as we move, objects that are actually stable may appear to move -if on moving object and fix gaze on some point, objects closer than point appear to move backward while objects beyond that point appear to one with you -farthest and closest objects move fastest

Interposition

-monocular cue in which if one object partially blocks the view of another, we perceive it to be closer -object that blocks another is closer than the blocked object

Relative Size

-monocular cue in which if we assume 2 objects are similar in size, we perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal images as farther away -smaller is more distant

Light and Shadow

-monocular cue in which nearby objects reflect more light to out eyes so the dimmer one seems further away

Linear Perspective

-monocular cue in which parallel lines appear to converge with distance -the more they converge, the greater the perceived distance

Relative Clarity

-monocular cue in which we perceive hazy objects as farther away then sharp, clear objects because light from distant objects passes through more atmosphere -hazy object farther way than an object seen clearly

Relative Height

-monocular cue in which we perceive objects higher in our field of vision as farther away -bc we perceive the lower part of a figure ground illustration as closer, we perceive it as figure -objects higher in our field of vision are farther away

Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT Scan)

-motorized X-ray tube that moves around patient, shooting narrow X-ray beams -detectors pick up X-rays and sends to computer -combines multiple cross sections and stacks them on top of each other to form a 3D image A: noninvasive, provides clear image, detects brain abnormalities DA: expensive, high dose of radiation, limited used on children, not portable -Shows Structure

Effect of Noise

-noise, especially if anticipated, can be very stressful and lower efficiency

Authoritarian

-parent is cold and rejecting, frequently degrades the child -parent is highly demanding; may use coercion by yelling, commanding, criticizing, and reliance on punishment -parents makes most decisions for the child, rarely listens to child's viewpoint

Uninvolved (Neglectful)

-parent is emotionally detached, withdrawn and inattentive -parents make few or no demands, often lacking interest or expectation for the child -parent is indifferent to child's decisions and point of view

Permissive

-parent is warm but may spoil the child -parent makes few or no demands, often out of misplaced concern for child's self-esteem -parent permits child to make decisions before child is ready

Authoritative

-parent is warm, attentive and sensitive to child's needs and interests -make reasonable demands for the child's maturity level; explains/enforces rules -permits child to make decisions in accord with developmental readiness listens to child's viewpoint

Sensory Deprivation/Restored Vision

-people with restored vision can distinguish figure from round and colors, but not recognize objects familiar in touch -no permanent harm if sensory deprived later in life, suggesting there's a critical period for normal sensory and perception development

Physical Development (Adulthood)

-physical abilities crest by mid-20s -decrease in sensory abilities (need more light to read), muscular strength, reaction time, weakened immune system, decrease in fertility

Mark Rosenzweig/David Krech

-raised rats in impoverished and enriched environments -those in enriched environments had bigger brains and more synapses -shows how experience develops neural connections

Memory

-recall gradually decreases by mid-20s but recognition minimally affected -implicit memories greatly intact -may take longer for them to recall something

Pathway from Retina to Cortex

-retina to ganglion cells to brain to visual cortex -any given retinal area relays its info to corresponding location in occipital lobe

Disruption of Attachment

-separation = withdrawn and despairing -if put in more stable home, infants and babies get over separation distress -if 2+, removal and separation will lead to attachment problems -adults also suffer (ex: death/divorce), leading to agitated preoccupation, sadness, emotional deattachment

John Watson

-showed students 2-4-6 sequence and asked them to guess rule (3 ascending #s) used to determine the series -students able to generate own sequence and ask Watson whether or not sequence conformed to his rule -people assumed wrong sequence and only searched for confirming evidence (100-102-104, 6-8-10, etc.) -demonstarted confirmation bias -seek evidence verifying our ideas more eagerly than we might seek evidence that might refute them

Olivier Cornielle

-showed students ethically mixed faces of Caucasian and Asian -when a face was 70% Caucasian, the students later recalled seeing a more prototypically Caucasian face -demonstrates that once we place an item in a category, our memory for it later shifts toward the category prototype

Perils and Powers of Intuition

-unchecked intuition perilous, but cognition usually efficient and effective because it enables us to react quickly and usually adaptively -intuition is born of experience -welcome intuition but check against availible evidence

How We Hear

-visible outer ear channels sound waves through auditory canal to the eardrum -middle ear transmits the eardrum's vibrations through a piston of 3 tiny bones to the cochlea -vibrations cause oval window to vibrate, jostling fluids that fills cochlea -motion causes ripples in basilar membrane which bends hair cells -movement of hair cells triggers impulses in adjacent nerve fibers which converge to form the auditory nerve -neural message sent to temporal lobe's auditory cortex via the thalamus

Steps of Conception

-woman's ovary releases egg and sperm travels upstream towards it (women born w/all eggs, men produce sperm at puberty) -as sperm approaches egg, releases enzymes that eat away eggs protective coating and penetrates egg -one it penetrates, egg's surface blocks out others and projections on egg pull it in -within one day, sperm and egg fuse

Gender Differences

-women have more fact, less muscle, shorter, puberty earlier, more likely to have depression/anxiety -men more likely to be suicidal/alcoholic and aggressive -women perceived as deferential, nurturant while men perceives as dominant, forceful (tend to be leaders) -men more individualist and emphasize freedom/self-reliance while women more relationship oriented and caring -may be influenced genetically by our differing sex chromosomes and physiologically from our differing concentrations of sex hormones

Mating Preferences

-women more relational and men more recreational about sex bc women only care for 1 child @ a time, while men can spread genes through other women -men like more youthful women b/c it indicates fertility while women like more mature/dominant bc more supporting and caring

Dmitry Belyaev

-wondered how human ancestors domesticated dogs from wild wolves, so repeatedly mated "tamest" foxes together -after 40 years, successfully created "tame" foxes -demonstrated that when certain traits are selected, by conferring a reproductive advantage to an individual or a species, those traits over time will prevail

Thinking in Images

-words convey ideas, but sometimes ideas precede words -thinking of images before doing a physical or cognitive activity increases performance -it's better to picture doing process then outcome you want -fMRI show mentally stimulating an action activates neural networks also active when performing action -often think in images when we use procedural memory: our unconscious memory system for motor and cognitive skills and conditioned associations -thinking affects our language which then affects our thoughts

Steps for How an Action Potential is Generated

1) Neuron at resting potential (negative inside, positive outside) 2) Sending neuron receives an electrical impulse 3) Action Potential (depolarization where cations flood 1st myelin sections, threshold of all or none) 4) Refractory Period 5) NTM released into synaptic gap r cleft bind to receptor sites of receiving neuron and excite (fire again) or inhibit 6) Reuptake (extra NTM sucked up by sending neuron)

Rene Descartes

1) agreed with Socrates and Plato (existence of innate ideas and the mind separate from the body and able to survive death) 2) proposed idea of nerves (how mind & body connected)

John Locke

1) argued that the mind at birth is a blank slate, "a white paper," on which experience writes

Animal Research

1) clear scientific purpose 2) treated in a humane way 3) animals acquired legally 4) low amount of suffering 5) needs to answer specific question

Socrates and Plato

1) concluded that mind is separable from body and continues after the body dies 2) knowledge is innate

Wilhelm Wundt

1) established the first psychology laboratory at the University go Leipzig in Germany 2) considered father of psychology 3) first person to study psychology scientifically

Stability and Change

1) first 2 years of life are bad predictor for traits, teens can change too but as people grow older their personality stabilizes 2) some characteristics more stable than other 3) all change w/age but change without changing person relative to others of the same age

Cognitive Skills Shared b/w Great Apes & Humans

1) form concepts 2) display insight 3) use and create tools 4) transmit cultural innovations 5) have a theory of mind (including the capacity for reasoning, self-recognition, empathy, imitations, and understanding of another's mind )

Adulthood's Commitments

1) intimacy (forming relationships) -people have always been monogamous, majority of people married, married people usually happier 2)generativity (being productive, supporting future generations) -contributes to identity, increases self-fulfillment and life satisfaction

Human Research

1) no coercion, must be voluntary 2) informed consent 3) anonymity 4) no significant risk 5) must debrief

Francis Bacon

1) recognized that humans like to perceive patterns, even in random events 2) people see what they want to see (successes, not failures)

Aristotle

1) soul is not separable from the body 2) knowledge is not preexisting, grows from the experiences stored in our memories

5 Steps to Reading a Sentence Aloud

1) words register in visual cortex 2) relayed to angular gyrus (converts it to auditory form) 3) received, understood in Wernicke's area 4) sent to Broca's area 5) motor cortex pronounces words

Todderlerhood

Age: 1-2 Issue: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt -toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities

Young Adulthood

Age: 20s-40s -Issue: Intimacy vs. Isolation -young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated

Preschooler

Age: 3-4 Issue: Initiative vs. Guilt -preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent

Middle Adulthood

Age: 40s-60s -Issue: Generativity vs. Stagnation -in middle age, adults discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family or work, or they may feel a lack of purpose

Elementary School

Age: 6-puberty Issue: Competence (Industry) vs. Inferiority -children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior

Late Adulthood

Age: 60+ -Issue: Integrity vs. Despair -when reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failue

Adolescence (Erik Erikson)

Age: teen-20s Issue: Identity vs. Role Confusion -teens work at refining sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are

Infancy

Age: up to 1 Issue: Trust vs. Mistrust -if needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust

Endorphins

D: "morphine within"; natural, opiate like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure (lessen pain, boost mood) -released in response to pain and vigorous exercise -cause good feelings such as "runner's high" and indifference to pain in some severely injured people

Refractory Period

D: "rest period" of a neuron when Na+ pumped back outside

Emerging Adulthood

D: 18-20s where most not settled -gradually increasing, in between phase of not teen but not adult bc no responsibilities

Preconventional Morality

D: Before age 9, most children have a preconventional morality of self-interest: obey either to avoid punishment or to gain concrete rewards

Conventional Morality

D: By early adolescence, morality usually evolved to a more conventional level that care for others and upholds the laws and social rules simply because they are the laws and rules

Interneurons

D: CNS neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Post-conventional Morality

D: Some who develop abstract reasoning of formal operational may come to 3rd level; affirms people's agreed-upon rights or follows what one personally perceives as basic ethical principle

Linguistic Determinism

D: Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think -based on assumption that different languages impose different conceptions of reality -supported by fact that many bilinguals feel they think differently in different languages, and exhibit different personalities -can lose a culture when lose a language because lose associated language -subtle prejudices can be conveyed by the words we choose to express our everyay thoughts -Current View: "determines" too strong, more like influences -more language = better ability to think; pays to have increased word power

Rooting Reflex

D: a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple -one of the reflexes baby born with to help it survive

Retinal Disparity

D: a binocular cue for perceiving depth -by comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance (the greater the disparity between the two images, the closer the object)

Convergence

D: a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object -the greater the inward strain, the closer the object

Developmental Psychology

D: a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan -3 Major Issues relative influence of nature and nurture, whether development is a continuous process or a series of discrete stages, whether personality is stable or changes as we age

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

D: a complex molecule containing the genetic information that make up the chromosomes -humans share 99.9% of DNA -0.1% and environment = difference

Cochlear Implant

D: a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea -best for kids because plasticity -debated bc some want while others embrace deafness

Autism

D: a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind

Limbic System

D: a doughnut shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex -includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus

Visual Cliff

D: a lab device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals -showed depth perception partly innate because babies reluctant to move

Myelin Sheath

D: a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next

Concepts

D: a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people -Purpose: simplifies and orders the world around us -organize concepts into categories, and these categories into hierarchies -form some concepts by definition (ex: 3 sided figure = triangle) -form most concepts by developing prototypes (best example)

Prototype

D: a mental image or best example of a category -matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin) -categories have more fuzzy boundaries and we move away from out prototypes

Algorithm

D: a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem -contrasts with the usually speedier, but also more error prone, use of heuristics

Neurons

D: a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system -all consists of a cell body and its branching fibers (dendrites, axon, myelin sheath)

Reticular Formation

D: a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal/alertness (how awake you are) L: extends from spinal cord up to thalamus (sits on top of brain stem)

Action Potential

D: a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon; generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane

Hypothalamus

D: a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), handles info from autonomic nervous system, helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion -linked to emotion and reward center

Critical Period

D: a optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development -when attachments based on familiarity form

Adrenal Glands

D: a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys; secretes the hormone epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) which helps to arouse the body in times of stress

Temperament

D: a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity -usually the same throughout life (infancy to adulthood) -IT have more similar temperaments than FT, indicating heredity may predispose temperament -biologically rooted temperament contributes to enduring personality

Phrenology

D: a popular but ill fated theory that claimed bumps on the skull could reveal our mental abilities and our character traits -invented in early 1800s by Franz Gall -helped to focus attention on idea that various brain regions have particular functions

Iris

D: a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening -adjusts light intake by dilating and constricting in response to light intensity and inner emotions

Self-Concept

D: a sense of one's identity and personal worth -usually developed by age 12 -Darwin believed ^ began when we can recognize ourselves in the mirror (6-18 months) -by age 8-10, pretty stable and affects actions

Role

D: a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

Gender Role

D: a set of expected behaviors for males and for females -men are breadwinners who work while women are house caretakers who do chores -greatly influenced by culture b/c big diversity across different cultures

Heuristics

D: a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithims

Reflexes

D: a simple, automatic, inborn responses to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee jerk responses

Hippocampus

D: a structure in the limbic system associated with explicit memory L: attached to amygdala

Cross Sectional Study

D: a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another -in intelligence tests, older people do worst -everyone thought aging = mental decline

Insight

D: a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy based solutions -Wolfgang Kohler did famous studies about insight and chimpanzees -Jung-Beeman/Kunois/Bowden discovered burst of right temporal lope acitvity with insight solutions to word problems -provides sense of satisfaction; why we might find jokes funny

Function Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

D: a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans -active brain = more blood flow -compares MRI taken few seconds apart to watch brain "light up" with increased O2 laden blood flow as it does some given task A: not radioactive, noninvasive DA: expensive, no metallic devices, have to lay still, claustrophobia, not portable -Measures Function

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

D: a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain -brain put in strong magnetic field which aligns atoms -brief pulse of radio wave disorient atoms momentarily -when returned to normal, releases signals that provide images of their concentrations A: not radioactive, detailed imaged of brain, noninvasive DA: expensive, no metallic devices, have to lay still, claustrophobia, not portable -Shows Structure

Mental Set

D: a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been sucessful in the past -hinders people from approaching a problem in a new way

Confirmation Bias

D: a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions -predisposes us to verify rather than to challenge our hypotheses

Pitch

D: a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency -long waves = low frequency = low pitch -short waves = high frequency = high pitch

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

D: a visual display (multicolored or 3D) of brain activity that detects when a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task -subject given radioactive glucose tracer -glucose absorbed into brain, more active parts will take up more glucose -glucose breaks down which releases positrons -positrons collides with electrons, emitting gamma rays -machine measures gamma rays to create image A: provides clear image of the distribution of brain activity DA: expensive, uses radioactive substance, not portable -Measures Function

Cocktail Party Effect

D: ability to attend to only one voice among many

Statistical Learning

D: ability to detect speech patterns -infants have ability to learn statistical aspects of human speech such as distribution of sound in a language or which syllables are often together -supports idea that language inate and babies born with built-in-readiness to learn grammatical rules

Depth Perception

D: ability to see objects in 3D although the images that strike the retina are 2D; allow us to judge distances -ability is partly innate -by the time a species is mobile, has necessary perceptual abilities

Deep Structure of a Language

D: according to Chomsky, a language's meaning -"Mario is eager to please" and "Mario is easy to please" have the same surface structure but different deep structure

Basic Trust

D: according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

Priming

D: activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response -can make us feel what we don't know and can't describe -can trigger weak response that is detected by brain scanning -very subtle, fleeting effect; can't be exploited

Pupil

D: adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

Thyroid Gland

D: affects metabolism, among other things

Teratogens

D: agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal developing and cause harm

Cognition

D: all the metal activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Intensity

D: amount of energy in light/sound wave, which we perceive as brightness/loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

D: an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface; these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp A: noninvasive, takes real time data, inexpensive, no magnetic fields or radiation, portable DA: limited to electrical activity and cortex, can't determine neurotransmission -Measures Function

Attachment

D: an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation -powerful survival impulse to keep babies close to caregivers (not necessarily person who gives nourishment)

Phi Phenomenon

D: an illusion of movement created when 2 or more adjacent lights black on and off in quick succession -christmas lights or lighted signs (scrolling signs at baseball games)

Morphine

D: an opiate drug that elevates mood and eases pain; binds to receptors in areas linked with mood and pain sensations -helped Candace Pert and Solomon Snyder discover endorphins

Gestalt

D: an organized whole -Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes -whole may exceed the sum of its parts because constantly sensory info and infer perceptions in ways that make sense to us -bottom up processing w/sensory analysis and top down processing that uses knowledge to interpret sensations

Norms

D: an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior; norms prescribe "proper" behavior -helps us to know what to do, frees us from preoccupation

Bottom Up Processing

D: analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

Motor Cortex

D: arch-shaped area at rear of frontal lobes that control voluntary movement -opposite hemisphere controls opposite side of the body -brain devotes most area of motor cortex to sensitive areas and areas with precise control (ex: fingers > arm)

(Soma) Sensory Cortex

D: areas at front of parietal lobes (parallel to motor cortex) that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations -more sensitive areas = more area of sensory cortex

Association Areas

D: areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; involved in more mental functions like learning, remembering, thinking, speaking

Two Word Stage

D: beginning at 2 years, stage where people speak mostly in 2 word sentences

Babbling Stage

D: beginning at 4 months, stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language (wide range of phoenemes)

Subliminal

D: below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness -technically can sense b/c absolute threshold 50/50 so can detect some of the time -sometimes know more than we think we do

Maturation

D: biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience -decrees many of our commonalities

Human Factors Psychology

D: branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use -design things that fit our natural perceptions -have to avoid curse of knowledge: mistaken assumption that others share our expertise and will behave as we would -best way to test is via research and have people try

Infantile Amnesia

D: can't remember things before 3 years old -^ bc organize materials differently but by age 4, can remember things bc increase in long term storage and self -don't have conscious memories pre 3-4 but have implicit memories

Glial Cells

D: cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons (myelin sheath)

Middle Ear

D: chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing 3 tiny bones (hammer, anvil , stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

Neurotransmitters

D: chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons; when released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

Hormones

D: chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another

Belief Perserverance

D: clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited -remedy: consider the opposite -people have tendency to ignore contrary evidence and it takes more compelling evidence to change beliefs

Cochlea

D: coiled, bony fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses -oval window = cochlea's membrane

Male Answer Syndrome

D: coined by Traci Giuliano; men more likely to guess than admit they don't know

Simple Spinal Reflex Pathway

D: composed of a single sensory neuron and a single motor neuron that often communicate through an interneuron -doesn't require brain (brain only needed for sensation)

Split Brain

D: condition in which 2 brain hemispheres are isolated by cutting the connected fibers (mainly those in corpus callosum) between them

Prosopagnosia

D: condition in which a person have complete sensation but incomplete perception

Farsightedness

D: condition in which far away objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina -eye too narrow (stretched vertically)

Nearsightedness

D: condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina -when image reaches retina, rays are spreading out, blurring the image -eye too long (stretched horizontally)

Pineal Gland

D: connected to optic nerves and regulates sleep by secreting melatonin L: between thalamus and cerebellum

Broca's Area

D: controls language expression; area of frontal lobe, usually in left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movement

Wernicke's Area

D: controls language reception, comprehension and expression; usually in left temporal lobe

Extrasensory Perception

D: controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory inout (telepathy: mind to mind communication, clairvoyance: perceiving remote events, precognition: perceiving future events) -need reproducible phenomenon and theory to explain, not happened yet -people believe because misperceptions, misinterpretations, selective recall -have to believe brain capable of perceiving without sensory input

Transduction

D: conversion of one form of energy to another -in sensation, transforming of stimulus energies (sights, sounds, smells) into neural impulses our brain can interpret

Prefrontal Cortex

D: deals with remorse, planning, judgement, decision making, moral behavior, concentration L: right behind forehead (front most part of frontal lobe)

Habituation

D: decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation; as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner -can measure with eye tracking software -to recognize new stimulus as different, infant must remember the initial stimulus

Monocular Cues

D: depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

Binocular Cues

D: depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes

Excitatory/Inhibitory Signals

D: determine if action potential will occur -most signals excitory

Hue

D: dimension of color determined by wavelength, what we know as colors such as blue, green, etc.

Sensory Adaptation

D: diminished sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation (unchanged stimulus) -eye always moving to prevent ^ and guarantee that stimulation on the eye's receptor continually changes so can see when you're staring -allows us to focus on informative changes without distraction of constant stimulus

Wavelength

D: distance from peak of one wave to peak of next, high variation -dictates color of what we see

Agonsists

D: drugs that affect communication at the synapse by EXCITING neuron's firing -may be similar enough to NTM to mimic its effects, or blocks NTM reuptake -Ex: opiate drugs produce temporary high by amplifying normal sensations of arousal or pleasure -Ex: black widow spider venom which flood synapses with ACh -----> violent muscle contractions, convulsions, death

Antagonists

D: drugs that affect communication at the synpase by INHIBITING neuron's firing -can inhibits a neurotransmitter's release or blocks receptor sites by imitating drug (but can't stimulate receptor) -Ex: Botox paralyzes facial muscles by blocking ACh release from sending neuron -Ex: Curare a type of poison that occupies and blocks ACh receptor sites

Telegraphic Speech

D: early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram (ex: "go car") using mostly nouns/verbs and omitting auxillary words

Blood-Brain Barrier

D: enables the brain to fence out unwanted chemicals circulating in the blood -makes it harder to treat NTM diseases

Availability Heuristic

D: estimating the likelihood of events based on their avalibility inmemory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common -cognitively availble events more likely to occur, not always -anything that increases the ease of retrieving information can increase its percevied avalibility

Environment

D: every non genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

Hyperalgesia

D: extreme sensitivity to things most find mildly painful

Inattentional Blindness

D: failing to see visible objects when our attentions is directed elsewhere -consequence of selective attention

Selective Attention

D: focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Terminal Branches of Axon

D: form junctions with other cells

Individualism

D: giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications (Europeans) -Self: Independent (identify from individual traits) -Life Task: Discover and express one's uniqueness -What Matters: Me (personal achievement/fulfillment, rights/liberties, self esteem) -Coping Method: Change reality -Morality: Defined by individuals (self-based) -Relationships: Many, often temporary or casual; confrontation acceptable -Attributing Behavior: Behavior reflects one's personality and attitudes

Collectivism

D: giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly (Asians) -Self: interdependent (identify from belonging) -Life Task: Maintain connections, fit in, perform role -What Matters: Us (group goals/solidarity, social responsibilities/relationships, family duty) -Coping Method: Accommodate to reality -Morality: Defined by social networks (duty based) -Relationships: Few, close and enduring; harmony valued -Attributing Behavior: Behavior reflects social norms/roles

Condition Hearing Loss

D: hearing loss cause day damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea (eardrums, bones)

Sensorineural Hearing Loss (nerve deafness)

D: hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves (hair cells, associated nerves) -usually caused by loud noises or genetic -hearing aid: amplify vibrations for mostly high frequencies in which one's hearing is weakest and also by compressing sound

Parathyroid Gland

D: help regulate the level of Ca in the blood

Aphasia

D: impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage to Broca's area (speaking) or Wernicke's area (understanding)

Intimacy

D: in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

Egocentrism

D: in Piaget's theory, the pre operational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

Pre operational Stage

D: in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years old) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic -doesn't have conservation yet -egocentrism -language development -pretend play -develop theory of mind at about 4-5 -@ 7, kids use more works for problem solving

Sensorimotor Stage

D: in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years old) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities -6+ months, develop object permanence -display stranger anxiety -Piaget underestimated young children's competence

Concrete Operational Stage

D: in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events -understand conservation and mathematical transformations

Formal Operational Stage

D: in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts -abstract logic -potential for mature moral reasoning -form hypotheses and deuce consequences

Grammer

D: in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others (includes semantics and syntax)

Phoneme

D: in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit -ex: bat has 3: b, a, t -various number in each language, english has about 40 and human speech has about 869 -changes in phonemes produce change in meaning -consonant phoneme convey more info than voewl phonemes -people growing up learning one language have hard time learning another -sign languge has phonemelike building blocks defined bby hand shapes and movements

Place Theory (Herman von Helmholtz)

D: in hearing, theory that links pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated -brain determines pitch by recognizing where it got signal from -high frequencies produce large vibrations near the beginning of the cochlea's membrane, low frequencies near the end -best for explaining how we hear high-pitched sounds

Perceptual Adaptation

D: in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or eve inverted visual field (distortion googles) -requires active effort

Parents, Peers, Culture

D: influences our beliefs and values, our interests and food tastes, and our language and appearance

Spinal Cord

D: information highway connecting the PNS to the brain -ascending neural fibers send up sensory info -descending neural fibers send back motor-control info -controls simple reflexes

Top Down Processing

D: information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations -filters info through our experience and expectations to produce perceptions

Neural Netowrks

D: interconnected neural cells; with experience, networks can learn as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results; computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning

Assimilation

D: interpreting one's new experience in terms one's existing schemas

Representative Heuristic

D: judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information -if something matches our prototype, likely to ignore STATISTICS or logic

Corpus Callosum

D: large band of neural fibers connecting the 2 brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Occipital Lobes

D: lays at back of head; includes visual areas which receive visual info from opposite visual field -visual cortex

Temporal Lobe

D: lays roughly above ears, each of which receive auditory info primarily from opposite ear -auditory cortex -Wernicke's area

Depolarization

D: loss of difference in charge between the inside and outside of membrane -when cations flood a part of the axon after the firing of an action potential, causes next part of axon to open

Gene Complexes

D: many genes acting in concert -human traits are influences by gene complexes -ex: height reflect face length, vertebrate, etc.)

Dementia

D: mental erosion (substantial loss in brain cells) -risk doubles every 5 years from 60s+ -not a normal part of the aging process

Perceptual Set

D: mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another -created by experiences, assumptions, and expectations -once we form a wrong idea, more difficulty seeing the truth -influence what we see and hear; determined by schemas (concepts) that organize and interpret unfamiliar faces

Difference Threshold (just noticeable difference)

D: minimum difference between 2 stimuli required for detection 50% of the time; experience difference threshold as a just noticeable difference -increases with magnitude of stimulus (ex: +10g w/100 g but can't do +10 g to 1kg)

Absolute Threshold

D: minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus (ex: light, sound, pressure, taste, odor, etc.) 50% of the time

Social Intuitionist View of Morality

D: moral feelings precede moral thinking and judgements

Feature Detectors

D: nerve cells in the visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement -pass info on to other areas of cortex that respond to more complex patterns (ex: area behind right temporal lobe for recognizing faces) -different images activate different parts of the brain

Volley Principle

D: neural cells can alternate firing so that a combined frequency of 1000 times/second can be reached (hear sounds 1000+ times/second)

All-or-None Reponse

D: neuron's reaction all or none; either fire or they don't -increasing stimulus above the threshold will not increase the action potential's intensity, strength, or speed -a strong stimulus will cause more neurons to fire, and to fire more often

Sensory Neurons

D: neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors (body's tissues and organs) to the CNS

Motor Neurons

D: neutrons that carry outgoing information from the CNS to the muscles and glands

Secondary Sex Characteristics

D: non-reproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

Frequency

D: number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second) -determines pitch

Pruning

D: occurs during puberty; after maturation provides many neural connections, experiences preserves activated connections and unemployed connections lost

Fluid Intelligence

D: one's ability reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood (logic problems)

Crystallized Intelligence

D: one's accumulation of knowledge and verbal skills, tends to increase with age (vocab, analogies test)

Gender Identity

D: one's sense of being male or female

Identity

D: one's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

Language

D: our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning -sets us apart from other animals -transmits info and allows us to know what we can't see

Parietal Lobes

D: part of cerebral cortex lying at top of head and toward rear of head; receives sensory input for touch and body position -sensory cortex

Frontal Lobes

D: part of cerebral cortex lying behind forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movement and in making plans and judgement -prefrontal cortex -Broca's area -motor cortex

Choice-Blindness Blindness

D: people don't realize when choices switches

Selection Effect

D: people seek out peers with similar attitudes and interests

Change Blindness/Deafness

D: people so focused, don't see or hear changes

Theory of Mind

D: people's ideas about their own and others' mental states about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict -ability to infer others' mental state and feelings -other people might other ideas

Color Constancy

D: perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illuminations alters the wavelengths reflected by the object -color relative to surrounding objects

Perceptual Constancy

D: perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, size) even as illumination and retinal images change

Grouping

D: perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups -process basic features a scene like color and movement instantly and automatically, but need to group to bring form and order -follow certain rules for grouping stimuli together: proximity, similarity, continuity, connectedness

Sensory Compensation

D: person who lose one sense compensate with better abilities in the other senses

Blindsight

D: phenomenon in which those who have lost a portion of their brain's visual cortex experience blindness in part of their field of vision -still have "sight unseen" -2 visual systems: conscious perceptions and guides actions

Aggression

D: physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone

Blind Spot

D: point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind spot" because no receptor cells are located there

Sensory Interaction

D: principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

Weber's Law

D: principle, that, to be perceived as different, 2 stimuli must differ by a constant minimum %, rather than a constant amount -threshold for detecting differences are roughly a constant proportion of the size of the original stimulus

Accommodation

D: process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

Parallel Processing

D: processing of several aspects a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision (contrasts with step-by-step or serial processing of computers and conscious problem solvers) -brains divides scene into sections, works on each simultaneously, construct perception by integrating everything -when integrating, clusters of neurons synchronize activity

Longitudinal Study

D: research in which same people are restudied and retested over a long period -in intelligence tests, older people relatively stable -contrasts with cross sectional studies maybe bc 2 different era of people (different level of education)

Cones

D: retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina (fovea) and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions -respond more to color and detail -detect fine details and give rise to color sensations because have individual bipolar cells devoted to relaying individual cone's message to visual cortex - ~6 million

Rods

D: retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision when cones don't respond -respond more to faint light -has less detail because share bipolar cells with other rods so messages become combined - ~120 million -in dark, pupils dilate to allow more light to reach rods

Vestibular Sense

D: sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance (in inner ear) -semicircular canals and vestibular sacs have fluid that moves hair and sends signals to the brain

Pons

D: sits on top of the medulla, coordinates eye and facial movement, daydreaming, sleep

Basilar Membrane

D: sits within cochlea membrane, which contains hair cells that can bend in response to sound waves and send neural impulses to the brain -interpret loudness from # of activated hair cells (very delicate and fragile)

Clinical Observation

D: studies the effects of specific brain diseases and injuries on functionality; helped to map out brain

Parapsychology

D: study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis -so far, studies have found "psychics" inaccurate or ambiguous -mostly coincidence

Psychophysics

D: study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

Kinesthesis

D: system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts -have position and motions sensors all over that report position and movement

Visual Capture

D: tendency for vision to dominate the other senses -between hearing and touch, hearing dominates

Cerebellum

D: the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input, coordinating voluntary muscle movement (output), implicit memory, depht perception, and balance

Gender-Typing

D: the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role -how a child develops into his or her gender as well as how others have expectations as to what pertains to each gender -some girls more feminine, some boys more masculine

Genes

D: the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

Primary Sex Characteristics

D: the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

Endocrine System

D: the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Nervous System

D: the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

Central Nervous System (CNS)

D: the brain and the spinal chord

Personal Space

D: the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies

Social Clock

D: the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement -more and more people diverging from social clock

Fetus

D: the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth -9 week to birth -@ 6 months, organs sufficiently formed and functional so baby may survive if born premature -can hear sound (prefers mother's voice)

Embryo

D: the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month -2 weeks through 8 weeks -organs begin to form and function, heart beats

Somatic Nervous System (skeletal nervous system)

D: the division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles -enables VOLUNTARY control of our skeletal muscles

Sympathetic Nervous System

D: the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing/expending its energy in stressful situations -makes you alert and ready for action

Interaction

D: the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity) -nurture via nature

Pituitary Gland

D: the endocrine system's most influential glands; under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

Culture

D: the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next -allows us to be social, supports survival and reproduction with social and economic systems that lead to innovation -all share a capacity for culture -changes significantly and quickly over time

Cerebral Cortex

D: the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information processing center

Synpase

D: the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron; tiny gap at this junction call synaptic gap or cleft

Threshold

D: the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse -if excitatory - inhibitory > threshold, ---> action potential

Testosterone

D: the most important of the male sex hormones; both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

Puberty

D: the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing -more hormones which intensifies moods and increase in physical development -13 for boys, 11 for girls

Imprinting

D: the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

Sensation

D: the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment -detect physical energy from environment and encode it as neural signals

Perception

D: the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Heritability

D: the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes; heritability of a trait may vary depending on the range of populations and environments studied (extent to which differences among people attributable to genes) -as environments become more similar, heredity as a source of differences necessarily becomes more important -applicable to individuals only -ex: if intelligence if 50% heritable, can attribute to genetic influence 50% of observed variation

Syntax

D: the rules for combining words into gramatically sensible sentences in a given language -ex: adj + noun

Semantics

D: the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences ina given language; also the study of meaning ex: -ed means past

X Chromosome

D: the sex chromosome found in both men and women; females have 2 X chromosome while males have 1; an X chromosome from each parent produces a female child

Y Chromosome

D: the sex chromosome found only in males; can only be given by the father, when paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child

Evolutionary Psychology

D: the study of the evolutions of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection -looks for similarities

Behavior Geneticists

D: the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavoir

Molecular Genetics

D: the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes -identifies specific genes influencing behavior -looks for differences -pros: genetic tests can reveal at-risk populations for certain diseases -cons: allows people to "pick and choose" certain traits (designer babies)

Belief Bias

D: the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem vaid, or valid conclusions seem invalid -more easily see illogical conclusions that run counter to our beliefs than of those that agree with our beliefs

Overconfidence

D: the tendency to be more confident than correct; to overestimate the accurcacy of one's beliefs and judgments -created bu use of intutive heuristics when forming judgments, eagerness to confirm beliefs we already have, knack for explaining away failures -Pros: overconfident people more happy, easier to make tough decisions, seem more credible -improved with experience and feedback

Functional Fixedness

D: the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

Menopasue

D: the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines -doesn't usually create psychological problems, expectations influence impact

Adolescence

D: the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence -tumultuous for most: increased need for social approval, sense of direction influx, more alienation, embarassment

Framing

D: the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments -"half full" better than "half empty," #s worse than % -sugest judgments and decisions not well reasoned, easy to manipulate people

Signal Detection Theory

D: theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise") -assumes there's no single absolute threshold and that detection depend partly on a person's experiences, expectations, motivation, level of fatigue -measured as our ratio of "hits" to "misses"

Opponent Process Theory

D: theory that opposition retinal processes (red/green, yellow/blue, white/black) enable color vision -some cells stimulated by green and inhibited by red, others stimulated by red and inhabited by green -if stare at red too long, get afterimage of green because "red" cells tired out and won't fire anymore -cones receive to different colors, signal process by NS opponent process cells on way to visual cortex

Gate-Control Theory

D: theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain -"gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in large fibers or by information coming from the brain -treat patients by stimulating "large fibers" to close

Identical Twins

D: twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms -shared & unique environment, 100% shared genes

Fraternal Twins

D: twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs; they are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment -shared & unique environment, 50% shared genes, 50% unique genes

Selectively Permeable

D: when a membrane is selective in what it allows in -axon's surface selectively permeable (resting axon blocks out Na+)

Serotonin

F: Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal Too Little: Undersupply linked to depression -Prozac and some other antidepressant drugs raise serotonin levels

Acetylcholine (ACh)

F: Enables muscle action, learning, and memory Too Little: With Alzheimer's diseases, ACh-producing neurons deteriorate -is the NTM at every junction between a motor neuron and skeletal muscle; when released, muscle contracts and when blocked, muscles cannot contract

Nonepinephrine

F: Helps control alertness and arousal Too Little: Undersupply can depress mood

Dopamine

F: Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion Too Much: Excess dopamine receptor activity linked to schizophrenia Too Little: Starved of dopamine, the brain produces the tremors and decreased mobility of Parkinson's disease

Left Hemisphere

F: reading, writing, speaking, arithmetic reasoning, understanding -controls right side of the body

Critics of Stage Theories

Jean Piaget on Cognitive Development -young children have some abilities Piaget attributed to later stages Lawrence Kohlberg on Moral Development -reflected a worldview characteristic of educated males in individualistic cultures and emphasized thinking over acting Erik Erikson on Psychosocial Development -adult life does not progress through fixed, predictable steps Overall: contribute developmental perspective on the whole life span, by suggesting how people of one age think and act differently when they arrive at a later age

Cocaine

NTM: dopamine -dopamine transporters perform reuptake -cocaine binds to transporters, blocks reuptake -dopamine keeps binding to cell

Methamphetamine

NTM: dopamine -mimics dopamine, taken into cell by dopamine transporters -enters vesicles, forces dopamine molecules out -transporters reverse action and pump dopamine into the synapse -dopamine becomes trapped and repeatedly binds to receptors

Heroin

NTM: dopamine, inhibitory neurotransmitters -mimics natural opiates and binds to opiate receptors, turning off dopamine inhibition -dopamine flood synapse

Marijuana

NTM: dopamine, inhibitory transmitter -THC mimic anandamide and binds to cannabinoid receptors -turns off the release of inhibitory transmitters -excess dopamine floods the synapse

LSD

NTM: serotonin -LSD resembles serotonin, binds to serotonin receptors -2 types of serotonin receptor, LSD can inhibit and excite others

Ecstasy

NTM: serotonin, dopamine (excess serotonin stimulate milder release of dopamine) -mimics serotonin, taken up by serotonin transporters -transporter now altered and confused -transports serotonin out of the cell and into the synapse -flood synapse, prevents reuptake so serotonin keeps binding to receptor

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Shortest to Longest Wavelength: gamma, x-ray, ultraviolet, visible, infrared, microwave, radio waves -we can only see visible -longest we can see is red, shortest we can see is violet

Influences on our Intuitions about Fear

We fear what: 1) ancestral history has prepared us to fear 2) we can't control 3) is immediate 4) is readily available in memory -^ combined with vivd events can cause us to fear the wrong thing

Psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)

B.F. Skinner

a leading behaviorist, who rejected introspection and studied how consequences shaped behavior

Correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. the correlation coefficient is the mathematical relationship, ranging from -1 to 1

Experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more actors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental processes (the dependent variable). by random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors

Random Sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Operational Defintion

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. for example human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures

Statistical Significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Population

all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for study

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the mind

Double-Blind Procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo (drug-evaluation studies)

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Biopsychosocial Approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

Case Study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Behavior

anything an organism does (any action we can observe and record)

Charles Darwin

argued that natural selection shapes behavior as well as bodies

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to different groups

Feedback System of Endocrine/Nervous

brain --> pituitary --> other glands --> hormones --> brain

Carl Roberts and Abraham Maslow

emphasized the importance of current environmental influences on our growth potential, and the importance of meeting out needs for love and acceptance (humanistic psychology)

Placebo

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent

Sigmund Freud

famed personality theorist and therapist whose controversial ideas influenced humanity's self-understanding

Margaret Floy Washburn

first woman to receive a psychology PhD and synthesized animal behavior research in The Animal Mind

Social-Cultural

how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

Psychodynamic

how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

Behavior Genetics

how much our genes and our environment influence our individual differences

Neuroscience

how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences

Evolutionary

how the natural selection of traits promotes the perpetuation of one's genes

Cognitive

how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

Behavioral

how we learn observable responses

William James

introduced functionalism and based his theories on evolutionary belief that thinking was developed because it was adaptive; most famous as educator

Mary Whiton Calkins

pioneering memory research and the American Psychological Association's first female president (denied doctorate)

Buddha

pondered how sensations and perceptions combine to form ideas

Basic Research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Applied Research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

Edward Bradford Titchener

student of Wundt and introduced structuralism (sought to discover the elements of the mind)x

Barnum Effect

tendency for people to accept very general/vague characterizations of themselves and take them to be accurate (ex: horoscopes)

Mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of the scores

Control Condition

the condition of an experiment that contrast with he experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Experimental Condition

the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Levels of Analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Independent Variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

Mental Processes

the internal, subjective experiences we infer from behavior (sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings)

Nature-nurture Issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Mode

the most frequently occurring scores in a distribution

Dependent Variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

Illusory Correlation

the perceptions of a relationship when none exists

Natural Selection

the principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

False Consensus Effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

Empiricism

the view that knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and science flourishes through observation and experiment

Critical Thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. rather it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

Hawthorne Effect

when control group may experiences changes because they know they're in an experiment

How We Locate Sound

-2 ears enables stereophonic hearing so 1 ear hears sound more intensely and quickly than the other -auditory system able to detect minute differences -also uses parallel processing where timing can be one pathway and intensity another; combine for location