AP Psychology Thinking and Language Terms to Know
belief perseverance
clinging to ones initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
stereotype threat
the apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype
one-word stage
the stage in speech development, from about age 1-2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
(Noam) Chomsky
"father of language research" - humans have a universal grammar device that predisposes us to learn language. [deep structure = true meaning, surface structure = grammar of learned language]
(Lev) Vygotsky
1896-1934; Field: child development; Contributions: investigated how culture & interpersonal communication guide development, zone of proximal development; play research
analogical representation
A mental representation that has some of the physical characteristics of an object; it is analogous to the object.
defining attribute model
The idea that a concept is characterized by a list of features that are necessary to determine if an object is a member of the category.
cognitive dissonance
The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.
linguistic relativism
The worldview of a culture is shaped and reflected by the language its members speak.
linguistic determinism
Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think
concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category. provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule of procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem; contrast with the usual speedier --but also more error prone - use of heuristics
restructuring
a new way of thinking about a problem that aids its solution
heuristics
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently: usually speedier but more error prone than algorithms ("rule of thumb")
insight
a sudden, often novel realization of a solution to a problem; it contrasts with a strategy-based solution
confirmation bias
a tendancy to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
symbolic representation
an abstract mental representation that does not correspond to the physical features of an object or idea
Washoe
an ape taught ASL by Allen and Beatrix Gardner; could communicate, but with improper syntax
babbling stage
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
two-word stage
beginning at about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two word statements
Broca's area
controls language experssion - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
Wernicke's area
controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
inductive reasoning
deriving general principles from particular facts or instances ("Every cat I have ever seen has four legs; cats are four-legged animals").
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
Koko
gorilla: taught ASL by Francine Patterson. generated sentences
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage, either to Broca's area (impairing speech) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)
grammar
in a language, a system of rules that enable us to communicate with and understand others
morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word, or part of a word (such as a prefix)
phoneme
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
representative heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
deductive reasoning
reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.)
Nim Chimpsky
taught ASL by Herbert Terrace. knew words but did not generate his own sentences
fixation
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set
syntax
the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language
semantics
the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning
belief bias
the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments
functional fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual function; the impediment to problem-solving
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
critical periods
times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant