APES Ap Exam 2023

Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rock How each is formed, importance, examples - Basic Understanding:

- Igneous- Directly from molten magma that cools either above (extrusive) or below(intrusive) the earth's surface. Granite - Sedimentary- Compression of sediments- Sandstone- Sedimentary rocks hold the fossil record, providing a window into our past Exposure to high temperatures and pressures- Metamorphic- Marble- Metamorphic rock has been important as a building material throughout human history because it is structurally strong and visually attractive

Top three components of the Human Diet - Basic Understanding

1) Grains (wheat, rice and corn 60%) 2) Meat (Beef, pork, poultry) 3) Fish

Break down of species declines (Pgs 636-637) - Basic Understanding: Proportion of each group that is threatened.

21% of birds, 32% of mammals, and 49% of amphibians are either near-threatened or threatened species.

Leading causes of human deaths worldwide - Basic Understanding.

29% Cardiovascular, 26% infectious diseases, 13% cancer, 10% Respiratory and digestive diseases, 9% injuries, 8% other.

Sediment pollution - Basic Understanding

30% of all sediments in our waterways are natural, 70% from human activities. Disturbing soil during construction of buildings or agriculture, erosion caused by removal of vegetation, can all increase sedimentation. Cons of Sedimentation: cause waterways to become brown and cloudy, Increased turbidity, less sunlight less aquatic productivity, makes it hard to obtain oxygen, excess nutrients in aquatic ecosystems, EPA estimates that sediment pollution costs $16 billion annually on environmental damage.

Comparative efficiency of different travel methods (car, train, plane, etc.) - Basic Understanding

30% of energy in the U.S. is used for transportation. Public transportation(bus or train) is much more energy efficient than single person transportation(car). But ground transportation(train) is much more energy efficient compared to air transportation (plane). Trains and motorcycles are the most efficient. Cars with one passenger are not energy efficient but cars with 4 passengers are highly efficient.

Composition of MSW in the U.S. - Basic Understanding

30% paper, compostables 33%, plastic 13%. Study chart of composition of MSW.

Break down of energy usage and energy sources in the U.S. - Basic Understanding: Know percentage breakdown.

31% of energy is used for industrial purposes. 28% is used for transportation. 22% is used for residential. 18% is used for commercial purposes.

Primary methods of disposal of MSW in U.S. - Basic Understanding

54% of all MSW goes into a landfill, 12% is incinerated, and 34% is recycled.

Production of MSW: Commercial vs. residential - Basic Understanding

60% of MSW produced in the U.S is from residential properties, and 40% commercial.

Purpose, Structure, and advantages of Biosphere Reserves - Thorough Understanding

A biosphere reserve is a protected area consisting of zones that vary in the amount of permissible human impact. The purpose of this is to increase biodiversity without fully cutting out human resources. A biosphere reserve consists of core zone, highest biodiversity least amount of human impact, buffer zone, recreation tourism and research not lots of human activity, and transition area, human settlements, logging, and farming. Advantages of this are increasing biodiversity without eliminating human activity.

The Bastard Brown-Headed Cowbird! - Basic Understanding

A brown headed cowbird lives in an edge habitat where a forest meets a field. The cowbird is a parasite species that does not build their own nest, they form homes in other birds' nests. The cowbirds trick the forest birds into raising their offspring which takes food away from the forest bird species and that leads to the general decline of the forest bird species. As forests are fragments more forest bird species are prone to the cowbirds which cause a general decline of forest bird species in North America.

Planned obsolescence and the "throw away society" - Basic Understanding

A country's MSW generation increases with wealth. Shift from reusing objects to disposing objects. Family's by appliances, TVs, etc. - all eventually obsolete. Planned obsolescence- designing a product so that it will need to be replaced within a few years.

Individual Transferable Quota Systems - Thorough Understanding

A fishery management program in which individual fishers are given a total allowable catch of fish in a season that they can either catch or sell. Total allowable catch determined - ITQs are delegated to individuals or companies - folks have a secured right to catch their share or sell ITQs. Removes incentive to gear-up and/or "out-fish" the competition. Successfully implemented in the Alaskan salmon fisheries, becoming more widespread, including New England. The Environmental defense fund has compiled a list of fish species that are the best and worst fish to consume.

Hydrogen fuel cell functioning - Basic Understanding

A fuel cell is a electrical-chemical device that converts fuel, such as hydrogen, into an electrical current.

Exponential Growth and Formula

A growth model that estimates a population's future size (Nₜ), after a period of time (t), based on the intrinsic growth rate (r ), and the number of reproducing individuals currently in the population (Nₒ) Nₜ=Nₒ X e^rt

How a landfill is constructed, environmental concerns of landfills, potential environmental justice issues, items that should be filtered out of MSW before being deposited into a landfill and why they should not be added - Thorough Understanding.

A landfill is a giant hole in the ground, built in areas where soil has a high amount of clay because it is negatively charged, harmful ions get attached to the clay. A layer of more clay or plastic to avoid leachate. Far away from water but not too far to avoid transportation. A leachate collection system below the landfill which is a system of perforated pipes that will collect any leachate that forms from water going through the MSW, also periodically tested for toxicity. MSW is compacted and put into the landfill. Methane ventilation systems are important to keep the methane out of the environment, they will vent the methane, burn it or harvest it to use as energy. A plastic cap is put on once it is full and lots of soil and plants to prevent water getting to it. Anything organic should not go into a landfill because it leads to anaerobic decomposition. Batteries and metal should be removed to avoid contamination and nothing toxic.

Perusing sustainable economic systems - Basic Understanding: Figure 65.6

A less sustainable system is based on maximizing the utilization of resources and results in a fairly large waste stream. A more sustainable system is based on greater use of ecosystem services, less resource extraction, and minimizing the waste stream

Logistic Growth - Thorough Understanding

A logistic Growth model is a growth model that describes a population whose growth is initially exponential, but slows as the population approaches the carrying capacity of the environment. K-selected species will increase in population until carrying capacity is reached and then start to level off. R-selected species will overshoot past the carrying capacity and then die off until they finally level out below the carrying capacity. Oscillation is when populations fluctuate (change) around the carrying capacity. R-selected species have higher oscillation than K-selected species.

Phenotype vs. Genotype

A phenotype is a set of traits expressed by an individual. Anatomy, physiology, and behavior contribute to a phenotype. A genotype is the complete set of genes in an individual.

Using proxy indicators to measure historic greenhouse gasses and temperatures: Describe how ice cores are used in this process (detail!). How are we able to measure historic temperatures? Many people who "do not believe" in climate change say that CO2 and temperature have always fluctuated over time and that we are simply at a high point right now - They imply that climate change is merely natural fluctuation and not caused by human beings. Use evidence from this graph to rebut this claim.

A proxy indicator is an indirect measure that approximates a phenomenon in the absence of a direct measure. Ice Core Air Bubbles Snowfall in the Antarctic and the Himalayas compresses evenly each season to create a layer of ice. During the compression process, ice captures small air bubbles containing tiny samples of the historic atmosphere! Long cylinders called "cores" have been drilled deep into the ice providing atmospheric samples from up to 500,000 years ago! Ice from a given age is melted and levels of GHGs measured. Ratio of Oxygen isotopes used to determine historic temps. Warm temps = Higher proportion of O18 than O16. Warmer temperatures produce more O18 than O16. In the last 500 years carbon dioxide has fluctuated over time but the highest point in the past has been 280 parts per million. When we hit the industrial revolution CO2 spiked and now it is above 400 parts per million.

Rain Shadow

A rain shadow is a region with dry conditions found on the leeward(sheltered) side of a mountain range as a result of humid winds from the ocean causing precipitation on the windward side.

Habitat loss effects on generalists vs. specialists - Basic Understanding

A specialist which is a species that relies on a specific amount of conditions is more prone to population declines when habitat destruction occurs.

Water Table, Spring - Basic Understanding

A water table is the uppermost level at which the water in a given area fully saturates rock or soil. A spring is a natural Source of water formed when water from an aquifer percolates up to the ground surface.

Wind Turbine Functioning - Basic Understanding

A wind turbine is a turbine that converts wind energy into electricity. When the wind turbine blade spins the blades transfer energy to the gearbox then to the generator which generates electricity.

Acid Deposition: Normal vs. Overly acidic pH ranges - Basic Understanding

Acid Deposition- acids deposited as rain and snow or as gasses and particles that attach to the surfaces of plants, soil, and water. Occurs when NOx and SO2 are released into the atmosphere and combined with O2 and water -> forms 2 deg pollutants: Nitric Acid and Sulfuric Acid. Nitric Acid and Sulfuric Acid further break down into nitrate and sulfate and hydrogen ions (H+) which cause the acid in acid deposition -Acid deposition has been reduced in the U.S because of lower NOx and SO2 emissions. Harmful effects: -Lowering of pHH of aquatic ecosystems -. Decreases species diversity (Some can survive) -Mobilizing metals that are found in soils and sediments and releasing them into surface waters. -Impairs brian functioning -Damage to aquatic ecosystems/plants on land -Damaging statues, monuments, and buildings.

HIV/AIDS - Thorough Understanding: How humans initially became infected, connection between HIV and AIDS, most common cause of death, Treatments and availability of those treatments.

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) - An infectious disease caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).Spread to humans through harvest of bushmeat. Chimpanzees were killed and without being cooked all the way the disease was given to humans. Most commonly spread through sexual contact, drug use, blood transfusions, and mother to fetus. Diseases can mutate rapidly and eventually produce a genotype that can infect humans. Antiviral drugs have been developed that maintain low HIV populations - Significantly extend life - Many in developing nations cannot afford drugs. Worldwide - 70 million people infected, 35 million people have died.

Chronic vs. Acute Studies - Basic Understanding.

Acute study - An experiment that exposes organisms to an environmental hazard for a short duration. Typically lasts 1-4 days. Chronic study - An experiment that exposes organisms to an environmental hazard for a long duration. Lasts from the time an organism is very young to the time it can reproduce; lasting typically several months.

Air pressure and density in the atmosphere

Air in the Atmosphere closer to the Earth's surface has a higher pressure because of all the weight from the gasses pushing it down. The higher you get the less pressure there is. Density is also higher closer to the Earth's surface because the closer air is to the surface the heavier it is and the molecules are closer together.

Source reduction - Basic Understanding

An approach to waste management that seeks to cut waste by reducing the use of potential waste materials in the early stages of design and manufacture. Can increase energy efficiency; manufacturing produces less waste and can minimize disposal processes → saves money. Individual scale- printing double-sided handouts to Kami. Commercial Scale- CD/Blu Ray cases over time to digital content.

Asbestos - Basic Understanding

Asbestos - A long thin fibrous silicate mineral with insulating properties, which can cause cancer when inhaled; formerly used as insulation in buildings. Leads to respiratory diseases such as asbestosis and lung cancer. Asbestos insulation is dangerous once disturbed - requires professional abatement.

Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification - Basic Understanding.

Bioaccumulation - An increased concentration of a chemical within an organism over time. E.g. fish respiring in the ocean accumulate mercury in their fatty tissues Rate of accumulation will depend on the concentration of the chemical in the environment. Biomagnification - The increase in chemical concentration in animal tissues as the chemical moves up the food chain. The original concentration in the environment is magnified to occur at a much higher concentration in the top predators.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand as a pollution indicator - Basic Understanding

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)- amount of O2 a quantity of water used over a period of time at specific times. Lower Values- less pollution (5-20mg testing 1 liter over 5 days). Higher Values- more pollution (200mg testing 1 liter over 5 days). More waste → More bacteria → Less O2 → Lethal to Aquatic Organisms

Biodiesel - Basic Understanding: Major source

Biodiesel is a diesel substitute produced by extracting and chemically altering oil from plants. Usually extracted from algae and plants such as soybean and palm.

Jobs and Jurisdiction of FAWS, BLM, USFS, NPS - Basic Understanding

Bureau of Land Management(BLM): Grazing, mining, timber, harvesting and recreation U.S Forest Service (USFS): Timber harvesting, grazing, and recreation National Park Service(NPS): Recreation and conservation Fish and Wildlife Service(FWS): Conservation, hunting, and recreation

Scrubbers: Where used, how they work, pollutants they remove - Thorough Understanding

Burning coal releases sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide into the air. Many coal burning facilities installed coal scrubbers to combat this problem. Scrubbers pass gasses produced during combustion through a limestone slurry, which removes acidic gasses → U.S coal plants invested $30 billion in scrubbers from 07-11.

Carbon Neutrality - Basic Understanding

Carbon neutral is an activity that does not change atmospheric CO2 concentrations.

Carbon sequestration - Basic Understanding

Carbon sequestration - An approach to stabilizing greenhouse gasses by removing CO2 from the atmosphere. Some methods include storing carbon in agricultural soils or retiring agricultural land and allowing it to become pasture or forest. Researchers are looking at cost-effective ways of capturing CO2 from the air, from coal-burning power stations, and from other emission sources. This captured CO2 would be compressed and pumped into abandoned oil wells or the deep ocean. Modern research is looking into artificial photosynthesis!

Catalytic Converter - Basic Understanding

Catalytic Converters - Metals such as platinum and palladium absorb NO, and CO.

Clear-Cutting, Selective Cutting, and Sustainable Forestry - Thorough Understanding: Describe and evaluate environmental impact. Discuss Reduced Impact Logging in Guyana as an example of Sustainable Forestry. Do some reading on this ahead of time.

Clear-cutting- removes all or most trees in an area. Environmental Impact: Coupled with wide-spread replanting, resulting trees are all the same age. Favors only trees that thrive in full sunlight, leading to a reduction of biodiversity. Can lead to wind and water erosion, loss of soil nutrients, increased temperatures of water bodies, etc. Causes a lack of biodiversity. Selective Cutting- involves removing single trees or a small number of trees from many in a forest. Environmental Impact: Less impactful than clear-cutting but still significant impact from logging roads, soil compaction, etc. Ecologically sustainable forestry- removing trees from forests in ways that do not unduly affect the viability of other trees. Reduced-Impact Logging (RIL) in Guyana: Logging sites are surveyed. Trees and truck routes are pre-selected (GIS software). Use of primary and secondary roads, and skid trails. Vines cut connecting trees to be felled. Felling direction selected to inflict the least amount of damage. RIL reduces tree mortality by 27% and canopy gap fracture by 43%. Shown to have minimal impact on local species diversity.

Impact of climate change on biodiversity - Basic Understanding: Which species will be most affected?

Climate change is affecting the temperature and precipitation of areas all around the globe. For species that can not adapt to a new environment they will be forced to move to new areas. Species that can not adapt, most specifically plants will suffer and most likely become endangered or extinct.

Closed-Loop vs. Open-Loop Recycling - Basic Understanding

Closed-loop recycling- recycling a product into the same product. E.g production of aluminum cans from aluminum cans, indefinitely. Some additional materials and energy will be required. Open-loop recycling- Recycling one product into a different product. Does not reduce the demand of raw materials- converting recycled bottles to fleeces does not reduce demand for plastic to make more bottles.

Coal as an energy source - Thorough Understanding: Cost, efficiency, pollution, future use patterns by country.

Coal is a solid fuel formed primarily from the remains of trees, ferns, and other plant materials preserved 280 million to 360 million years ago. Coal is energy-dense and plentiful, coal is found on the surface in many places which means that it is easy and cheap to extract it through surface mining. It is easy to handle and needs little refining before being used. Surface mining can have a significant effect on the environment. Because surface coal is getting harder to find subsurface mining is becoming more necessary which increases cost and health hazards. Coal is filled with impurities such as sulfur and CO2. Chemical spills and residual ashes from combustion can also be a problem. Coal is a significant contributor to air pollution through CO2. Countries that are currently using the most coal are China, the U.S., India and Australia.

31. The use of both the command-and-control and incentive-based approaches to internalizing externalities - Thorough Understanding: When are these methods most effective?

Command-and-control approach - A strategy for pollution control that involves regulations and enforcement mechanisms. (Ex. Green tax) Incentive-based approach - A strategy for pollution control that constructs financial and other incentives for lowering emissions based on profits and benefits. Rebates or tax credits are given to individuals and businesses purchasing certain items such as energy-efficient appliances or building materials. Approaches are most effective when used together.

Setting up home composting: Ideal temperatures, aeration, and C:N ratio - Thorough Understanding

Composting- creation of organic matter (humus) by decomposition under controlled conditions to produce an organic-rich material that enhances soil structure, cation exchange capacity, and fertility. Requires the correct carbon to Nitrogen ratio to encourage rapid decomposition: 30:1. Possible to calculate- experts recommend alternate layers of wet (green) and dry (brown) layers to achieve ratio. Requires aeration to ensure that decomposition occurs aerobically. Ideal temperatures are maintained with aeration because it doesn't let it get too hot or cold.

How climate change has disrupted living organisms - Basic Understanding

Corals are particularly sensitive to global warming because their range of temperature tolerance is quite small - Coral Bleaching. Species ranges shifted towards the poles or higher elevations. More specialized organisms or those that have limited mobility are most vulnerable - If they cannot adapt fast enough - Extinction is reality! Habitat fragmentation/alternation have made migrating even more difficult!

Cultural Eutrophication - Basic Understanding

Cultural Eutrophication- an increase in fertility in a body of water, the results of anthropogenic inputs of nutrients. Can cause a rapid growth of algae which eventually dies, causing the microbes to increase the BOD. Waste water decomposes → Releases N and P → Algae reproduces and dies → Further decomposition.

IUCN categories of endangerment - Basic Understanding

Data deficient species: have no reliable data to access their status. Extinct species: those that were known to exist as recently as the year 1500 but no longer exist today. Threatened species: have a high risk of extinction in the future. Near-threatened species: very likely to become threatened in the future. Least concern species: widespread and abundant.

Dead Zones - Basic Understanding

Dead Zone- in a body of water, an area with extremely low oxygen concentration and very little life. Can create a positive feedback loop: organisms that die in dead zones continue to feed the dead zone. Occurs seasonally during the summer in Gulf of Mexico, due to agricultural season and summer heat- less oxygen. Number of dead zones around the world is increasing.

Deforestation as a contributor to climate change - Basic Understanding

Deforestation- CO2 released from decomposing/burning timber, Fewer overall trees = Less CO2 being absorbed!

Dose-Response Studies - Thorough Understanding: How and why conducted? LD50 vs. ED50? Interpretation of Dose-Response graph and calculating acceptable concentrations of chemicals for human exposure.

Dose-response study - Study that exposes organisms to different amounts of a chemical and then observes a variety of possible responses, including mortality or changes in behavior or reproduction. LD50 - The lethal dose of a chemical that kills 50% of the individuals in a dose-response study. ED50 - The effective dose of a chemical that causes 50 percent of the individuals in a dose-response study to display a harmful, but nonlethal, effect. The graphs are usually in an S shape where the lowest dose doesn't affect any individuals, The threshold is where an effect can be detected. Highest concentration all individuals die. Acceptable concentrations of chemicals for humans are divided by 1,000 to ensure safety.

Ebola - Basic Understanding.

Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever - Infectious disease with high death rates, caused by the Ebola virus. Infects many species of primates, including humans, and bats. Symptoms: Fever, vomiting, internal and external bleeding with death within 2 weeks. Sporadic outbreaks, most recently 2014 - 50% to 89% fatality rate amongst infected individuals! Only experimental drugs available - Very early stages of effective treatment

Endangered Species Act - Basic Understanding

Endangered species Act- a 1973 U.S. act designed to protect species from extinction- mandated protections must be applied. Last Step: Public hearings, where concerns can be expressed.

Strategies for conserving energy - Basic Understanding.

Energy Conversion is finding and implementing ways to use less energy. Some ways we can conserve energy at an individual level are using less heat during the winter, consolidating errands to avoid miles, and turning off things that use electricity when necessary. On a bigger scale the government could implement energy conservation protocols or provide availability to public transportation.

Environmental Worldviews - Basic Understanding: Stewardship

Environmental worldview - Encompasses how one thinks the world works; how one views one's role in the world; and what one believes to be proper environmental behavior.

Ethanol: How is ethanol produced? To what extent does the U.S. rely on Ethanol as an energy source, effect of ethanol on fuel economy of vehicles, discuss concerns that Ethanol as a Biofuel might actually increase atmospheric CO2.

Ethanol is an alcohol made by converting starches and sugars from plant material in alcohol and CO2. Ethanol is manufactured from different crops such as sugar cane or corn. The U.S leads the world in ethanol production using more than 50 billion liters. Ethanol is used to fuel vehicles by making gasohol which is 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline. The problem with gasohol is that it has less of an energy density so vehicles ultimately need to use more per mile. Concerns about Ethanol, although it is said to be cleaner than gasoline, are still raised. Scientists argue that using Ethanol creates a net increase in atmospheric CO2. This is because gasohol is less effective than gasoline and because growing corn to produce ethanol uses lots of fossil fuels and land that could be used for food production.

Positive and Negative Externalities - Thorough Understanding

Externality- the cost or benefit of a good or service that is not included in the purchase price of that good or service. Environmental scientists are concerned about negative externalities because of the environmental damage for which no one bears the cost. Positive externality is something that is a positive benefit that you don't pay for when purchasing an item.

Fecal Coliform Bacteria as a pathogen indicator - Basic Understanding

Fecal Coliform Bacteria- a group of generally harmless microorganisms in human intestines that can serve as an indicator species for potentially harmful microorganisms associated with contaminated sewage. Most common Fecal coliform bacteria - Escherichia coli. Detection of E. coli is a reliable indicator of human waste. Increased risk that pathogens are present. Drinking water should have zero bacteria present - Recreational use of water with low bacterial levels.

Fishery Collapse - Thorough Understanding

Fishery collapse - The decline of a fish population by 90% or more. 30% of fisheries worldwide experienced a 90% decline (2006). Primarily due to modern fishing technology and increased fishing overall. Dragnets cause damage not only to fish pops. but also ocean habitat.

Infill Development - Basic Understanding

Fix what you've got instead of building new - Stop the blight cycle! Infill - Development that fills in vacant lots within existing communities. Urban growth boundary - A restriction on development outside a designated area.

How Foraminifera are used to estimate historic ocean temperatures - Basic Understanding

Foraminifera - Tiny marine protists with hard shells that resist decay after death.They have built up in marine sediments for MoYs. Different Foraminifera prefer different water temps. ID the predominant Form = Approximate the water temp.

Free-Range Meat - Basic Understanding: Advantages/Disadvantages compared to CAFOs

Free-range animals feed off the productivity of the land, with little or no supplemental feeding, requiring less fossil fuel use. Farming does not require treatment and disposal of massive quantities of manure, it is disposed naturally over a large area. Animals are less likely to spread disease; the use of antibiotics and other medications can be reduced or eliminated. No need to treat and dispose of manure. However, free range farming uses significantly more land and cost is much higher than CAFOs. Free range produces less meat overall than CAFOs.

Genetically Modified Organisms -Thorough Understanding-Know examples in book

Genetic Engineering - Isolation and transferring of a gene from one organism to another, producing a genetically modified organism. Allows development of organisms with desirable traits that would not be possible with artificial selection. By 2012: 88% of Corn, 93% of Soybeans, 94% of cotton was GM. Benefits: GMOs are resistant to pests and hard conditions. GMO bacteria production of medicines such as insulin. GMOs can be modified to produce essential nutrients (Golden Rice). Insertion of genes which produce natural insecticides (Bt Corn). Less $$ on pesticides and increased yields. Increased overall food production in the world. Costs: Effects biodiversity of crops, no u.S. regulations that cause them to be labeled GMOs, could be unsafe for human consumption but their is little to no evidence for that.

Reasons for species declines - Anthropogenic and Non-Anthropogenic - Basic Understanding

Genetic diversity in species causes them to decline, this can happen naturally or because of humans. Naturally a species can have low genetic diversity because of natural chance. Species decline due to humans when we hunt them or destory their habitats.

Geothermal Energy as an energy source - Basic Understanding

Geothermal energy is heat energy that comes from the natural radioactive decay of elements deep within Earth.

Major greenhouse gasses and their greenhouse gas potentials - Basic Understanding: Be able to compare

Greenhouse gas potential is the relative contribution to climate change relative to CO2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is greenhouse gas number one, Methane (CH4) is 25x more potent than that. Water vapor (H2O), Nitrous oxide (N2O) is 300x, and CFCs are 15,000x. But CO2 has the highest atmospheric concentration which is why it is the most harmful.

GDP vs. GPI - Basic Understanding

Gross domestic product (GDP) - is the value of all products and services produced in a year in a given country. Includes consumer spending, investments, government spending and exports minus imports. Criticisms: Cost of healthcare is addictive, no externalities = does not reflect true cost of production of products. Many argue that improving GDP of the developing world = improved global environment. Genuine progress indicator (GPI) - A measure of economic status that includes personal consumption income distribution levels of higher education, resource depletion, pollution, and the health of the population. GDP of the U.S has risen steadily while GPI has been virtually level since 1980.

Ground Water Recharge - Basic Understanding

Groundwater recharge- process by which water percolates through the soil and works its way into an aquifer. Unconfined aquifers rapidly recharged as H2O percolates from surface- water can be a year to weeks old. Confined aquifers can be recharged only if impermeable layer of rock has surface opening- can take 10K to 20K years

Half-life calculation - Basic Understanding

Half life calculation is calculated by adding the half lifes together to find the amount of years it would take for one element to split in half a certain amount of times.

Hot spots- Basic Understanding

Hot spots are independent of plate boundaries. The heat from the outer core causes plumes of hot magma to well upward from the mantle and produce hotspots. Hot Spot- Place where molten material from Earth's mantle reaches the lithosphere.

Hubbert Curve - Basic Understanding: Identify and interpret

Hubert Curve is a bell shaped curve representing oil use and projecting both when world oil production will reach a maximum and when the world will run out of oil.

Human Development Index - Basic Understanding

Human development index (HDI) - A measurement index that combines three basic measures of human status: life expectancy; knowledge and education; standard of living. Knowledge and Education - Adult literacy rate and educational attainment Standard of living - Per capita GDP and purchasing power. Developed in 1990 - Used by UNDP in its annual Human Development Report.

Human influence of the Sulfur Cycle

Human influence on the sulfur cycle is when we burn fossil fuel that releases SO2 which is sulfur dioxide which goes in the atmosphere and mixes with rain and turns into acid rain. This can impact terrestrials and aquatic ecosystems.

Negative potential health consequences of increased surface temperatures - Basic Understanding

Humans may have to relocate, some diseases like those carried by mosquitoes could increase and there will be economic consequences.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - Basic Understanding

In 1988 - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) composed of 3,000 scientists from around the world formed to assess climate change. Goal: understand the global warming system, effects on biodiversity and ecosystems, and economic and social effects.

U.S. percentage of publicly held land / most common use of land - Basic Understanding

In the U.S. 42% of the land is publicly owned, more than any other country! 25% of the nation's land owned by the federal government- 600 million acres 55% in western continental states; 37% of Alaska; 10% in Midwest and Eastern U.S. Areas are preserved and managed for economic, scientific, recreational, and aesthetic purposes.

History of major U.S. energy sources - Basic Understanding

In the past the history of the U.S. has gotten 37% of their energy from oil. 27% from natural gas and 18% from coal. Also 10% from renewable energy and 8% from nuclear fuel.

Forest growth vs. deforestation trends in Developed vs. Developing nations - Basic Understanding

In the past, developed countries have cleared their forest for lumber and room for houses and agriculture. Now, forests are starting to grow back even though they are being replanted by humans which lowers the diversity. Developing nations are starting to follow the same trends as americans and cutting down all of their forests, no one is sure whether they are going to rebuild them or not.

Infectious vs. Emerging Infectious Diseases - Basic Understanding.

Infectious diseases are caused by pathogenic organisms(viruses, bacteria, protists, etc.). Emerging infectious diseases have happened within the last 20 years.

Innocent-until-proven-guilty Principle vs. Precautionary Principle - Basic Understanding.

Innocent-until-proven-guilty principle - Principle based on the belief that a potential hazard should not be considered an actual hazard until the scientific data definitively demonstrate that it actually causes harm. Requires that researchers prove harm before the chemical is restricted or banned. Precautionary principle - Principle based on the belief that action should be taken against a plausible environmental hazard. Requires that when there is scientific evidence that demonstrates a plausible risk, the chemical must then be further tested to demonstrate it is safe before it can continue to be used. Can reduce risk - but may delay beneficial chemicals

Intrinsic vs. Instrumental Value of ecosystems - Basic Understanding

Intrinsic Value is value independent of any benefit to humans. Instrumental value is worth as an instrument or a tool that can be used to accomplish a goal.

Edge Effect and Invasive Species (Pg 654) - Basic Understanding

Invasive species are a species that spreads rapidly across large areas. Edge habitat is a habitat that occurs where two different communities come together, typically forming an abrupt transition, such as where a grassy field meets a forest.

Reasons for and causes of Intentional vs. Accidental Invasive Species introductions - Basic Understanding

Invasive species can be introduced to different places intentionally, to be sold as pets or plants to be sold at exotic greenhouses. In most cases, exotic species do not establish successful populations, outcompeting surrounding populations. Accidental invasive species can occur during human transportation across oceans, to different countries or areas.

Kudzu and Zebra Mussels: How was this invasive species introduced into the U.S.? Was this an intentional or an accidental introduction? Describe HOW this species is invasive (aka the damage it causes). - Thorough Understanding.

Kudzu was introduced to the US intentionally because farmers were recommended to plant it to reduce erosion. The Kudzu became invasive because no herbivores had adapted to eating it, with no enemies the Kudzu vines spread rapidly. They covered many plants and blocked them from the sunlight that they needed to survive. The Zebra Mussels were introduced accidentally, traveling in the water stored in cargo ships that was later dumped into the great lakes or rivers in North America. A single zebra can produce up to 30,000 eggs and spread rapidly throughout the ecosystem, crowding the native species in the great lakes and consuming so much algae that other species that rely on algae struggle.

Kuznets Curve - Basic Understanding

Kuznets curve - A model suggests that as per capita income in a country increases, environmental degradation first increases and then decreases. In many respects China is on the first part of this curve while the United states is on the second part of the curve. Not applicable in all cases as many developed countries CO2 and MSW generation continue to increase with increased affluence. Consumption rises with income.

Kyoto Protocol - Basic Understanding

Kyoto Protocol - A 1997 international agreement that sets a goal for global emissions of greenhouse gasses from all industrialized countries to be reduced by 5.2 percent below their 1990 levels by 2012. Historically high emitters of GHGs were charged with higher reduction requirements. Although the U.S. signed the original Kyoto Protocol, the U.S. Congress never ratified the agreement, and the protocol has never been legally binding on the United States.

Goals of the following pieces of conservation legislation: 1. Lacey Act, 2. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 3. Marine Mammal Protection Act, and 4. Endangered Species Act. - Thorough Understanding.

Lacey Act: prohibits interstate shipping of all illegally harvested plants and animals. CITES: control the international trade of threatened plants and animals. Marine Mammal Protection Act: protects declining populations of marine mammals. ESA: protect species from extinction, determines which species are labeled as endangered.

Major anthropogenic and natural sources of methane emissions - Basic Understanding

Largest contributions of CH4 in the atmosphere arise from: Gut bacteria that help livestock digest plant matter, landfills that experience anaerobic decomposition, production, storage, and transport of natural gas and petroleum products from which CH4 escapes. Wetlands (Anaerobic) are the #1 natural source of CH4. Digestion of plant material requires symbiotic bacteria (Anaerobic) - Common in herbivores like termites = 2nd largest natural source of CH4.

Supply, Demand, and the Free Market Economy: Describe the law of supply and the law of demand. How is the price of a product determined? Describe negative externalities that might not be reflected in the price of a product (strawberries). Discuss approaches to internalizing these externalities. Use figure 65.2 to explain how the price of a product changes when externalities are internalized.

Law of Demand is when the price of a good rises, the quantity demanded falls and when the price falls, demand rises. Law of Supply is when the price of a good rises, the quantity supplied of that good rises and when the price of a good falls. the quantity of the goods supplied will also fall. The price at which suppliers are willing to produce the exact quantity of which the consumers are willing to demand. Negative externalities are not paid for when buying a product. Pesticides, transportation, and air pollution are negative externalities that are not paying for when buying strawberries. Command-and-control approach - A strategy for pollution control that involves regulations and enforcement mechanisms. (Ex. Green tax) Incentive-based approach - A strategy for pollution control that constructs financial and other incentives for lowering emissions based on profits and benefits. Rebates or tax credits are given to individuals and businesses purchasing certain items such as energy-efficient appliances or building materials. Approaches are most effective when used together. The price of production increases, which means less of the product is made, and the price of the product goes up, which means less of the product is willing to be bought.

Major sources of Lead as a pollutant (water and atmosphere). Health implications of lead. Changes in lead threat overtime. - Thorough Understanding

Lead(Pb)- found in pipes and other materials in older construction (brass fittings and solder). Found its way of drinking water to negatively affect water directly. The biggest source of led was when it was a gasoline additive. Can cause damage to the brain, nervous system and kidneys. Fetuses and infants are most sensitive. New regulation and increased use of water filtration systems are reducing risk associated with lead. Less led is being used overall due to regulations.

Life-Cycle Analysis and Residence Time - Basic Understanding

Life-Cycle Analysis is all the resources that are needed to create an object in the beginning and try to form a way to make that product that minimizes energy and resource use. Residence time is the time a product is useful to have. Designing it to make it easier to recycle.

Loss of genetic diversity in domesticated animals - Basic Understanding

Livestock species mainly come from donkeys, buffalo, cattle, goats, horses, pigs, and sheep. Declining genetic variation of these species is a major concern for scientists. Livestock producers are concentrating their efforts on the breeds that are most productive which is resulting in a great loss of genetic variation.

Tree Plantations - Basic Understanding

Logging often replaces complex forest ecosystems with Tree Plantations- large areas typically planted with a single rapidly growing tree species. Can be easily harvested later for pulp and wood. Creates a cycle of plant-grow-harvest. Drastic reduction in diversity and potential soil degradation.

Incineration: How does this process work? ...include the following: MSW delivery (what's accepted and what's not?), mixing of MSW (Why mixed?), the incineration process, how electricity is generated, how exhaust gas is filtered, end products of the incineration process (What is generated and what happens to this product?). Does incineration reduce recycling and promote waste production? Agree or disagree? Explain. Other major potential environmental consequences of incinerating waste.

MSW is collected and brought to an incineration facility. Things that can be recycled get taken out and the truck is weighed and dumped into a pit. The trash is mixed with a claw to make sure it is an even mixture of waste, and even moisture content. The crane claw puts this trash into a hopper which is then put into the incinerator. Burning the trash generates heat which turns water into steam and then the steam then turns a turbine to generate electricity. The exhaust gas is forced through bags which keep the particulate matter out of the air. Scrubbers are also used to remove gasses from the atmosphere. Fly ash is caught in the bags and bottom ash which accumulates below the incinerator. Metals are removed from the ash to be recycled. If the ash is not toxic it can either be put in a landfill or can be used in roadwork. If it is toxic then it has to go to a specific landfill that will protect the environment from the ash. Require significant volume of MSW to operate and to generate income to offset building cost. I believe this would reduce the incentive to recycle. Incineration will always cause more air pollution and climate change. When MSW is burned any toxic substances become more concentrated after it's burned in the ash.

Manure Lagoons - Basic Understanding

Manure Lagoon- Human-made pond lined with rubber built to handle quantities of manure produced by livestock. Manure broken down by bacteria to CO2 & inorganic nutrients (N&P). Finally, "septage" spread onto fields as organic fertilizers. Possible risks: Leak in rubber lining contaminating groundwater, overflow to adjacent water bodies- can lead to disease outbreaks, manure used as fertilizer can be carried by runoff- Eutrophication.

Market failure - Basic Understanding

Market failure - When the economic system does not account for all costs.

Maximum Sustainable Yield - Thorough Understanding

Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY)- The maximum amount of a renewable resource that can be harvested without compromising the future availability of that resource. Maximum harvest that will adequately be replaced by population growth= ½ the carrying capacity(K) of a population. It is very difficult to calculate MSY and varies case by case. When MSY is calculated, it can take months or years to determine whether s yield is truly sustainable.

Mercury, CO, and SO2, as pollutants - Basic Understanding

Mercury(Hg)- occurs naturally & through human activity- burning coal accounts for 66% of all Hg production. Other sources: incineration of garbage, hazardous waste, and medical and dental supplies, and the production of cement. Hg finds its way into water, where it is transformed by bacteria, becoming harmful (Methylmercury). Causes damage to the central nervous system- impairs coordination and the senses of touch, taste, and sight. Small Children and developing embryos are most sensitive. Human methylmercury exposure occurs most commonly by eating seafood. SO2- Corrosive gas that comes from combustion of fossil fuels. Remains of plants have sulfur that is released when burned and reacts with O2 to make SO2. Respiratory irritants can affect plant tissue (Photosynthesis and energy metabolism). Natural causes: volcanic eruptions, forest fires. CO: Product of incomplete combustion of most matter. Burning temp is lower and/or when oxygen is more limited. Emissions in vehicle exhaust and other combustion processes. Significant component to air pollution in urban areas. Binds to hemoglobin in blood more effectively than O2. Common problem as an indoor pollutant in developing nations. Poor ventilation with use of wood, coal or manure fuels inside.

Benefits/Disadvantages of Monocropping - Basic Understanding

Monocropping - An agricultural method that utilizes large plantings of a single species or variety. Benefits: More efficient and economical, as it requires the same equipment, fertilizer (nutrient needs), irrigation - can be planted and harvested at the same time. Costs: leaves huge areas exposed, leading to massive soil erosion, crops more vulnerable to pests.

The Montreal Protocol - Basic Understanding

Montreal Protocol - A 1987 agreement among 24 nations to commit to reduce CFC production by 50% by the year 2000. More than 180 countries signed a series of increasingly stringent amendments. Concentration of Ci in the stratosphere has stabilized at 5 ppb and should fall to 1 ppb by 2100. Will reduce skin cancers and damage to plants/ecosystems

Smog formation - Basic Understanding

Natural O, Accumulation & Destruction. When NO is present and VOCs are not... NO2 splits - leads to NO + O3 production | O3 Accumulates. In absence of sunlight, the process reverses and O levels decline. Produces relatively small amounts of PC Smog. O; Accumulation with increased VOCs. When NO, and elevated VOCs are present. NO, splits - leads to NO + O; production | O Accumulates. VOCs for strong bonds with NO, forming photochemical oxidants. NO is no longer present to accept O from O, after sunset. Leads to a larger accumulation of Os and leads to prolonged periods of PC smog.

FRQ- Oil spills and remediation: Discuss and compare the four major worldwide sources of oil pollution in the oceans. Be prepared to discuss either the Exon Valdez or Deepwater Horizon accidents: how they happened and the damage caused. How are Containment, Chemicals, and Bacteria used to remediate oil spills. How are animals and shorelines cleaned of oils?

Natural Seeps 62% Consumption of petroleum 33% Extraction of oil from underneath the ocean, transport of oil by tanker or pipeline Transport of oil by tanker or pipeline Exon Valdez: oil tanker ran aground off the coast of Alaska in 1989- Spilled 11 million gallons of oil. 1,300 miles of pristine wilderness coastline impacted. Killed 250,000 seabirds, 2,800 sea otters, 300 harbor seals, and 22 killer whales. 20 years later still 14,500 gallons of oil remains, otter and orca populations have not recovered. Regulations changed- ships required to have a double hull. Deepwater Horizon: offshore drilling platform explosion causes massive leak over 1 mile beneath the surface in Gulf of Mexico- Spilled estimated 206 million gallons of oil. 20x the magnitude of the Exon Valdez spill, but spilling into the deep ocean makes total impact difficult to assess. Coastal ecosystems in the Gulf were devastated by the accident. Containment: Booms keep the floating oil from spreading, then boats equipped with giant oil vacuums suck up as much oil as possible. Chemicals: Chemicals break up the oil on the surface, making it disperse before it hits the shoreline. Dispersant chemicals can be toxic to wildlife- current research to prevent. Bacteria: A particular bacterium, living near seeps, consumes oil; scientists are currently trying to genetically engineer the bacterium to consume oil even faster. Cleansing of Wildlife must be done by hand- labor intensive and time sensitive. No agreed-upon method of remediating deep-water oil plumes. Rocky shorelines can be cleaned with hot, high pressure water sprayers- but this removes all marine life- leaving oil also has negative impacts.

Fire Management - Basic Understanding

Natural fires prevent- accumulation of dead biomass. Prescribed burn- a fire deliberately set under controlled conditions in order to reduce the accumulation of dead biomass on the forest floor. Help reduces the risk of uncontrolled natural fires.

Natural gas as an energy source - Basic Understanding: Environmental impacts

Nearly half the homes in the U.S are heated by natural gas. Natural gas compared to coal and oil are much cleaner and better for the environment. Although natural gas emits the least amount of carbon dioxide, unburned natural gas can release methane into the atmosphere which is more harmful than carbon dioxide.

Carcinogens, Neurotoxins, Teratogens, Allergens, Endocrine Disruptors - Basic Understanding.

Neurotoxin - Chemical that disrupts the nervous systems of animals. Includes many insecticides, lead, and mercury. Carcinogen - Chemical that causes cancer by interfering with normal metabolic processes of the cell or by damaging genetic material. Teratogen - Chemical that interferes with the normal development of embryos or fetuses. Allergen - Chemical that causes allergic reactions. Endocrine disruptor - Chemical that interferes with the normal functioning of hormones in an animal's body.

No-Till Farming - Basic Understanding

No-till agriculture - Farmers do not turn the soil between seasons as a means of reducing topsoil erosion. Crop residues are left in fields between seasons. Intact roots hold soils in place, preventing erosion and allowing for regeneration of soil horizons. Reduces emissions of CO2 because intact soil undergoes.

Nonrenewable vs. potentially renewable vs. non depletable resources - Basic Understanding

Nonrenewable energy resource is an energy source with a finite supply, primarily the fossil fuels and nuclear fuels. Potentially renewable is an energy source that can be regenerated indefinitely as long as it is not overharvested. Nondepletable resource is an energy source that cannot be used up.

Ocean acidification - Basic Understanding: Process and impacts

Ocean acidification - Process by which an increase in ocean CO2 causes more CO2 to be converted to carbonic acid, which lowers the pH of the water. Detrimental for species of corals, mollusks, and crustaceans that build shells out of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) Ocean pH decreases → CaCO3 dissolves + ocean CaCO3 declines → organisms inhibited from shell development. Many shelled organisms make up the base of marine food chains!

Organic Farming - Basic Understanding

Organic agriculture - Production of crops without the use of synthetic pesticides or fertilizers. U.S. The Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 established federal standards for foods labeled as "Organic". Labor is more costly, but consumers are willing to pay a higher price!

Environmental Impact Statement - Basic Understanding

Outlines the scope and purpose of a developing project, describing the environmental context, suggesting alternative approaches to the project, and analyzing the environmental impact of each alternative.

FRQ- Tropospheric vs. Stratospheric Ozone: Describe how Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and Nitrogen Oxides (NOX) can lead to excessive Ozone formation and photochemical smog in the Troposphere. Describe the natural cycle of the formation and destruction of Ozone in the Stratosphere under normal circumstances. Describe the natural role of Ozone in the Stratosphere. Describe how free Chlorine atoms have led to the depletion of the Stratospheric Ozone layer?

Ozone- a secondary pollutant made up of three oxygen atoms bound together (...a photochemical oxidant). Troposphere: In the presence of sunlight: NO2 → NO + O leads to... O + O2 → O3 because of sunlight. When the sun goes down: O3 → O2 + O, NO + O → NO2 NO2 → NO + O leads to... O + O2 → O3 the VOC's intercept the NO which means the destruction of ozone never occurs and it just builds up every day. Stratosphere: Ozone layer that protects organisms on Earth from harmful UV rays. Formation and destruction of ozone in the stratosphere: O2 + UV-C → O + O; O + O2 → O3; O3 + UV-B or UV-C → O + O2 Depletion of ozone: Chlorine is present in the atmosphere because of the use of CFCs in the past. O3 + Cl → ClO + O2 leads too... ClO + O → Cl + O2 This process repeats until one Cl bonds with another so chlorine is constantly breaking down ozone.

Particulate Matter: definition, categories, impacts to human health, environmental effects - Thorough Understanding

Particulate Matter (PM)- Solid or liquid particles suspended in air. Also known as Particulates; Particles. Can be natural or anthropogenic. Comes from combustion of wood, animal manure and other biofuels, coal, oil, and gasoline (More than diesel). Ranges in size from 0.01um to 100 um. PM10- smaller than 10 um; can enter deeply into the respiratory tract. PM2.5- Smaller than 2.5um; can enter even more deeply into the respiratory tract and is composed of toxic substances. Can exacerbate respiratory and cardiovascular disease and reduce lung function- can result in death. Can absorb or scatter light, which creates a haze and reduces the light that reaches the surface of the Earth. Haze- reduced visibility from air pollution scattering light.

Reduction of peak demand by electric companies - Basic Understanding: Cost structure

Peak demand is the greatest quantity of energy used at any one time. To reduce peak demand, a company might set up a variable price structure under which customers pay less to use electricity when demand is lowest and more when demand is highest.

Petroleum as a fuel source - Basic Understanding: Advantages and disadvantages

Petroleum is a fossil fuel that occurs in underground deposits, composed of a liquid mixture of hydrocarbons, water, and sulfur. Petroleum being a liquid makes it easy to transport and use, also cleaner than coal and energy-dense. Because petroleum is a fossil fuel it releases sulfate and CO2 into the atmosphere when burned. Any oil being extracted from underground or under water has a potential to cause an oil spill.

Nonpoint vs. point sources of water pollution - Basic Understanding

Point Source- a distinct location from which pollution is directly produced. (identifiable source) Nonpoint Source- a diffuse area that produces pollution. Much more difficult to control: Negative Externalities

Population Momentum

Population momentum is the continued population growth after growth reduction measures have been implemented. It occurs because there are relatively large numbers of individuals at reproductive maturity in the population

Relationship between population health and genetic diversity

Populations with high genetic diversity are better able to respond to environmental change than populations with lower genetic diversity.

Climate change positive and negative feedback loops (e.g., permafrost, soil bacteria, etc.) - Basic Understanding

Positive Feedbacks Created by Rising Temps: Higher temps → Increased global soil decomposition (2x the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere!) → Increased CO2 levels →Higher temps. Higher temps → melting permafrost →increased standing water → anaerobic decomposition of organic matter →Increased CH4 → Higher Temps Negative Feedbacks Created by Rising Temps: Increased CO2 production → Stimulation of plant and algal growth → Additional CO2 removed from atmosphere. Increased CO2 production → More CO2 absorbed by oceans → lowered atmospheric CO2

Environmental Injustice - Basic Understanding: Recognize examples

Poverty is a primary driver of environmental degradation - Causes overuse of land, degrading water, and incidence of disease. Moreover, every human has a basic right to survival, well-being, and happiness! all directly threatened by poverty. The average North American uses more resources than the average person in many other parts of the world. People that are of lower incomes and minorities that have a disproportionate exposure to environmental hazards. African Americans in the U.S. are more likely to live near incinerators, landfills, etc. than Caucasian Americans.

Primary vs. secondary pollutants - Basic Understanding

Primary pollutant - Polluting compounds that come directly out of a smokestack, exhaust pipe, or natural emission source. Examples: CO, CO2, SO2, NOx, VOCs, and most suspended particulate matter. Secondary pollutant - Primary pollutants that have undergone transformation in the presence of sunlight, water, oxygen, or other compounds. Examples: O3, sulfate, and nitrate.

Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Treatment; Wastewater Treatment Plants - Basic Understanding

Primary treatment- solid waste material is filtered out, settling into a sludge layer. Secondary treatment- bacteria break down 85-90% of organic matter and convert it into CO2 and inorganic nutrients (N and P). -Aerated to promote aerobic bacterial decomposition. -Sits for several days to allow particles to settle- particles added to sludge from primary treatment. -Disinfected with chlorine or UV light, killing pathogens. -Sludge from treatment is further digested by bacteria and buried, burned, or recycled as fertilizer. Tertiary Treatment(BONUS)- Inorganic compounds (N and P) are removed from wastewater before it is released into surface water sources → prevents Eutrophication. Goal: to release wastewater that is similar in quality to the body that is receiving it.

Five categories of Ecosystem Services - Basic Understanding

Provisions Regulating services Support systems Resilience Cultural services.

How greenhouse gasses drive climate change + forms of radiation - Basic Understanding

Radiation from the sun takes two forms: UV and Visible Light - Very Hot = High Energy! Remaining UV passes the atmosphere and strikes Earth and is Converted to low-energy infrared radiation. Infrared radiation is emitted back to the atmosphere where it is absorbed by greenhouse gasses that radiate most of it back to the Earth. Thus, higher GHGs - Higher average temperatures. Greenhouse effect - Absorption of infrared radiation by atmospheric gasses and reradiation of the energy back toward Earth.

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle - Basic Understanding

Reduce (Waste minimization or Waste Prevention)- reduction in material use and waste without an additional expenditure of materials or energy. 1st choice- reducing inputs is the optimal way to reduce MSW generation. Reuse- using a product or materials that was intended to be discarded. Allows material to cycle within a system for longer before it becomes an output. Recycling- the process by which materials destined to become MSW are collected and converted to raw materials that are then used to produce new objects (3rd options). Requires time, processing, cleaning, transporting, and possible modification or collected materials- requires more energy than reducing or reusing.

Ways of reducing MSW - Basic Understanding

Reducing is the best option because it makes the least amount of MSW we have to deal with. Reusing to make the most out of MSW. Recycling is least desired because it takes a lot of energy but still important and composting removes all the organic material from MSW.

Retrospective vs. Prospective Studies - Basic Understanding.

Retrospective study - Study that monitors people who have been exposed to an environmental hazard at some time in the past.ID a group of people who have been exposed and a second group who have not. Monitor both groups for many years to see if the exposed group experiences more health problems. Prospective study - Study that monitors people who might become exposed to harmful chemicals in the future. Select a group, asking them to keep track of diet, tobacco use, and alcohol ingested over a 10-year period - Determine if variables are associated with health problems.

Risk Analysis (Assessment) - Basic Understanding.

Risk Assessment- Identify the hazard; characterize the toxicity(dose/responses); determine the extent of exposure. Risk Acceptance- Determine the acceptable level of risk. Risk Management- Determine policy with input from private citizens, industry and interest groups.

Creating Protected Areas: SLOSS (What does it stand for and what does it mean?), Theory of Island Biogeography and how it relates to SL, concept of metapopulations and how it relates to SS.

SLOSS stands for Single Large or Several Small which is a recommended way to achieve protected biodiversity by conserving one large area or multiple smaller areas. The Theory of Island Biogeography involves one large area and all the species in that area similar to Single large area which is protecting all species in one specific large area. Metapopulations are multiple different smaller groups of one species all connected by individuals. Conserving Several Small areas would be similar to this because metapopulations prove that if species are conserved in separate smaller areas they can still thrive.

Seasonality in atmospheric CO2 concentrations - Basic Understanding

Seasonal variation in CO2 caused by vegetation in the Northern Hemisphere. Increased CO2 levels correlated with human emissions.

How a septic system functions: Septic Tank, Leach Field, and Bacterial Role. Where most commonly used. - Thorough Understanding

Septic System- Small and simple sewage treatment systems (septic tank and leach field) often used for homes in rural areas. Septic tank- large containers that receives wastewater from houses where bacteria break down sewage and outcompete pathogens. Scum- Top layer of buoyant material. Septage- a layer of fairly clear water found in the middle of a septic tank. Contains many bacteria, pathogens and inorganic nutrients. Sludge- solid waste material (including pathogens) - settles to the bottom. Leach Field- Perforated pipes laid out below the ground surface. Distributes septage, which is filtered by soil and broken down by microbes. → Becomes CO2 and inorganic nutrients → Taken up by paints or relates into water sources. Remaining pathogens also degrade by soil microorganisms.

Superfund and Brownfields Programs - Basic Understanding.

Superfund Act(CERCLA)- 1980 U.S. federal act that imposes a tax on the chemical and petroleum industries, funds the cleanup of abandoned and nonoperating hazardous waste sites, and authorizes the federal government to respond directly to the release or threatened release of substances that may pose a threat to human health or the environment. Brownfields- contaminated industrial or commercial sites that may require environmental cleanup before they can be redeveloped or expanded that are not severe enough to be covered by the Superfund Act.

Synergistic Interactions - Basic Understanding.

Synergistic interaction - Situation in which two risks together cause more harm than expected based on the separate effects of each risk alone. Makes isolation of one potential cause and effect difficult. E.g.

Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 - Basic Understanding

Taylor Grazing Act of 1934- Converted commons into permit-based grazing system (regulation) to halt overgrazing. Low cost of permits does not limit enough. 2009 feds spent 7x more money to manage rangelands than was collected with permits. Thus, in effect, grazing cost is subsidized (artifactually lowered) by the U.S. government.

Technology Transfer and Leapfrogging - Basic Understanding

Technology transfer - Phenomenon of less developed countries adopting technological innovations developed in wealthy countries. Leapfrogging - Phenomenon of less developed countries using new technology without first using the precursor technology Occurs whenever new technology develops in a way that makes the older technology unnecessary or obsolete. Allows developing nations to take advantage of expensive research development, and experience of more developed nations.

U.S. Government Subsidization of Timber and Grazing - Basic Understanding

The BLM or USFS manage rangelands and national forests that are exposed to the tragedy of commons. This can be managed with rules and regulations for example the Taylor Grazing Act, which would hopefully limit grazing of animals. Because this is too cheap none of the ranchers care because the costs are outweighed by the benefits. 2009 feds spent 7x more money to manage rangelands than was collected with permits. Thus, in effect, grazing cost is subsidized (artifactually lowered) by the U.S. government.

Choose→ Bald Eagle, American Bison, or Florida Panther: Conservation status, Major causes of decline, Conservation efforts to aid in recovery, Current status of chosen species.

The Bald Eagle is no longer an endangered species but is still protected under the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act. The decline of the bald eagle was caused by habitat destruction, hunting, and the use of pesticides. Conservation efforts to aid in the recovery of the bald eagle included habitat protection, hunting restrictions, and the banning of DDT. Their population has made an incredible recovery and isn't endangered anymore.

The uplifting story of the California Condor! - Basic Understanding

The California Condor was brought into captive breeding when there was only 22 birds remaining. Captive breeding is animals that are bred with the intention of returning species back to the wild. Now their are more than 400 birds.

Cap-and-Trade as a means of controlling emissions - Basic Understanding: Sulfur in the 1990's

The Cap-and-Trade Approach- A cap (upper limit) is placed on the amount of a pollutant that can be emitted - Overarching limit placed on emitters within a region. CO2 standards could be based on levels defined by Kyoto Protocol. Trade allows companies to buy and sell pollution permits - Government gradually reduces total # of permits over time. Provides a huge incentive for companies to invest in pollution reduction. since they could gain income from selling permits

6 criteria pollutants originally designated by EPA - Basic Understanding

The Clean air act of 1970 defined 6 criteria pollutants. Criteria- EPA specifies allowable concentrations. Original 6- Sulfur Dioxide, nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, particulate matter, tropospheric ozone, and lead.

Northern Spotted Owl: Native range, preferred habitat, reasons for decline, description of the controversy surrounding implementation of the ESA to protect this threatened species and the final result. - Thorough Understanding.

The Northern spotted owl's native range is northwestern US and south western Canada. Their preferred habitat is old-growth forest, which has been getting cut down for lumber and house development. Even if the trees cut down are being replanted they are altering the habitat of the owls. No longer making them ideal for nesting and hunting. In order to protect the northern spotted owls lots of restrictions would have to be placed on logging industries which could affect the economy of the surrounding communities. Nothing has been done to start protecting the northern spotted owl.

Examples of species that have been delisted or downgraded from in the ESA - Basic Understanding

The bald eagle, peregrine falcon, american alligator, and the eastern pacific population.

Two major causes of sea level rise and major negative consequences - Thorough Understanding.

Thermal Expansion(global warming)- As water warms, it becomes less dense and takes up more space The melting of glaciers and ice sheets on land- liquid water is denser and adds to the volume of the oceans 300 million people on Earth live near the coast and these people are going to be displaced, especially in the developing world who can't afford to move. Increasing damage from storms off shore.

Thermal Pollution - Basic Understanding

Thermal Pollution- non chemical water pollution that occurs when human activities cause a substantial change in water temperatures. Most common when an industry removes cold water from a natural supply, uses it to absorb heat that is generated in manufacturing or energy, and returns the heated water back. On average, water temperatures increased by 10-15 degrees C.

Thermal Inversion - Basic Understanding

Thermal inversion - A situation in which a relatively warm layer of air at mid-altitude covers a layer of cold, dense air below. 4 Different kinds of inversions: ground, turbulence, subsidence, and frontal. Inversion layer - The layer of warm air that traps emissions in a thermal inversion. The warm inversion layer traps emissions that then accumulate beneath it. Thermal inversions that create pollution events are particularly common in some cities because of vehicle exhaust and industrial emissions.

Wind vs. Solar Energy: At least three solid advantages and disadvantages of each energy source, could the U.S. rely solely on either of these energy sources, how would you propose the U.S. makes the switch to alternative sustainable energy sources.

Three advantages to solar energy are 1) generating hot water or electricity without producing carbon dioxide or anything else into the atmosphere. 2) solar energy is produced most on hot summer days which is when electricity is at its highest demand. 3) These systems help reduce the amount of fossil fuel plants built. Three disadvantages to solar energy are 1) may take 5-20 years to pay back the cost of solar panels. 2) Solar panels in general are expensive to manufacture and install. 3) Manufacturing solar panels has a risk of emitting harmful chemicals and toxic metals into the environment that are required to make solar panels. Three advantages to wind energy are 1) wind is a renewable source of energy. 2) Wind energy is a clean source of energy that does not emit any greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere. 3) Wind turbines can share the area they take up with other purposes. Three disadvantages of wind energy are 1) energy is dependent on the amount of wind that area receives. 2) Turbines are reliant on batteries which are expensive and hard to dispose of. 3) Turbines kill lots of birds and bats every year.

Comparison of international total and per capita CO2 emissions - Basic Understanding

Total amount of CO, produced by a country = largest contributors are developed. Historicany, my developed world (20% of the population- 1 billion people) produces 75% of the CO2. In 2009 developing nations surpassed the developed →Particularly true in China and India (1/3 of world population). Per capita : Major CO- emitters have relatively low per capita CO, emissions

Garrett Hardin's Tragedy of the Commons - Thorough Understanding - Review our Discussion Questions, Evaluate the Cod Fishery in the Gulf of Maine - Do some reading on this subject ahead of time.

Tragedy of Commons- the tendency of a shared, limited resource to become depleted because people act from self-interest for short-term gain. Tragedy of commons is a result of negative externalities. The fishery in the Gulf of Maine is a common resource, historically anyone who lived along this coast could use it to their own advantage. Fishermen act for their own short term best interest, therefore catching as many fish as they can for the prophet. This is ruining the commons for everyone using this resource. For example, overfishing on the Gulf of Maine is making the cod species depleted down to only 3% of what they originally used to be.

Triple Bottom Line approach - Basic Understanding

Triple bottom line - An approach to sustainability that considers three factors-economic, environmental, and social when making decisions about business, the economy, and development.The essence of sustainable development is the recognition that the pursuit of one set of goals affects others and that we must pursue policies that integrate economic, environmental, and social goals. Placing one of the three factors ahead of the others inevitably minimizes the others.

Organizations and programs created by the United Nations - Basic Understanding

United Nations (UN) - Dedicated to promoting dialogue among countries with the goal of maintaining world peace. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) - A program of the UN. responsible for gathering environmental information, conducting research, and assessing environmental problems. World Bank - Provides technical and financial assistance to developing countries with the objectives of reducing poverty and promoting growth, especially in the poorest countries. World Health Organization (WHO) - Dedicated to the improvement of human health by monitoring and assessing health trends and providing medical advice to countries. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) - International program that works in 166 countries around the world to advocate change that will help people obtain a better life through development.

Upwelling

Upwelling is the upward movement of ocean water toward the surface as a result of diverging currents. This process brings lots of nutrients up from the bottom of the ocean which support large populations of fish, supporting commercial fisheries.

Urban Blight as a Positive Feedback Loop - Thorough Understanding

Urban blight is degradation of the built and social environments of the city that often accompanies and accelerates migration to the suburbs. As people move away from a city to suburbs and exurbs, tax and sales revenues for the city decrease - Costs of services, don't. Cities are forced to reduce services and/or increase taxes to pay for services. Crime rates increase as police funding decreases or conditions for low-income residents decline even further. Buildings and infrastructure quality decline. This causes the affluent to move away from cities. This cycle repeats as a positive feedback system.

Urban Sprawl - Basic Understanding

Urbanized areas that spread into rural areas, removing clear boundaries between the two. Characterized by cluster housing, retail shops, office parks, all separated by miles of road. Urban sprawl has dramatic environmental consequences: Automobile dependence: Residents drive twice as much as cities. Land use: Residents use twice as much land as cities. Farmland converted to residential use at 1 million acres/year! Urban sprawl has four main sources: 1) Automobiles and highway construction 2) Living costs - Much cheaper in the burbs, but not for low-income families 3) Urban blight. 4) Government policies

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) - Basic Understanding

Uses a variety of techniques designed to minimize pesticide inputs. Crop rotation - Can foil insect pests of one particular crop and that may have laid eggs in the soil. Can also hinder crop-specific diseases surviving on infected remnant crop material from the previous season.

How ecological economists might apply a valuation to an ecosystem - Basic Understanding

Valuation - Practice of assigning monetary value to intangible benefits and natural capital. Calculating revenue generated by tourists paying to see a natural reserve. Surveying the public to assess what they'd be willing to pay to preserve. Determining the value of provided ecosystem services

Water Impoundment Systems - Basic Understanding

Water impoundment is the storage of water in a reservoir behind a dam.

West Nile Virus, Malaria, SARS, Cholera (Optional), Tuberculosis - Thorough Understanding: How the disease is transmitted through the human population and effective methods of controlling the spread of the disease, environmental factors that contributed to the emergence of the disease and how that factor influenced the increased incidence of the disease. Is it possible to protect the health of Americans without addressing the problems of infectious diseases on a global scale? ...Explain.

West Nile virus - Virus that lives in hundreds of species of birds and is transmitted among birds by mosquitoes. Highly lethal to some bird species but most survive infection. Increasing reports of West Nile affecting horses and humans. In humans, it causes inflammation of the brain leading to illness and sometimes death. Controlled through combating mosquito populations. Malaria - An infectious disease caused by one of several species of protists in the genus Plasmodium. Produces intense flu-like symptoms.Plasmodium spends the first stage of its life cycle in mosquitoes, which is then transmitted to humans. Traditionally combated with widespread use of pesticides (DDT) to kill mosquitos. Presents unintended environmental consequences. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) - Type of flu caused by a coronavirus. Represented as an unusual form of pneumonia. Unlike bird flu - Virus can be spread from one person to another. More than 8,000 people were infected with 10% dying. Tuberculosis - Highly contagious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis that primarily infects the lungs. Symptoms: Feeling weak, sweating at night, coughing up blood. TB is spread when a person coughs, expelling the bacterium in the air - Bacterium can persist for hours, and infects people who inhale. A person can be infected w/o contracting TB - 30% of people worldwide are infected. Taking antibiotics for a year can easily treat most TB cases. It is not possible to protect the health of Americans without addressing the problems of infectious diseases on a global scale because the world is more interconnected than ever before.

Per capita wheat production

Wheat production per capita has been increasing since 1950 but since 1985 the production per capita has leveled off and even started a downward incline because of population growth.

Nuclear: Understand nuclear waste products and their impact, nuclear energy as a cleaner energy source, impacts of the building process of a nuclear power plant, how nuclear energy works (from the mine to the electrical outlet), methods of energy conservation in homes/businesses, ID one nuclear accident and consequences of the accident.

When nuclear fuel is no longer useful in a plant but still emits radioactivity it is considered radioactive waste. This waste can be extremely dangerous so it must be stored and well secured. The issue with this is that storing them in the ocean or space risks harming the surrounding area. Usually they can be stored in pools of water underground. Nuclear plants do not produce greenhouse gasses. Building nuclear power plants was once thought inexpensive, but now with protest and risk of accidents it has become very expensive to build them. Nuclear energy works by using radioactive isotopes (uranium -235) and creating a stream which turns a generator which produces energy. On April 26, 1986 a nuclear power plant in Ukraine had an accident when operators purposefully disconnected emergency cooling systems and the control rods. This was against safety regulations. This led the plant to overheat and explode causing the death of 31 people on scene and many more after that exposure.

Factors leading to increased bacterial-resistant pathogens - Basic Understanding

When people are given antibiotics and feel better they stop taking it and the bacteria that had the strongest resistance to the bacteria that survived that long are able to reproduce forming a new bacterial-resistant pathogen. Also applies to cleaning supplies used everyday that kills 99.99% of bacteria.

Policy Process in the U.S. - Basic Understanding

When policymakers believe there is adequate understanding of the science, and there is a course of preferred action for states or individuals, they begin to develop policy. 1)Problem Identification 2) Policy formation 3) Adoption 4)Implementation 5) Evaluation Circular process - as policies are evaluated, amendment might be necessary, following the same basic steps as initial implementation.

States of the Nitrogen Cycle

-78% of the atmosphere is nitrogen (N2) which is not usable by plants. -Nitrogen Fixation— N2 to N4 which is usable by plants. -Nitrification— NH4 to NO3 which is usable by plants. -Assimilation— plants absorb nitrogen and incorporate into tissues. -Ammonification— Decomposers make NH4+.

Saturation Point

. Saturation Point is the maximum amount of water vapor that air can hold. The air reaches its saturation point as the temperature decreases, clouds form which causes it to rain, hence rain forests at the equator. The water vapor in the air condenses into precipitation.

Watts and Kilowatts conversion

1,000 watts in a kilowatt

Sustainable practices (give example)

Sustainable Development- development that balances current human well-being and economic advancement with resource management for the benefit of future generations. Biking.

Thermohaline Circulation - How density and salinity influence water layers in the oceans - Potential future effect on northwest Europe

Thermohaline Circulation is an oceanic circulation pattern that drives the mixing of surface water and deep water. The colder and more salinity the water has causes it to be dense and sink to the bottom. The mixing of water brings lots of nutrients and heat to distribute to places. With glaciers melting could cause the salinity to lessen and thermohaline circulation to shut down which would stop spreading heat in water and air to different places such as Western Europe.

Water use patterns globally and in U.S. - Basic Understanding

Agriculture- used for irrigation (furrow, flood, spray, and drip). (70%) Industry- used for generating electricity, cooling machinery, refining metals and paper. (20%) House-hold use- 41% on toilets, 33% for bathing, 21% for laundry and 5% for cooking and drinking. (10%)

Broad-Spectrum vs. Selective Pesticides - Basic Understanding

Broad-spectrum pesticide - Kills many different types of pest. Run the risk of killing many more organisms than just their intended targets. Selective pesticide - Targets a narrow range of organisms.

Stages of the Carbon Cycle (Fast and Living) and Stages of Carbon Cycle (Slow and Non-Living)

Carbon is used in photosynthesis and passed on to consumers; cellular respiration returns it to air and water; carbon in dead things is broken down by consumers and released into the atmosphere. Some inorganic carbon sediments out of the water to form sedimentary rock while some organic carbon may be buried and become fossil fuels. Carbon Dioxide combines with Calcium in water to form Calcium Carbonate, precipitates out of water and forms limestone. Volcanic eruptions + weathering of rock naturally release carbon back to the atmosphere. Anthropogenic Extraction and Combustion of fossil fuels and other organic matter adds carbon to the atmosphere.

Chemical Weathering

Chemical Weathering- breakdown of rocks and minerals by chemical reactions, the dissolving of chemical elements from rock, or both Acid Precipitation- precipitation high in sulfuric acid and nitric acid from reactions between water vapor and sulfur and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere. Released of soil minerals can then be consumed by plants or become leached into groundwater Lichens can also produce light acids which will break down rock

Competitive Exclusion

Competitive Exclusion theory states that two species cannot have the same realized niche because one will out compete the other which will cause one species to migrate or go extinct.

Cone of Depression - Basic Understanding

Cone of Depression- an area lacking groundwater due to rapid withdrawal by a well. Deep wells pump water from an aquifer more rapidly than it can be recharged, it can form a cone of depression in the water table and cause nearby shallow wells to go dry. Also, rapid withdrawal can cause natural springs to dry out.

Confined vs. Unconfined Aquifers - Basic Understanding: Recharge, contamination, etc

Confined aquifer is an aquifer surrounded by a layer of impermeable rock or clay that impedes water flow. Unconfined aquifer is an aquifer made of porous rock covered by soil out of which water can easily flow. Direct and rapid connection to surface= greater potential for human contamination. Groundwater recharge is a process by which water percolates through the soil and works its way into an aquifer.

Demographic Transition

Demographic transition- the theory that as a country moves from a subsistence economy to industrialization and increased affluence it undergoes a predictable shift. Split into 4 phases. Interpret Figure

10% Rule of Ecological Efficiency

Ecological Efficiency is the proportion of consumed energy that can be passed from one trophic level to another. Average ecological efficiency is fairly low between 5-20% on average considering the 10% rule. Only 10% of energy can be saved from one trophic level to the next.

Energy and power. How are they measured (Units)? WHat units measure energy and power?

Energy is the ability to do work, or transfer heat. Juels measure energy. Power is the rate at which work is done and is usually measured in kilowatts(kW) but (kWh) kilowatt hour is a measurement for energy.

GPP vs. NPP

GPP is the total amount of solar energy that is produced in an ecosystem captured via photosynthesis over a given amount of time. NPP is the energy captured by producers in an ecosystem minus the energy producers respire. The difference between the two is GPP is the amount of energy producers are receiving from the sun but NPP is the amount of energy that supports the plant growth and reproduction. The calculation of GPP or NPP is NPP= GPP - Respiration by producers

Levee, Dike, Aqueduct - Basic Understanding

Levee- an enlarged bank built up on each side of a river (prevents flooding). Reduced fertility of floodplains. Deposition of sediments at river mouth(ocean). Can cause flooding downstream. Increase development in floodplains- may still occasionally flood. Dike- a structure built to prevent ocean waters from flooding adjacent land. Aqueduct- canal, ditch, or pipe, (above or below ground) used to carry water from location to another. Benefits: Provides cities with clean drinking water, hydroelectric power generation, ect.

Mutations and Genetic Recombination

Mutation is a random change in the genetic code produced by a mistake in the copying process. Brand new traits can develop. Genetic Recombination is genetic Process (Crossing over in Meiosis) by which one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome during reproductive cell division. Both add genetic variation to a species.

Ecosystem services

Natural environments provide ecosystem services. Which is the process by which life supporting resources such as clean water, timber, fisheries, and agriculture crops are produced.

Positive vs. Negative Feedback loops

Negative feedback loops is a system that responds to a change by returning to its original state, or by decreasing the rate at which the change is occurring. Positive feedback loop is when a change in a system is amplified. Constant increase in change. Positive feedback amplifies change and negative feedback resists. STUDY EXAMPLES IN TEXTBOOK.

Niche Specialists vs. Niche Generalists

Niche Specialists is a species that is specialized to live in a specific habitat or to feed on a small group of species. Niche Generalist is a species that can live under a wide range of abiotic or biotic conditions. Niche Generalist is broad and niche specialist is very specific.

Soil horizon layers - Order of layers (Oreos Are Eaten By Cats), importance of each layer -Basic Understanding

O - The organic horizon at the surface of many soils, composed of organic detritus in various stages of decomposition (humus - bottom of O). Most pronounced in forests and grasslands A - (Topsoil), a zone of organic material and minerals that have been mixed together (Natural mixing or human altered in agriculture). E - A zone of leaching, or eluviation, found in some acidic soils under the O horizon or, less often, the A horizon (... but always above B). Iron, aluminum, organic acids, etc. are transported through and removed from the E horizon. B - (Subsoil) A soil horizon composed primarily of mineral material with very little organic matter. C - The least-weathered soil horizon, which always occurs beneath the B horizon and is similar to the parent material.

Pesticide Resistance - Basic Understanding

Pesticide resistance - A trait possessed by certain individuals that are exposed to a pesticide enables survival, which makes this resistance trait more common.

Resource Partitioning

Resource Partitioning is when two species divide a resource based on differences in their behavior or morphology. Evolution favors a reduction in competition.

Rule of 70

Rule of 70: doubling time can be found by dividing 70 by the growth rate of a population. 70 —-------- Growth rate

pH scale what it measures and logarithmic

pH indicates the relative strength of acids and bases in a substance. A pH value of 7 is pure water. Anything above 7 is basic or Alkaline and anything below 7 is acidic and have H+ and basic above 7 is H-. Logarithmic is everything being multiplied by 10.

Freshwater vs. Saltwater percentage of earth's surface - Basic Understanding: Major freshwater sources.

70% of Earth's surface is covered by water. 97% of Earth's water is saltwater and less than 3% is freshwater. Three fourths of the freshwater is above ground but mostly in the form of ice and glaciers and not available for human consumption. The other fourth is groundwater.

Concentrated Feeding Operations (CAFOs) - Basic Understanding

A large indoor or outdoor structure designed for maximum output. Used for beef, dairy, hogs, and poultry with confined movement for all or most of life cycle. Might contain 2,500 hogs or 55,000 turkeys in a single building. Designed to minimize land cost, improve feeding efficiency, and maximize profits. Average CAFO produces 2,000 tons of manure a year - Leads to limiting nutrients in runoff.

Adiabatic Heating and Cooling

Adiabatic cooling is the cooling effect of reduced pressure in air as it rushes ight in the atmosphere and expands. Adiabatic heating is the heating effect of increased pressure on air as it sinks toward the surface of the Earth and decreases in volume.

Artesian Wells - Basic Understanding

Artesian Well is a well created by drilling a hole into a confined aquifer. Impermeable layer of rock or clay can cause water pressure to build up underground. Natural water pressure forces water up through the well with no energy input. Wells in unconfined aquifers require pumping.

Understand and explain cation exchange capacity and base saturation - soil pH and water retention.

Cation Exchange Capacity is the nutrient holding capacity of a particular soil. Clay's surface has a negative charge. Since clay is the smallest of the three soil types, it has the highest proportionate surface area. Clay's negative charge attracts to positively charged particles, and a lot of essential nutrients needed for plant growth are positively charged. Therefore, more clay means that the soil is able to hold on to a larger amount of positively charged essential nutrients because of the attraction between negative and positive particles. A negatively charged clay particle is already bonded to positively charged ions and must trade those positively charged ions to take the place of positively charged nutrients. Plants naturally produce hydrogen ions and swap these hydrogen ions for cation nutrients. The number of hydrogen ions swapped must be equal to the overall charge of the nutrients. Base saturation is the proportion of soil bases to soil acids. Essential cations neutralize acids and are considered to be soil bases. Thus, maximizing the number of cation nutrients also increases base saturation. The removal of acids and the addition of bases will increase the total number of nutrients, increasing cation exchange capacity. Acids are bad for plant growth because higher acidity means a higher concentration of positively charged hydrogen ions. These hydrogen ions bond with the negatively charged clay particles, taking the place of the nutrients. When the pH of a soil is too low, that lowers the cation exchange capacity because hydrogen ions occupy clay space instead of essential cation nutrients. A neutral soil pH will maximize base saturation as there are more essential nutrients than acids, and thus maximize the cation exchange capacity of the soil. A soil with 20% clay will maximize the amount of negatively charged surface area to hold on to cations and thus has a greater cation exchange capacity. This percentage of clay will also lead to optimal water retention rates.

Components of a scientific experiment: Control, Hypothesis, Replication, and Constants.

Control in an experiment means to have control groups and only change one variable at a time to get as clear results as possible. A hypothesis is a testable conjecture about how something works. Scientists will use something called replication which is a process in which several sets of measurements are recorded. Constants are a variable in an experiment in which the variable stays the same every time so the variable that is tested can show change.

Theory of Plate Tectonics - Basic Understanding

Convection and plate movement- convection in the mantle causes oceanic plates to spread apart as new rock rises to the surface at spreading zones. Where oceanic and continental plate margins come together, older oceanic crust is subducted.

Layers of earth - Basic Understanding: Order and importance of each layer

Core- innermost zone of Earth, composed mostly of iron and nickel. Includes a liquid outer layer and a solid inner layer. Mantle- layer above core, containing magma (molten, liquid rock). Liquid mantle contains slowly churning convection cells Asthenosphere- Layer in the outer part of the mantle, composed of semi- molten rock. Lithosphere- outermost layer of Earth, including the solid upper mantle and crust. Crust- the chemically distinct outermost layer of the lithosphere. Made up of several large and numerous small plates that overlie convection cells. Important: the lowest part of the lithosphere is the upper part of the mantle- the layers overlap. Lithosphere= crust + solid upper mantle. Mantel= solid upper mantle + asthenosphere + liquid mantle.

Density-Independent Factors vs. Density-Dependent Factors

Density Independent Factor is a factor that has the same effect of an individual's probability of survival and the amount of reproduction at any population size. For example, tornados, floods, fires, volcanic eruptions, and other climatic events. Density dependent factor is a factor that influences an individual's probability of survival and reproduction in a manner that depends on the size of the populations. For example, food scarcity.

Desalination (Distillation vs. Reverse Osmosis) - Basic Understanding

Desalination- process of removing salt from salt water (also known as desalinization). Distillation- a process of desalination in which water is boiled and the resulting steam is captured and condensed to yield pure water. Process requires significant energy input. Reverse Osmosis- a process of desalination in which water is forced through a thin semi permeable membrane at high pressure, leaving the salt behind. Much more efficient than Distillation Produces Brine, waste- water with high salinity

Major differences between developing and developed nations - Thorough Understanding

Developed- countries with relatively high levels of industrialization and income. Developing- those countries with relatively low levels of industrialization and income of less than $3 per person per day. Replacement Level Fertility is higher in developing countries because mortality among young people is higher. Sanitation and health care is better in developed countries.

Energy Subsidies - Basic Understanding

Energy subsidy - The fossil fuel energy and human energy input per calorie of food produced. 5 calories of human and fossil fuel used to produce. 1 calorie of wheat = 5/1 yields an energy subsidy of 5. Small scale agriculture requires relatively small subsidy - typical U.S. diet = 10 calorie input for every calorie consumed. Most energy subsidies in agribusiness in the form of fossil fuels are used to produce fertilizers and pesticides, and to harvest food and prepare it for transport. Transporting food from the farm to your plate is another large energy subsidy.

Erosion

Erosion- physical removal fragments (sediment, soil, and other particles) from a landscape or ecosystem. Erosion is a natural process: glaciers, streams and rivers, wind blown sediments, ect. Wind, water and ice move materials downslope via gravity Living organisms burrow under the soil. Erosion leads to Deposition- the accumulation of eroded material. Human land use contributes substantially to erosion Deforestation, overgrazing, unmanaged construction, road building, ect.

Eutrophication

Eutrophication is when an excess level of nutrients ultimately leads to toxic anoxic(low on oxygen) conditions in a body of water. Usually human beings are at fault, sometimes they can be natural but rarely. Overuse of synthetic fertilizers. After using fertilizer, when it rains the rain water runs off that picks up the leftover nutrients not picked up by the soil and into a body of water. Most commonly driven by excess phosphorus because it's the most limited nutrient in aquatic ecosystems for 2 reasons. Soil holds onto phosphate and because it is very heavy so sinks to the bottom of the body of water and into the sediments. Phosphorus goes into the ecosystem that isn't used to it and algae eats this and grows and reproduces immensely. This grows a blanket of algae on top and restricts sunlight into the body of water. This causes the plants (without sunlight) to die. Which causes decomposition (decomposed by bacteria) bacteria grow immensely from their unlimited food and they use the oxygen in the water to grow which makes the water lacking in oxygen which kills the fish.

Floodplains - Basic Understanding

Floodplain- The land adjacent to a river that experiences flooding after periods of high rainfall or seasonal snowmelt. Seasonal flooding deposits nutrient-rich sediments— fertile soil. Human alteration of flooding has altered sediment deposition. Lowered soil fertility in floodplain and increased sediment deposition at river mouths.

Founder Effect, Bottleneck Effect, Gene Flow, Genetic Drift

Founder effect is a change in the allele frequency of a population as a result of descending from a small number of colonizing individuals. Bottleneck effect is reduction in the genetic diversity of a population caused by a reduction in its size. Gene Flow is when individuals move from one population to another (immigration and emigration) and thereby alter allele frequencies of both populations. Genetic Drift is a change in the allele frequency of a population over time as a result of random mating (random chance).

Fundamental Niche vs. Realized Niche, Range of Tolerance

Fundamental niche is the suite of abiotic components under which a species can survive, grow and reproduce. Realized Niche is the range of abiotic and biotic conditions under which a species actually lives. Range of Tolerance are the limits to the abiotic conditions that a species can tolerate.

Hydroponic Agriculture - Thorough Understanding: Cost and Benefits

Hydroponic agriculture is Cultivation of plants in greenhouse conditions by immersing roots in a nutrient-rich solution. More expensive but has several advantages.Requires little or no pesticide use. Uses up to 95 percent less water than traditional irrigation, as water can be reused. Crops can be grown year-round.Produce more crops per hectare than traditional farms. Consumers are driving success.

IPAT and its significance

IPAT equation - An equation used to estimate the impact of the human lifestyle and the environment: Impact - population × affluence × technology. This is important to understand the environmental impact the human population has on the Earth.

Factors that allowed for exponential growth of the human population

Immigration- the movement of people into a country or region from another country or region. Crude Birth Rate(CBR)- the number of births per 1,000 individuals per year.

Induced Demand - Basic Understanding

Induced demand - Phenomenon in which an increase in the supply of a good (causes demand to grow. People move further away from work -> more traffic > roads expanded > More people move further away from work.

Benefits/Disadvantages of Industrial Agriculture - Basic Understanding

Industrial agriculture - Agriculture that applies the techniques of mechanization and standardization. Also known as agribusiness. Benefits: Lead to drastic increase in food production, leading to further pop. growth. Disadvantages: Is dependent upon the use of fossil fuels to maintain production.

Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis

Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis is the hypothesis that ecosystems experiencing intermediate levels of disturbance are more diverse than those with high or low disturbance

Isotopes, radioactive decay, and half-life

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. Radioactive decay is unstable isotopes that are radioactive. They undergo radioactive decay. Measuring radioactive decay is commonly stated in terms of the half-life, which is the time it takes for one half of the original radioactive parent atoms to decay.

Earthquake damage - Basic Understanding

Magnitude 5-5.9(moderate)= collapsed structures, fires, contaminated water supplies, and loss of life Loss of life is more a result of the proximity of large populations to epicenter than magnitude. The proximity to the epicenter to human habitations and the structure and quality of buildings.

Vitamin A Deficiency - Basic Understanding

Malnourished- having a diet that lacks the correct balance of proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals, regardless of the number of calories consumed. Lacking even one mineral or nutrient can be detrimental. 250,000 children/year become blind from a lack of vitamin A. Anemia- a deficiency of iron, is the world's most widespread deficiency, affecting 3 billion people worldwide.

Ogallala Aquifer: Where is this aquifer located? ...and describe the extent of the area occupied by this aquifer. What are the primary reasons why water is being drawn from this aquifer? Who benefits from the water drawn from the Ogallala Aquifer and how, and what specific benefits do they receive (on a local and national scale)? Be able to discuss long term conservation based on current water withdrawal rates.

Ogallala is the largest aquifer in the world in the midwest (SD to Texas). Water is being drawn from this for agriculture. Majority of crops are grown in midwest. Also for household use. People living in the midwest benefit the most. All people in the U.S. benefit because the water helps support agriculture which is sold to everyone in the U.S. Water is being taken from the aquifer much faster than it can be replenished. The demand for water because of the demand for crops is skyrocketing. If we lost the aquifer it would take thousands of years to recharge. In order to avoid this, employ water conservation techniques. Drip or Spray irrigation and take in account the temperature and time of day. Use household conservation as well.

Parasitism, Herbivory, Competition, Predation, Mutualism, Commensalism

Parasitism is an interaction in which one organism lives on or in another organism. Herbivory is an interaction in which an animal consumes a producer. Competition is the struggle of individuals to obtain a shared limiting resource. Predation is an interaction in which one animal typically kills and consumes another animal. Mutualism is an interaction between two species that increases the chances of survival or reproduction for both species. Commensalism is a relationship between species in which one species benefits and the other species is neither harmed nor helped.

Pesticide Treadmill - Basic Understanding

Pesticide treadmill - Cycle of pesticide development, followed by pest resistance, followed by new pesticide development. Pest populations evolve resistance to pesticide, resistance becomes widespread. Resistance increases with continued use of pesticides. Renders pesticide less and less effective. Requires the generation/production of new pesticides

Photosynthesis vs. Cellular Respiration - Formula, which organisms perform each, importance

Photosynthesis Formula- 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 Photosynthesisers/plants/producers/algae. Cellular Respiration- C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy Every organism does cellular respiration. This produces all the energy for all organisms on Earth. Cellular respiration is how organisms break down glucose.

Phylogenetic Trees (Interpret phylogenic trees)

Phylogeny is the branching pattern of evolutionary relationships. Shows the similarity between species over time.

Physical Weathering- Basic Understanding

Physical weathering- mechanical breakdown of temperatures, or biological agents (roots and burrows) Water can remove sediments from between fissures and widen cracks- can also expand through freezing and thawing Different responses to temperature can cause two minerals in rock to expand and contract differently.

Water's polarity

Polarity in molecules of different charges being attracted to each other. In a water molecule carbon is slightly positively charged and the oxygen is slightly negatively charged. This forms a weak hydrogen bond and causes other hydrogen molecules to be attracted to the oxygen molecules.

Primary and Secondary Succession, Pioneer Species

Primary succession is ecological succession occurring on surfaces that are initially devoid of soil. Secondary succession is the succession of plant life that occurs in areas that have been disturbed but have not lost their soil. Pioneer Species is a species that can colonize new areas rapidly and grow well in full sunshine.

Random, Clumped, and Uniform distribution patterns

Random locations of species within an area, all species in generally one specific area, or an obvious pattern formed by the location of species.

Three Gorges Dam: Conduct some online research on the environmental costs and benefits of this dam. Understand reasons why rivers are dammed, and what advantages dams provide. Understand major environmental concerns and problems associated with dams. Would you have built the Three Gorges Dam? ...Why or why not? What happened to the Yangtze River Dolphin and why?

Recreation is the main reason why rivers are dammed which also creates available drinking water, Flood control is also a benefit of dams and Hydroelectricity. Environmental concerns- interruption of migration. Massive amount of material required and habitat loss due to the construction of a dam. Construction of a dam displaced people from their homes because of flooding. It also cost 28 billion to build. There are lots of costs to weigh and consider but if it were up to me I would build the dam. Mainly because the main benefit of a dam is a clean way to obtain energy. If it weren't to be built we would be relying on coal which has a whole other load of negative environmental impacts.Yangtze River Dolphin is the first dolphin species to go extinct due to human impact. Specifically, it went extinct because of dams being built, pollution and over fishing.

Saltwater Intrusion - Thorough Understanding: Implications for humans and natural ecosystems

Saltwater intrusion- and infiltration of salt water in an area where groundwater pressure has been reduced from extensive drilling of wells. Renders drinking water from coastal wells useless, further restricting drinking water access. As sea level rises, salinity of freshwater ecosystems near coastal habitat will be impacted. Impedes nitrifying bacteria, increasing nitrates in freshwater marshes. Will kill plant species not adapted to higher salinities.

Effect of clear-cutting of forests on nutrient flow

Scientists measured runoff from clear cut forest to regular forest. This showed that nutrients in runoff in clear cut forest was much higher than the regular forest. This is because there are no trees and plants to absorb the nutrients.

Smart Growth - Basic Understanding

Smart growth - A set of principles for community planning that focuses on strategies to encourage the development of sustainable, healthy communities. Follows 10 principles: 1) Create mixed land uses; 2) Create a range of housing opportunities and choices; 3) Create walkable neighborhoods; 4) Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions; 5) Take advantage of compact building design; 6) Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place; 7) Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty and critical environmental areas; 8) Provide a variety of transportation choices; 9) Strengthen and direct development toward existing communities; 10) Make development decisions predictable, fair and cost-effective.

Allopatric vs. Sympatric Speciation

Speciation is formation of new and distinct species over the course of evolution. Allopatric Speciation is a process of speciation that occurs with geographic isolation. Can lead to reproductive isolation. Sympatric physical separation of a group of individuals from others of the same species. Geographic isolation does not occur.

Thomas Malthus Hypothesis

Stated: -Increase in food production increases the well being of the populace. -Improvement was temporary as it led to population growth -Restored the per capita production level -Populations grow until the lower class suffers hardship want and greater susceptibility to disease and famine -Mathusian Catastrophe -Only the strong who could attain food and other needs would survive. "While the human population grows exponentially, our ability to produce food and resources grows linearly."

Calculating total energy efficiency of energy conversion from a fuel to use of an electronic device - Basic Understanding

Study Refrigerator Problem (Do the Math) Chapter 2 Coal--- electricity (x%)--- transmission lines (x% ---- powering light bulbs (x%) x*x*x= total energy efficiency.

Different types of mining and their associated environmental problems - Basic Understanding

Surface Mining Techniques Strip mining - Removal of strips of soil and rock to expose ore. (A little impact) Open-pit mining - Uses a large visible pit or hole in the ground. Mountaintop removal - The entire top of a mountain is removed with explosives in the extraction of resources. (Big Environmental Impact) Placer mining- Looking for minerals, metals, precious stones in river sediments. (NONE) Current Placer mining- use of mercury to extract gold (Terrible for surrounding habitat and environment.) Subsurface Mining Techniques Subsurface mining - Mining techniques used when the desired resource is more than 100 m (328 feet) below the surface of Earth. Very hazardous working conditions - Burial, fires, explosions, lung diseases. Worst environmental conditions. Causes acidic groundwater.

Sustainable development

Sustainable development - Development that balances current well-being and economic advancement with resource management for the benefit of future generations.

Basic characteristics of Terrestrial Biomes

Terrestrial Biomes are characterized by temperature, precipitation, and plant growth forms on land.

Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)- Basic Understanding

The Earth as a rotation is tilted at 23.5 degrees. Sunlight hits the equator twice a year in September and March. Wherever the ITCZ is, the more warm and wet that area is. Whatever hemisphere the ITCZ isn't on, that hemisphere is creating a dry season.

Importance of the Ozone Layer

The Ozone layer absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation and all the ultraviolet-C (UV-C) radiation. Providing critical protection from the sun's radiation which could cause DNA damage and cancer in organisms.

Background extinction rate

The average rate at which species go extinct over the long term is referred to as the background extinction rate.

First and Second Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics states that energy is neither created nor destroyed but it can change from one form to another. The second law of thermodynamics tells us that when energy is transformed, the quantity of energy remains the same, but its ability to do work diminishes.

Island Biogeography

The theory of island biogeography is a theory that demonstrates the dual importance of habitat size and distance in determining species richness. The richness of an island is higher if the island is larger and a further distance from the mainland.

Hectare conversations

There are 2.47 acres in a hectare. Round to 2.5 acres in a hectare. When going from Hectares to Acres you multiply and the opposite for acres to hectares.

Furrow, Drip, Spray, and Flood Irrigation - Basic Understanding

There are four types of irrigation: Furrow: A trench that is flooded with water; easy and inexpensive (65% effective) Flood: The entire field is flooded with water; more disruptive to plants (70-80% effective) Spray: An apparatus sprays water across a field; more expensive (75-95% effective) Drip: A slow dripping hose is laid on or buried beneath the soil; most effective (above 95%)

Total Fertility Rate (TFR) and Replacement Level Fertility (RLF) - Thorough Understanding

Total Fertility Rate- an estimate of the average number of children that each woman in a population will bear throughout her childbearing years. Replacement-level fertility- the total fertility rate required to offset the average number of deaths in a population in order to maintain the current population size(stable) If TFR is above replacement- level fertility, how will our population change? Growth will occur, the number of children will increase. If TFR is below replacement- level fertility, how will our population change? Shrink, population will decrease. If TFR is equal to replacement- level fertility, how will our population change? The population will stay the same. If a country experiences moderate immigration, minimal emigration, and the TFR is slightly below RLF, The population will increase slightly.

Levels of the Atmosphere - Basic Understanding: Relative density and proximity to earth (S+T)

Troposphere- from the Earth's surface to roughly 10 miles up. The densest layer of the atmosphere. Stratosphere- layer above the troposphere, roughly 10-31 miles above the Earth's surface. Less dense than the troposphere. Within the stratosphere is an ozone layer made up of O3 molecules dividing the stratosphere in half the top half being warmer than the lower half. Mesosphere Thermosphere Exosphere

Overnutrition, Malnutrition, Undernutrition - Basic Understanding

Undernutrition- a condition in which not enough calories are ingested to maintain health. Human beings need 2,200 Kcals per day. Long-term food deficit of 100-400 Kcals/day can increase disease susceptibility. Undernutrition in children can lead to improper brain development and lower IQ. Malnourished- having a diet that lacks the correct balance of proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals, regardless of the number of calories consumed. Overnutrition- ingestion of too many calories and a lack of balance of foods and nutrients, leading to being overweight and obese.

Carbon (radiometric) dating

You can estimate the life of a fossil by comparing the ratio of carbon 14. Measures in the ratio of C14 to N14 (knowing the half life) you can estimate the age of a fossil.

Equation to calculate national growth rate (Inputs and Outputs)

[(CBR+immigration) - (CDR+emigration)] —--------------------------------------------------- 10