APES everything

To manage peak demand(the time of day or year that electricity demand is highest), some utilities use a variable price model for electricity Users pay a higher rate during peak demand hours or events, to discourage use Users pay a lower rate/kWh when using a lower amount of energy (incentivizes

"Smart Grid" is just the idea of managing demand & energy sources in a more varied way Ex: using smart meters for variable price models, allowing rooftop solar to direct electricity back to grid, integrating more total energy sources (especially renewable)

growth rate (r)

% increase in a population (usually per year) Growth rate = [CBR-CDR]/10 Factors that increase population growth: Higher Total Fertility Rate → higher birth rate High infant mortality rate can drive up TFR (replacement children) High immigration level Increased access to clean water & healthcare (decrease death rate) Factors that decrease population growth rate: High death rate High infant mortality rate Increased development (education & affluence) Increased education for women Delayed age of first child Postponement of marriage age

examples of toxic heavy metals

(Hg, Pb, Cd MAJOR ONES) 13 total: mercury, lead, cadmium, nickel, gold, platinum, silver, bismuth, arsenic, selenium, vanadium, chromium, and thallium; mercury causes brain damage and mad hatters went crazy because of the mercury used to stiffen hats

species richness

(r) the total number of different species found in an ecosystem High (r) is generally a good sign of ecosystem health (more species means more quality resources like H2O & soil)

Malthusian Theory

-Earth has a human carrying capacity, probably based on food production -Human population growth is happening faster than growth of food production -Humans will reach a carrying capacity limited by food

Scientists have measured and estimated earth's historical temperature and CO2 levels using 3 main pieces of evidence

-Foraminifera shells in ocean sediments - different species have diff. temp. tolerance -Air bubbles in ice cores that contain ancient atmospheric gas (CO2 levels) -16Oxygen vs. 18Oxygen isotope concentrations in ancient ice (higher 18 Oxygen = higher temp.)

secondary air pollutants

-Primary pollutants that have transformed in the presence of sunlight, water, O2 -Occur more during the day (since sunlight often drives formation) -Tropospheric O3 (Ozone) -Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) & sulfate (SO42-) -Nitric acid (HNO3) & nitrate (NO3-)

sulfur cycle

-Sulfur cycle moves sulfur from the oceans. -Bacteria convert that into dimethyl sulfide which eventually becomes sulfur oxide or sulfur dioxide. - (We can also increase sulfur dioxide through volcanism. So volcanoes are releasing hydrogen sulfide which becomes sulfur dioxide. And then factories are going to release sulfur dioxide as well) -Then it is going to rain down as sulfuric acid and sulfates. - It assimilates, take it into the living materials, into plants and then into consumers. Then decomposes. - It works its way back through the water supply and now it is going to be sulfur in the oceans. So the cycle can continue again. - (We can also have that rock cycle forming some of that into fossils fuels which can be extracted again and the cycle continues)

biomass

-mass of biological material, usually the total mass of a particular group or category -organic matter (wood/charcoal, dried animal waste, dead leaves/brush) burned to release heat - primarily for heating homes/cooking Biomass burning is considered "carbon neutral" cuz it releases modern carbon unlike FFs that release fossil carbon -Biomass burning releases CO, NOx, PM, and VOCs - all respiratory irritants and lead to smog -Hab. loss, soil erosion, loss of CO2 sequestration, air & H2O filtration

most soil

45% minerals (25% air, 25% water, 5% organic matter)

most crust

46% dioxygen, 28% Silicon, 8% Aluminum, 6% Iron very outer layer of the lithosphere, earth's surface

most earth coverage

70% water

most freshwater

77.28% ice/glaciers, 22.22% groundwater, .47% surface bodies, 0.03% atmosphere

air air

78% N2 (21% O2, 0.9% Ar, 0.1% other) Warm air rises Warm air holds more moisture than cold Rising air expands & cools Cool air can't hold as much H2O vapor (condenses → rain) After cooling & expanding, air sinks

most water

97% oceans, 3% fresh water

Pesticide

A chemical that kills pests. are often catagorized according to what they will kill. For example, herbicides kill plants, insecticides kill insects, fungicides kill fungi, and rodentcides kill rodents.

Phosphate

A compund that has 4 oxygen atoms attached. a major plant nutrient, and a limiting factor in water.. Too much may cause an algal blooms.

Pollutant

A contaminant to air, water, or soil.

Run-of-the-river systems

A dam diverts the natural current of a river through man-made channel beside the river -Natural current of the river turns the turbine...powers the generator...⚡ -Less impactful to surrounding ecosystem since no reservoir is formed & ecosystems behind dam aren't flooded -Doesn't stop natural flow of sediments downstream like water impoundment systems do -Doesn't generate nearly as much power & may be unavailable in warmer seasons when river water levels are lower

PCB's(polychlorinated biphenyls)

A group of synthetic chlorinated hydrocarbon chemicals that are nonbiodegradeable, contaminate food chains, and are carcinogenic(Cause cancer)

el nino bring warmer, rainier conditions to south america

A major climactic phenomena characterized by the movement of unusually warm surface water into the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean; results in extensive disruption of weather around the world This is a periodic shift in atmospheric pressure, wind patterns, and ocean temperature in the southern pacific Effects of el nino: Suppressed upwelling & less productive fisheries in SA Warmer winter in much of N America Increased precip & flooding in Americas (W coast especially) Drought in SE Asia & Australia Decreased hurricane activity in Atlantic ocean Weakened monsoon activity in India & SE Asia

Permafrost

A permanant layer of solid ice just under the soil, which is present even during the summer, and found in the Tundra biome

Photovoltaic cells

A piece of equipment that can convert light energy directly into an electrical current. Aka "solar panels"; contain semiconductor that emits low voltage electrical current when exposed to sun Photons (particles carrying energy from sun) cause separation of charges between two semiconductor layers (n & p); electrons separate from protons & flow through circuit to load, delivering energy (as electricity) Drawback is intermittency (solar energy can only be generated during the day) and not cost effective

Plate tectonics

A scientific theory stating that the Earth's crust is composed of many individual plates that move over and under each other causing geological activity such as earthquakes, volcanic activity, and continental drift.

Soil Conservation Act (SCA)

ASDA must plan for soil conservation. Allows the government to pay farmers to reduce production to conserve soil. (1936)

global wind patterns Formed because of unequal heating of the Earth's surface. In area near the equator, the sun is almost directly overhead for most of the year. Warm air rises at the equator and moves toward the poles. E to W

Air moves out from 30degr to 0degr and 60degr due to HIGH pressure @ 30degr & LOW pressure @ 0 & 60degr Air rising @ equator = low pressure Air sinking down @ 30degrees = high pressure 0 - 30degrees winds blow W <== E (Eastern trade) -Drives ocean current clockwise in North hemisphere, counterclockwise in Southern hemisphere 30 - 60degrees winds blow W→ E (Westerlies) -Drives weather patterns of North America

Photochemical smog

Air pollution from automobile exhaust that is formed by sunlight causing chemical reactions with nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. It forms a brownish haze. Sunlight Drives O3 formation by breaking down NO2 → NO + O; then free O atom binds with O2 to form O3 -VOCs bond with NO to form photochemical oxidants -O3 combines with photochem. oxidants (NO + VOCS) to form photochemical smog -Without NO to react with, O3 builds up instead of returning to O2 & NO2 overnight -Hotter atmospheric temp. speeds O3 formation, evaporation of VOCs & thus smog formation Urban areas have more smog due to all of these factors: More traffic → more NO2 Hotter temps due to low albedo of blacktop More VOCs due to gas stations & factories More electricity demand; more NOx emissions from nearby power plants How to reduce smog: -Decreasing the number of vehicles on the road decreases NO2 emissions -Fewer vehicles = less gas = fewer VOCs (carpool) -Increased electricity production from renewable sources that don't emit NOx (solar, wind, hydro) Environmental Impacts: -Reduces sunlight; limiting photosynthesis -O3 damages plant stomata + irritates animal resp. tracts -Resp. irritant in humans; worsens asthma, bronchitis, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; irritates eyes Economic Impacts: -Increased health care costs to treat asthma, bronchitis, COPD -Decreased ag. yields due to less sunlight reaching crops & damage to plant stomata

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA)

Also known as the &quot;Superfund Act&quot;. Provides for the cleanup of the worst contaminated sites by setting up a national trust fund

Impact of climate change on marine ecosystems

Altered range of marine ecosystems: -some new marine habitats will be formed by rising sea level flooding coastline -some areas of ocean will become too deep to receive sunlight & photic zone will shift up, further from ocean floor -Migratory routes and mating seasons can be altered, especially for whales -Reproductive timing, often tied to temp. change, can be disrupted (fish esp.) -Habitat loss: coral bleaching with heating ocean; shallow, sunny waters ideal for algae & coral become deeper from ice melt -Toxic algae blooms: toxic blue-green algae prefer warmer waters & warm temperature prevents mixing of water, enabling algae blooms -Blue-green algae release toxins into the water that can kill marine species, block sunlight & lead to hypoxia Altered ranges for organisms: warm water holds less O2, so many fish populations have declined, or migrated to cooler waters

strip cropping or intercropping

Alternating rows of dense crops (hay, wheat) with rows of less dense crops (corn, soy, cotton) to prevent runoff from eroding soil from less dense rows of crops

largest rainforest

Amazon

PPM

An acronym for "Parts Per Million"

Bottleneck event

An env. disturbance (natural disaster/human habitat destruction) that drastically reduces pop. size & kills organisms regardless of their genome Can lead to skewed sex ratio (not enough females) which limits pop. growth

Kyoto Protocol

An international agreement aimed at reducing the effects of climate change by setting targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. US is one of only a few nations that never ratified it. (1997)

Clean Air Act (CAA)

Authorizes EPA to establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards and to regulate airborne emissions (industrial, cars, residential, etc) especially the big 7: NOx, SOx, PM, O3, VOC, CO, and Pb.a. (1970)

plague

Bacterial (pathogen) infection transmitted by fleas (vector) that attach to mice & rats (vectors as well) Modern antibiotics to treat it

dysentery

Bacterial infection caused by food or water being contaminated with feces (often from sewage release into rivers & streams used for drinking water) Can be treated with antibiotics that kill the bacteria causing the infection and access to treated/filtered water that can rehydrate after bad effects like diarrhea that dehydrate you

deepest lake

Baikal Lake

regulating services

Benefit provided by ecosystem processes that moderate natural conditions like climate and air quality Ex: Trees in a forest sequester (store) CO2 through photosynthesis which reduces rate of climate change & lessens damage caused by rising sea level & reduces crop failure from drought

worst industrial disaster

Bhopal, India

endocrine disruptors

Bind to cellular receptors meant for hormones, blocking the hormone from being received, or amplifying its effects Examples: Atrazine (herbicide) binds to receptors of cells that should convert estrogen into testosterone in male frogs, leading to: high estrogen in males, low sperm count, even feminization (development of eggs in the testes or ovary formation) Phthalates - compounds used in plastic and cosmetic manufacturing Enter surface & groundwater via intentional dumping of trash, or chemical waste from plastic/cosmetic factories improperly disposing of waste, landfill leaching Also found in some cosmetics & plastic food containers (#3 plastic & "fragrance")

subsistence fuel

Biomass fuel sources that are easily accessible (can be found and gathered by hand); often used in developing countries for home heating or cooking fuel Wood (and charcoal) are two of the most common fuel sources in developing nations Wood is free/cheap to cut down and utilize as fuel; can cause deforestation & habitat loss Charcoal is made by heating wood under low oxygen conditions for a long time These biomass fuels release CO, PM, NOx, VOCs (can also cause deforestation)

Crude Birth Rate & Crude Death Rate (CBR & CDR)

Births & deaths per 1,000 people in a population

highest global warming potential (GWP)

CFCs, N2O, CH4, CO2, H2O

larger per capita energy consumption

Canada, US, Australia

Ecological Footprint: measured in land (gha - global hectare) which is a biologically productive hectare; Measure of how much a person/group consumes, expressed in area of land

Carbon Footprint: measured in tonnes of CO2 produced per year; All CO2 released from an individual or groups consumption & activities Increase Footprint: Wealth increases carbon & ecological footprint Larger houses More travel (gas) More resources needed for material goods (cars, etc.) Meat consumption- more land, more water, more energy Fossil fuel usage (heating, electricity, travel, plastic) Decrease Footprint: Renewable energy use (wind, solar, hydroelectric) Public transportation (less gas) Plant-based diet Less consumption, less travel, less energy use Current global footprint is 1.85 earths, meaning each year humanity consumes 1.85 x what the Earth can produce in a year

carbon cycle

Carbon enters the atmosphere as CO2, CO2 is absorbed by autotrophs, Animals consume plants, thereby, incorporating carbon into their system, Animals and plants die, their bodies decompose and carbon is reabsorbed back into the atmosphere through cellular respiration and combustion

worst global nuclear accidents

Chernobyl(stuck cooling valve during test lead to complete meltdown (explosion of reactor core), several deaths, and widespread radiation release) and Fukushima(an earthquake and tsunami triggered cooling pump failure that lead to a meltdown (explosion of reactor core) & widespread radiation release)

highest population

China (1.4 billion), India (1.3 billion), US (325 million)

largest country energy consumption

China, US, India

Pollution

Contamination of air, water, or soil with undesirable amounts of hazardous materials or even heat.

Solid Waste Disposal Act (SWDA)

Controls how solid waste is disposed of. (1965)

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA)

Controls the environmental effects of coal mining... regulates existing mines and provides for reclaiming abandoned mines. (1977)

CITES

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. An International agreement that prohibits trade in endangered species. (1975)

perennial crops

Crops that live year round and are harvested numerous times. Longer, more established roots & prevention of bare soil between harvest

Dams

Damming the river enables operators to allow more or less water through the channel in the dam, increasing or decreasing electricity production Also allows for control of flow downstream, prevention of seasonal flooding due to high rainfall 2 big impacts = flooding of ecosystems behind dam & sedimentation (buildup of sediments behind dam) -Water moves either with natural current of river or tides, or by falling vertically through channel in a dam Cons -Reservoir floods habitats behind dam (forests/wetlands → gone; river becomes a lake) -Prevents upstream migration of fish like salmon, that need to swim up to spawning grounds to reproduce (Cement "steps" or series of pools that migratory fish like salmon can use to continue migration upstream, around or over dams to combat this) -Sedimentation changes upstream & downstream conditions -Upstream becomes warmer (less O2) and rocky streambed habitats covered in sediment -Downstream loses sediment (important nutrient source), decreased water level, loses streambed hab. -Downstream wetlands especially suffer since nutrients in sediment doesn't reach them Pros -no GHG emissions when producing electricity (initial construction does require cement & machines that emit GHGs) -Jobs are created to maintain the dam -Reliable electricity source generated for surrounding area -Allows for control of downstream seasonal flooding Env. Impacts = FF combustion during dam construction, increased evap. due to larger surface area of reservoir, and methane release due to anaerobic decomp. of organic matter in reservoir Econ. Impacts = human homes & businesses must be relocated due to reservoir flooding, Initial construction is very expensive (does create long-term jobs though), sediment buildup must be dredged (removed by crane) eventually

Energy Policy Act (EPA)

Deals with energy efficiency of, addresses energy production, provides incentives for alternate energy.

crude oil formation (petroleum)

Decaying organic matter trapped under rock layers is compressed into oil over time Extracted by drilling a well through the overlying rock layers to reach the underground deposit and then pumping liquid oil out under pressure Can be recovered from tar sands -Extracting & using oil from tar sands is extremely energy and water intensive -Lots of water needs to be heated (requiring energy) to create steam that's piped down into the tar sand to melt the bitumen(a thick, sticky, semi-solid form of petroleum) into a liquid that can flow up a pipe -Lots more water is used to separate the oil from all of the impurities (sand, clay) at the refinery Crude oil is converted into lots of different products through the process of fractional distillation: where crude oil is burned in a furnace and vapor passes into a column where different hydrocarbons are separated based on their boiling points. hydrocarbons with lower boiling points gather at the top of the column, higher boiling points gather at bottom Environmental Consequences -Possibility of spill (from tanker ships or pipelines breaking -Spills in water = crude oil covering sun, clogging fish gills, suffocating many ocean animals, sticking to bird feathers -Spills on land = toxic to plant roots, surface or groundwater contamination (with hydrocarbons/crude oil) -Habitat loss or fragmentation when land is cleared for roads, drilling equipment, pipelines

Natural Gas formation

Decaying remains of plants & animals are buried under layers of rock & converted by pressure into oil and natural gas over time. Natural gas is mostly methane (CH4) and is found on top of trapped oil deposits. It forms when oil is trapped in a porous, sedimentary rock, underneath a harder, impermeable rock layer that doesn't let the gas escape. Nat. Gas is ~60% efficient when it's burned to generate electricity Considered the "cleanest" fossil fuel (produces the fewest air pollutants & least CO2 when burned)

Coriolis effect

Deflection of objects traveling through atm. due to spin of earth Air @ 30degrees moves back to low pressure of equator Wind between 0-30degrees moves from E→ W b/c earth is spinning W→ E Wind between 30degr-60degr moves W→ E b/c earth spins faster @ 30degr than 60degr

commercial fuel

Developed nations use more commercial fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) supplied by utilities

first oil well

Drake Oil Well in Pennsylvania (1959)

Wet scrubbers (NOx, SOx, VOCs + PM) -May involve chemical agents that absorb or neutralize NOx, SOx, VOCs, but also include mist nozzles that trap PM in water droplets as well -Mist droplets with pollutants and PM trapped in them fall to bottom of scrubber or get trapped @ top by mist eliminator -Sludge collection system traps polluted water for disposal

Dry Scrubbers (NOx, SOx, VOCs) -Large column/tube/pipe filled with chemicals that absorb or neutralize oxides (NOx, SOx, VOCs) from exhaust streams (emissions) -Calcium oxide is a common dry scrubber additive which reacts with SO2 to form calcium sulfite

tertiary treatment Lastly Disinfectant: UV light, ozone, or chlorine is used to kill bacteria or other pathogens, such as e. Coli (considered part of 3)

Ecological or chemical treatments to reduce pollutants left after primary & secondary (N, P, bacteria) Critical step because effluent(liquid waste discharged into a surface body of water) that is discharged into surface waters with elevated nitrate/phosphate levels leads to eutrophication

edge effect

Edge habitat is where two ecosystems such as forest-grassland or ocean-river (estuaries) meet have diff. characteristics than the middle of each ecosystem Some species thrive in the edge habitat & biodiversity is often higher in edge habitats due to diversity of food, shelter, and nutrient resources Edge habitats can expand range of potentially disruptive species

tidal power

Electricity generated by the movement of sea water caused by the tides (coastal areas only)

Taylor Grazing Act (TGA)

Enacted to improve conditions of rangelands by regulating grazing on public lands. (1934)

Nuclear Waste Policy Act (NWPA)

Enacted to manage the disposal of nuclear waste. Allows deep geological depositories for the disposal of radioactive waste. (1982)

geothermal

Energy derived from the heat in the interior of the earth. Natural radioactive decay of elements deep in earth's core gives off heat, driving magma convection currents which carry heat to upper portion of mantle, close to earth's surface Water can be piped down into the ground and heated by this heat from the mantle Hot water can be converted into steam → turbine → elect. or be used to heat homes directly Pros -Potentially renewable, only if water is piped back into the ground for reuse -Much less CO2 emission than FF electricity -No release of (PM/SOx/NOx/CO) as is case with FFs Cons -Not everywhere on earth has access to geothermal energy reaching close enough to surface to access it -Hydrogen sulfide can be released, which is toxic and can be lethal to humans & animals -Cost of drilling that deep in the earth can be very high initially; Sometimes so high that it's not even worth it

hydrologic cycle/ water cycle

Evaporation: when warmth from the sun causes water from oceans, lakes, streams, ice and soils to rise into the air and turn into water vapor (gas) or clouds! Evapotranspiration: amount of H2O that enters atmosphere from the combination of evaporation(process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas or vapor) and transpiration (process plants use to draw groundwater from roots up to their leaves). Condensation: when water vapor in the air cools down and turns back into liquid water. Precipitation: when water (in the form of rain, snow, hail or sleet) falls from clouds in the sky. Collection: when water collects in the oceans, rivers, lakes, streams. Most will infiltrate (soak into) the ground depending on permeability and will collect as underground water. Precipitation recharges groundwater while runoff recharges surface waters, but it can also carry pollutants into water sources. The water cycle is powered by the sun's energy and by gravity. The sun kickstarts the whole cycle by heating all the Earth's water and making it evaporate. Gravity makes the moisture fall back to Earth.

Layers of the atmosphere

Exosphere: Outermost layer where atm. merges with space Thermosphere: Therm = hottest temp; -absorbs harmful X-rays & UV radiation -charged gas molecules glow under intense solar radiation producing northern lights (aurora borealis) Mesosphere: Meso = for middle; 60-80 km, even less dense Stratosphere: "S" for second layer, about 10-30 miles up; less dense due to less pressure from layers above -thickest O3 layer is found here; ozone shield; absorbs UV-B & UV-C rays which can mutate DNA of animals (cause cancer) Troposphere: Tropo = change (weather occurs here) -begins at the surface and goes to about 10 miles up, where all of the planet's weather takes place -most dense due to pressure of other layers above it -most of atmosphere's gas molecules are found here -ozone (O3) in the troposphere is harmful to humans (respiratory irritant) & damages plant stomata, and forms smog

worst oil spills

Exxon Valdez, Deepwater Horizon

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)

FIFRA. Provides federal regulation of pesticide distribution, sale, and use. EPA must license pesticides. (1996)

forest benefits

Filter air pollutants: Stomata (leaf pores) remove VOCs, nitrogen dioxide, particulates from air & store in tree Removal & storage of CO2 from atm: trees take in CO2, store carbon as sugar, wood, other tissue & release O2 provide habitat for a wide variety of organisms, which supports biodiversity and provides beautiful places for ecotourism

fish GMO crop

FlavrSavr delayed ripening tomato (1994) GMO crops are all genetically identical so gen. diversity is decreased and susceptibility to diseases or pest is increased. However gene for pest resistant trait can be added to the plant through genetic modification

flood irrigation

Flood entire field; easier but more disruptive to plants Can waterlog the soil & drown plants 80% efficient - 20% runoff/evap.

sustainable forestry

Forestry (using trees for lumber) that minimizes damage to ecosystem (habitats destruction, soil erosion, etc.) -Selective cutting or strip cutting: only cutting some of the trees in an area (biggest & oldest) to preserve habitat (biodiversity) and topsoil -Using human & pack animal labor to minimize soil compaction from machinery -Replanting same species being logged -Selectively removing diseased trees to prevent spread of infection through entire forest

Fracking opens new natural gas reserves, this increases availability, decreases price, increases use

Fracking is a method of natural gas extraction that has extended access to natural gas. Gas trapped in semi-permeable, sedimentary rock layers, such as shale, is released by cracking the rock with pressurized water Flowback water (used fracking fluid) flows back out well & is collected and stored in containers or ponds nearby Environmental Consequences -Possibility of well leaking & contaminating groundwater with fracking fluid (salt, detergents, acids) or hydrocarbons -Can be toxic to plants & animals that rely on these water sources -Depletion of ground or surface waters nearby (since they're drawn from for fracking fluid) -Increased seismic activity (earthquakes) linked with wastewater injection wells (storing fracking fluid deep underground)

Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA_

Gives the US Food and Drug Administration ability to manage the safety of food, drugs, and cosmetics. Allows the EPA to set maximum pesticide residue limits on food.

ecosystem services

Goods that come from natural resources or services/functions that ecosystems carry out that have measurable economic/financial value to humans

provisioning services

Goods/products directly provided to humans for sale/use by ecosystems, including lumber, fur, meat, crops, water, and fiber Disrupted by overharvesting, water pollution, clearing land for agriculture/urbanization(urbanization CO2 emissions from: Cement production, Construction machinery, Deforestation, Landfills needed for disposing trash from large pop.)(Urbanization prevents groundwater recharge, causing precipitation to runoff into local bodies of water)

The Federal Land Policy Management Act (FLPMA)

Governs the way that Public land is administered by the bureau of Land Management are managed. (1976)

spray irrigation

Ground or surface water pumped into spray nozzles More efficient (less water loss) than flood or furrow More expensive (requires energy for pumps & movement of sprinklers)

Population

Group of individuals within a single species, the individuals of which can and do freely interbreed, and produce fertile offspring.

cities most impacted by sea level rise

Guangzhou, Miami, NYC, New Orleans, Mumbai, Nagoya

most greenhouse gases

H2O, CO2, CH4, CFCs, N2O

nitric acid

HNO3; an acid found in acid rain

HAZMAT

Hazardous Material and Transportation Act - offers protection to life and property against the dangers of transporting hazardous materials. Improves the authority of the Secretary of Transportation in tis issue (1975)

concentrated solar thermal CST

Heliostats (mirrors) reflect sun's rays onto a central water tower in order to heat water to produce steam to turn a turbine → electricity A drawback is habitat destruction & light beams frying birds in mid air

Pollution Prevention Act (PPA)

Helps individuals, organizations, and industry to reduce their pollution. Focuses on source reduction. (1990)

examples of HAAs

Herbicides, pesticides, phthalates (compounds found in many chlorine-based plastics), and PCBs. May lead to breast, prostate, and ovarian cancer, as well as abnormal testicular development and thyroid-related abnormalities. the source of contamination of phthalates include perfumes and other cosmetics, such as nail polish and hairspray. EX: wild leopard frogs with Gonadal abnormalities and hermaphroditism.Alligators in FL with genital abnormalities, low egg production and reduced penis size due to exposure to DDT. Result in: Thinning of eggshells of birds. A decline in populations of various animals and birds. Reduced viability of offspring. Changes in sexual behavior. HAAs- breast cancer PCBs- neurological behavior Phthalates- endocrine and hormone disruption

Type III (mostly r-selected)

High mortality (low survivorship) early in life due to little to no parental care Few make it to midlife; slow, steady decline in survivorship in mid life Even fewer make it to adulthood; slow decline in survivorship in old age Ex: insects, fish, plants

Type I (mostly K-selected)

High survivorship early in life due to high parental care High survivorship in mid life due to large size & defensive behavior Rapid decrease in survivorship in late life as old age sets in Ex: most mammals

biomagnfication

Increasing concentrations of fat-soluble compounds like POPs in each level up the trophic pyramid or food web/chain -Because of the 10% rule, organisms at each successive trophic level need to eat more and more biomass to receive enough energy, leading to higher and higher POP levels over their lifetimes -Large predators like salmon, dolphins, and whales have highest POP/methylmercury levels

Montreal Protocol

International treaty that phases out the use of CFC"s and other ozone depleting emissions to help protect the ozone layer. (1989)

most polluted lake in the world

Karachay Lake in Russia (nuclear waste)

wind energy/ Wind Turbine Electricity Generation

Kinetic energy of moving air (wind) spins a turbine; generator converts mechanical energy of turbine into electricity. Located in clustered groups (wind projects or farms) in flat, open areas (usually rural) -Offshore wind = wind farms in oceans or lakes Cons -Only produces electricity in 8-55 mph winds -Intermittency (isn't always available) can't replace base-load power (sources that are always available like FFs, nuclear or Geothermal) -Can't replace base-load power (sources that are always available like FFs, nuclear or Geothermal) -Can kill birds and bats (especially larger, migratory birds) -Can be considered an eyesore or source of noise pollution by some Pros -Can share land with agricultural use (doesn't destroy habitat or cause soil/water contamination as FFs do) -Non-depletable (isn't decreased by its use) - even better than renewable! -No GHG emissions or air pollutants released when generating electricity -No CO2 (climate change) or NOx/SOx/PM as with burning FFs

hydroelectric power

Kinetic energy of moving water 🌊 → spins a turbine ⚙️ → turbine powers generator ⚡ -By far the largest renewable source of electricity globally -China, Brazil, and US = 3 biggest hydroelectricity producers

temperature gradient (a physical quantity that describes in which direction and at what rate the temperature changes the most rapidly around a particular location)

Layers of earth's atm. are based on where temp. gradients change with distance from earth's surface Thermosphere: temp. Increases due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation Hottest place on earth (3,100F) Mesosphere: temp. decreases because density decreases, leaving fewer molecules to absorb sun Coldest place on earth (-150F) Stratosphere: temp. increases because top layer of stratosphere is warmed by UV rays (like pool surface) Troposphere: temp. decreases as air gets further from warmth of earth's surface

examples of environmentally transmitted infectious disease

Legionnaires disease - occurs when air conditioning systems have been contaminated by disease causing organism Giardiasis - protozoan infection of the small intestine, spread via food, water, or person to person Salmonella - a food poisoning bacterial infection that is spread via water or food Malaria - protozoan infection transmitted by mosquitoes Lyme Borreliosis (lyme disease) - protozoan infection transmitted by ticks Cryptosporidiosis - protozoan infection transmitted via water or person to person contact Anthrax- bacterial infection spread by terrorist activity

natural sources of air pollution

Lightning: Convert N2 in atm. to NOx Forest Fire: CO, PM, NOx; Combustion of biomass also releases CO2 & H2O vapor (greenhouse gasses) Plants like conifers: Plants emit VOCs Ex: terpenes & ethylene from pine, fir, spruce trees This forms natural photochemical smog in Smoky Mountains Volcanoes: release SO2, PM, CO, NOx

Biodiesel

Liquid fuels produced specifically from plant oils (soy, canola, palm) Palm oil biodiesel has been found to produce 98% MORE GHGs than FFs, due to clearing of forest for palm plantations Can be more sustainable if already cleared land is used, or if plantations are continually replanted (however, also causes all the env. impacts of ag.)

disease vectors

Living organisms (usually mosquitoes, ticks, fleas) that carry and transmit diseases from human to human or animal to human Warmer temperatures that allow insect-transmitted diseases to spread to parts of the world previously too cold

first superfund site

Love Canal

threshold or toxicity threshold

Lowest dose where an effect (death, paralysis, cancer) starts to occur

highest population density/mi^2

Macau (China)

Rivers and Harbors Act (RHA)

Makes it a misdemeanor to excavate fill, or alter course, condition, or capacity of any port, harbor, channel, or other areas within the reach of the Act without a permit. (1899)

r species -"quantity" r-selected

Many offspring, little to no care, may reproduce only once Ex: insects, fish, plants Shorter lifespan, quick to sexual maturity = high biotic potential = high pop. growth rate More likely to be invasive Better suited for rapidly changing env. conditions High biotic potential (reproductive rate) = more rapid pop. recovery after disturbance Low parental care means death of parent doesn't impact offspring Diverse habitat and food needs Not as impacted by invasive species since their pop. grow quickly More likely to be the invasive Larger pop. & faster generation time = higher chance of adaptation & lower chance of extinction

global warming potential (GWP)

Measure of how much a given molecule of gas can contribute to the warming of the atmosphere over a 100 year period, relative to CO2 Based on 2 factors: Residence time: how long molecule stays in the atmosphere Infrared absorption: how well the gas absorbs & radiates Infrared radiation CFCs remain in atm 50-500 yrs, absorb much more Infrared radiation than CO2

Polar regions of earth are warming faster than other regions (polar amplification) Melting of Permafrost - permanently frozen tundra soils that begin to thaw & release methane & CO2 from anaerobic decomposition -Air pollution adds soot & other PM to atmosphere, distributed to poles by atmospheric circulation -Darker, soot/PM covered ice absorbs even more heat due to lower albedo

Melting sea ice = more exposed ocean water, which absorbs more sunlight than ice & snow, leading to more ice melting (positive feedback loop)

largest watershed in the US

Mississippi River Basin

longest river in the US

Missouri River

soil soil

Mix of geologic (rock) and organic (living) components Sand, silt, clay Humus: main organic part of soil (broken down biomass like leaves, dead animals, waste, etc.) Nutrients: ammonium, phosphates, nitrates Water and Air and Living Organisms Soil Texture: is the % of sand, silt, and clay in a soil Always adds up to 100% ex: 40-40-20 Porosity: the amount of pore space a soil has The more sand in a soil = more porous/higher porosity (easier for water + air to enter) The more clay in a soil = less porous/less porosity (harder for water + air to enter) Permeability: how easily water drains through a soil More porous/higher porosity = more permeable/higher permeability Positive relationship between porosity + permeability Soil that is too sandy (too permeable) drains water too quickly for roots + dries out. Clay-heavy soil doesn't let H2O drain to roots, or waterlogs (suffocating them) Ideal soil for most plant growth is loam, which balances porosity or drainage, with H2O holding cap. Factors that increase H2O holding cap: Aerated soil (biological activity) Compost/humus/organic matter Clay content Root structure, especially natives Factors that decrease H2O holding cap: Compacted soil (machines, cows) Topsoil erosion Sand Root loss Soil Fertility: ability of soil to support plant growth Factors that increase soil nutrients: Green manure and crop rotation Organic matter (releases nutrients) Humus (holds and releases nutrients) Decomposer activity (recycles nut.) Clay (neg. charge binds pos. nutrients) Bases (limestone which releases calcium carbonate (base) which neutralizes acidic soil) Factors that decrease soil nutrients: Acids leach pos. charge nutrients Excessive rain/irrigation leeches nutrients Excessive farming depletes nutrients Topsoil erosion

tilling

Mixing and breaking up soil to make planting easier and loosen soil for roots -Increases erosion by loosening topsoil, breaking up leftover root structure from harvest -Loss of organic matter & topsoil nutrients over time -Increased Particulates in air and sediments in nearby water (turbidity)

drip irrigation

Most efficient, but also most costly Over 95% efficient Holes in hose allow water to slowly drip out Avoids waterlogging & conserves waters

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)

National Environmental Policy Act... formed the EPA (1969)

supporting services

Natural ecosystem support processes we do ourselves, making them less costly and easier for us Ex: bees & other insects pollinate our ag. Crops, leading to more crop production & higher profits

longest river in the world

Nile River

worst invasive species -Species not native to an area, introduced often by human transport -No natural predators to control pop. -Highly competitive (aggressive feeders or fast growers) for resources -Can thrive in their non-native habitats

Nile perch, European common rabbit, cane toad, Burmese python, snakehead fish, kudzu, Asian mosquito

nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen fixation (N2 to NH3/NH4 ammonium/ammonia) done by bacteria, wherein free nitrogen is combined chemically with other elements to form more-reactive compounds, Nitrification (NH3 to NO3-)a process carried out by nitrifying bacteria, transforms soil ammonia into nitrates (NO3−), which plants can incorporate into their own tissues, Assimilation (plants and animals incorporation of NH3 and NO3- into their biological tissues), Ammonification (organic nitrogen compounds to NH3) when a plant or animal dies, decomposers like fungi and bacteria turn the nitrogen back into ammonium so it can reenter the nitrogen cycle, Denitrification by bacteria(NO3- to N2) when extra nitrogen in the soil gets put back out into the air. The nitrates can be leached/carried out of the soil by water, which causes a huge growth of plants(like algae blooms). when algae dies, bacteria that break down dead algae use up O2 in water because decomposition is an aerobic process, lower O2 levels kills animal life from lack of oxygen. this creates a positive feedback loop and can create dead zones in the ocean Major N sources: -Discharge from sewage treatment plants (N/P levels from human waste) -Animal waste from Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFO/feedlots - densely crowded method where animals are fed grain (corn) to raise them to as quickly as possible)

Nitrogen Dioxide sources: gas and kerosene space heaters, gas stoves, vehicle exhaust effects: repertory and mucous irritant remediate: selective catalytic reduction, making process changes (such as modifications to the combustion process)

Nitrogen oxides (both NO, and NO2) -Released by combustion of anything, especially FFs & biomass -NO forms when N2 combines with O2 (esp. during combustion) -NO can become NO2 by reacting with O3 or O2 -sunlight converts NO2 back into NO Env. & Human Health Impacts: -Resp. irritant -Leads to tropospheric ozone (O3) formation, which leads to photochemical smog -Combines with water & O2 in atm. to form nitric acid → acid precipitation Fluidized Bed Combustion to help remediate(NOx): -Jets of air bring more O2 into reaction, making combustion more efficient and bringing SO2 into more contact with calcium carbonate in limestone -Also allows coal to be combusted at lower temp, which emits less NOx

Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA)

OSHA - ensures workplace safety and health. Helps prevent work injuries, illnesses, and fatalities. (1970)

Ocean Dumping Act (ODA)

Officially called the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act: Allows EPA to control ocean dumping in US waters by permit; prohibits dumping or the transportation of material with the purpose of dumping in the ocean

largest aquifer

Ogallala in central US

most polluted lake in US

Onondaga Lake in New York (raw sewage and industrial dumping)

mining basics

Ore ore: commercially valuable deposits of concentrated minerals that can be harvested and used as raw materials Reserve: the known amount of a resource left that can be mined. Usually measured in years left of extraction. Metals: elements that conduct electricity, heat, and have structural properties for building (found in ores) Overburden: Soil, vegetation, & rocks that are removed to get to an ore deposit below Tailings & slag: leftover waste material separated from the valuable metal or mineral within ore (often stored in ponds @ mine site)

largest dam in the US

Oroville Dam in California

phosphorus cycle (no gas phase so it takes awhile)

P minerals are slowly weathered out of rocks and carried into soil/bodies of water, P is assimilated into animals and absorbed by plants(plant growth is limited by P availability in soil/water), then decomposition by microorganisms during which the organic form of P is converted into the inorganic form, which is recycled to soil and water. Soil and water will end up in sediments and rocks, which will again release phosphorus by weathering. Thus, the phosphorus cycle starts over. Major P sources: -Synthetic fertilizer from ag. fields & lawns - detergents and wastewater from homes -phosphate mining Eutrophication can happen

How to reduce urban runoff

Permeable pavement: Specially designed to allow stormwater to infiltrate & recharge ground water Rain Garden: Creates habitat for pollinators, sense of place & stores CO2 Public transit: less cars on the road = less pollutants on streets to runoff into storm drains & local waters Building upwards: Building vertically decreases impervious surfaces (decreasing urban runoff)

stages of succession

Pioneer/early succession species appear first, when the ground is simply bare rock, or bare soil after a disturbance Characteristics: seeds spread by wind or animals, fast growing, tolerant of shallow soil and full sunlight Ex: moss, lichen (bare rock), wildflowers, raspberries, grasses/sedges Mid-successional species appear after pioneer species have helped develop deeper soil with more nutrients by their cycles of growth/death Characteristics: relatively fast growing, larger plants that need deeper soils with more nutrients than pioneers, sun tolerant Ex: shrubs, bushes, fast-growing trees like aspen & pine Late successional/climax community species appear last, after soil is deepened and enriched with nutrients by cycles of growth and death by early & mid successional species Characteristics: large, slow-growing trees that are tolerant of shade and require deep soils for large root networks like maples and oaks

photosynthesis

Plants, algae, phytoplankton use the sun's energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into glucose, which is stored chemical energy in the form of sugar. this process is a CO2 sink

divergent plate boundary

Plates move away from each other The rising magma plume from earth's mantle, forces plates apart after it cools & expands Forms: mid-oceanic ridges, volcanoes, seafloor spreading, and rift valleys (on land)

convergent plate boundary aka subduction zone

Plates move towards each other Leads to subduction (one plate being forced beneath another) Forms: mountains, island arcs, earthquakes, and volcanoes Oceanic-Oceanic: one plate subducts underneath another, forces magma up to lithosphere surface, forming mid ocean volcanoes, island arcs, and off-shore trenches Oceanic-Continental: dense oceanic plate subducts beneath continental plate & melts back into magma, this forces magma up to lithosphere surface, forming Coastal Mountains (Andes), Volcanoes on land, trenches, tsunamis Continental-Continental: one plate subducts underneath other, forcing surface crust upward (mountains) Ex: Himalayas

transform fault boundary

Plates slide past each other in opposite directions creates a fault (fracture in rock surface) Earthquakes = most common activity Occurs when rough edges of plates get stuck on each other Pressure builds as plates keep sliding, but edges stay stuck When stress overcomes the locked fault, plates suddenly release, slide past each other and release energy that shakes the lithosphere, resulting in earthquakes

contour farming

Plowing parallel to natural slopes of the land instead of up and down slopes, prevents runoff & soil erosion

Point Sources

Pollutants that have a specific point of origin. For example, a pipe that flows directly into a river.

population size

Population Size = (Immigrations + births) - (immigrations + deaths)

Coal Formation

Pressure from overlying rock & sediment layers compacts peat into coal over time In order of energy density & quality: lignite → bituminous → anthracite Because higher energy density means more energy released when a fuel source is burned, anthracite is the most valuable form of coal (highest quality) Coal is burned to heat water into steam, to turn a turbine that generates electricity More dense coal = hotter/longer fire = more steam = more electricity Coal is ~30% efficient as a fuel source for generating electricity (30% of energy from the bonds in the hydrocarbons are converted to electricity) Releases more air pollutants than other FFs; it's 35% of global electricity Environmental Consequences -Habitat destruction to clear land for mining -Produces pollutants & releases CO2 (GHG → global warming) -Releases more CO2 than any other FF when burned for electricity gen. -Produces toxic ash contaminated with lead, mercury, and arsenic, which is taken to landfills or stored in ash ponds; both can leak into ground/surface waters, or into soil -Releases Sulfiric oxide & Nitrous oxide which irritate resp. systems, and contribute to smog and acid precipitation Releases CO, CO2, SO2, NOx toxic metals (mercury, arsenic, lead), and PM (often carries the toxic metals) Impacts of SO2: Respiratory irritant (inflammation of bronchioles, lungs), worsens asthma & bronchitis Sulfur aerosols (suspended sulfate particles) block incoming sun, reducing visibility & photosynthesis Forms sulfurous (grey) smog Combines with water & O2 in atmosphere to form sulfuric acid → acid precip. Crushed limestone: -Used to reduce SO2 from coal power plants -Crushed coal mixed with limestone (calcium carbonate) before being burned in boiler -Calcium carbonate in limestone combines with SO2 to produce calcium sulfate, reducing the SO2 being emitted -Calcium sulfate can be used to make gypsum wallboard or sheetrock for home foundations

cellular respiration

Process done by plants and animals that releases stored energy by using O2 to break down glucose and other food molecules. it releases CO2 into the atmosphere and is a carbon source

Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)

Protects drinking water in the US. Establishes minimum water quality standards for all drinking water. (1974)

Wilderness Act

Protects large areas of land from development, establishes the definition of wilderness. Also created the National Wilderness Preservation System (1964)

Lacy Act

Protects plants and wildlife by prohibiting trade in species that have been taken illegally and sets criminal and civil penalties. Also covers the falsification of documents concerning shipments of wildlife. (1900)

Animal Damage Control (ADC)

Provided a broad authority of investigation, and demonstrations and control of mammalian predators, rodents and birds. (1985)

Endangered Species Act (ESA)

Provides for conservation and protection of endangered species and their habitats. Prohibits "taking" of the species. USFWS and NOAA place species on the list. (1973)

Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (FWCA)

Put into into action to protect fish and wildlife when federal actions in the control or modification of a natural stream or body of water.(1934)

Radon

Radioactive gas released by decay of uranium naturally found in rocks underground (granite especially) sources: enters homes through cracks in the foundation & then disperses up from basement, construction materials, contaminated groundwater effects: lung cancer remediate: Sealing cracks in foundation can prevent it from entering and increasing ventilation in the home can disperse it if it's detected, testing homes with airborne Radon monitor

ecological range of tolerance

Range of conditions such as temperature, salinity, pH, or sunlight that an organism can endure before injury or death results Optimal range: range where organisms survive, grow, and reproduce Zone of physiological stress: range where organisms survive, but experience some stress such as infertility, lack of growth, decreased activity, etc. Zone of intolerance: range where the organism will die

Persistant

Refers to pesticides or other chemicals that breakdown in the environment very slowly. This is also known as nonbiodegradeable

Clean Water Act (CWA)

Regulates the discharge of pollutants into water and sets standards for water quality of navigable surface water. Water must be deemed "swimmable and fishable" by the EPA. (1972)

Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)

Regulates the introduction of new or already exisiting chemicals. Prohibits the manufacture or importation of chemicals that are not on the TSCA inventory(or subject to one or many exemptions) (1976)

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Controls the transport, treatment, and storage of the waste. Gives EPA authority to manage waste from cradle to grave. (1976)

cultural services

Revenue from recreational activities (hunting/fishing licenses, park fees, tourism-related spending) & profits from scientific discoveries made in ecosystems (health/ag./educational knowledge)

Large-scale solar "farms" can generate lots of electricity, but do take up land and cause habitat loss/fragmentation

Rooftop solar doesn't take up land, but only produces a little electricity

green revolution

Shift in agriculture away from small, family operated farms to large, industrial-scale agribusiness. the development and introduction of new varieties of high yield wheat, rice, and other crops. Increased use of mechanization, GMOs, irrigation, fertilizers, and pesticides Greatly increases efficiency of lands, short-term profitability, and food supply. Decreased world hunger and increased earth's carrying capacity for humans Heavy machinery compacts soil, decreasing H2O holding capacity; makes topsoil more prone to erosion

desalinization- a process that takes saltwater and converts it to fresh water, by distillation or reverse osmosis

Soil salinization- the process of salt building up in a soil over time cuz groundwater used for irrigation naturally has small amounts of salt. Water evaporates, and salt is left behind in soil. Over time, it can reach toxic levels, dehydrating plant roots & preventing growth Solution: drip irrigation, soil aeration, flushing with fresh water, switch to freshwater source

Solar Energy Pros: -No air pollutants (PM, SOx, NOx) released to generate electricity -No CO2 released when gen. electricity -No mining of fossil fuels for electricity production -Renewable, unlike FFs which will run out

Solar Energy Cons: -Semiconductor metals (silicon) still need to be mined to produce PV cells (solar panels) -This can disrupt habitats & pollute water with mine tailings, air with PM -Silicon is a limited resource -Solar panel farms can displace habitats

specialists

Species with smaller range of tolerance, or narrower ecological niche makes them more prone to extinction, have specific food requirements, less ability to adapt to new conditions

Demographic Transition Model

Stage 1=Low growth, high birth rate, high death rate Stage 2=High growth, high birth rate, rapid fall of death rate Stage 3=Moderate Growth, falling birth rate, slowly falling death rate Stage 4=Low Growth, low birth rate, low death rate A country moves from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates through time.

Type II (in between r & K)

Steadily decreasing survivorship throughout life

sources of thermal pollution

Sudden heat releases may result from natural events, such as brush or forest fires and volcanic eruptions, or from human activities, such as agricultural burning and power plants. Heated water changes dissolved oxygen content and river's species composition (Fish spawning cycles may be disrupted, Fish may have heightened susceptibility to disease)

Impact of climate change on ocean circulation

Suppression of thermohaline circulation: global ocean current that redistributes heat from the equator, salt, and nutrients by mixing ocean waters could slow or stop altogether -Ice melt from Greenland ➡️ especially cold, fresh water buildup in north atlantic -This cold north atlantic slows warmer Gulf Stream waters, cooling Europe & slowing global thermohaline circulation

The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Robenticide Act (FIFRA)

System of pesticide regulation to protect applicators, consumers and the Environment. This act is regulated by the EPA. (1947)

Power Grid

The combination of all power plants' generated electricity that is bought or sold to companies.

Potential Energy

The energy that is stored either in a chemical such as in crude oil, or because of position, such as water on top of a dam, that has the ability to perform work.

synergism

The interaction of two or more substances to cause an effect greater than each of them individually Synergisms make it especially hard to pinpoint the exact effects of one specific pollutant on humans

soil degradation

The loss of the ability of soil to support plant growth

Population Density

The numbers of individuals per unit of area.

first president setting aside land for conservation

Theodor Roosevelt

why sea level is rising

Thermal Expansion -Water molecules move slightly further apart when they're heated -All the water molecules of ocean moving slightly apart leads to sea level rising Melting Polar and Glacier Ice -Increased greenhouse gases lead to a warmer climate & more melting of ice sheets (at the poles and glaciers) -This water flows into ocean and leads to sea level rise -release methane & CO2 from anaerobic decomposition This causes -Flooding of coastal ecosystems like estuaries (mangroves, salt marshes) -Loss of species that depend on arctic and tundra ecosystems (polar bears, penguins, reindeer) -Loss of thaw-freeze cycle that glaciers go through, depriving surrounding ecosystems and human communities of water source -Increase in flood frequency = higher insurance and repair costs, lost property -Saltwater intrusion (salt water pushing into ground water & contaminating wells)

largest dam in the world

Three Gorges Dam in China

worst US nuclear accident

Three Mile Island (partial meltdown due to testing error; radiation released but no deaths or residual cancer cases)

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

Total value of the goods & services produced; A key economic indicator of standard of living; High GDP & life expectancy are both indicators of development & low population growth Per capita GDP = total GDP/total population

furrow irrigation

Trench dug along crops & filled with water Easy & inexpensive; water seeps into soil slowly ~66% efficient, 33% lost to runoff & evap.

largest meat consumer

US

largest coal reserves

US, Russia, China, India, Australia

urban heat island effect

Urban areas tend to have higher surface & air temp than surrounding suburban and rural areas due to: Lower albedo: concrete & asphalt absorb more of sun's energy than areas with more vegetation (absorbed sunlight is given off as IR radiation - heat) Less evapotranspiration: water evaporating from surfaces and transpiration from plants carries heat from surface into the atmosphere This cools off rural & suburban areas which have more vegetation

hydrogen fuel cell

Use hydrogen as a renewable, alternative fuel source to fossil fuels -H2 gas and O2 are the inputs used to generate electricity; H2O is given off as a waste product -H2 gas enters fuel cell where it's split into protons (H+) and electrons (e-) by an electrolyte membrane that only lets protons pass through -Electrons take an alternative route (circuit) around the membrane, which generates an electrical current -O2 molecules enter fuel cell break apart into individual O atoms and combine with two hydrogens (H+) to form H2O as a by product (only emissions from F fuel cells) -Replaces gasoline (non-renewable, GHG releasing & air polluting) with H fuel (no air pollutants released & only H2O vapor) Key challenge to H fuel cells is obtaining pure H gas (b/c it doesn't exist by itself as a gas naturally). Separating H2 gas from other molecules like H2O or CH4 is very energy intensive. 2 methods: Steam Reforming: burning natural gas (CH4) & using steam to separate the H gas from the methane (CH4) (emits CO2 & requires NG (FF) input) Electrolysis: electrical current is applied to water, breaking it into O2 and H2 (no co2 emitted) Pros -Because H2 gas can be stored in pressurized tanks, it can be transported for use creating electricity later, in a different location -Can be stored as liquid or gas, making it easy to transport -H fuel cells are ~80% efficient in converting chemical energy in H2 & O2 into electricity (Coal powerplant = 35% efficient) Cons -Since 95% of H2 production requires methane (CH4), H fuel cells are based on a non-renewable & CO2 releasing energy source -H fuel stored in gas form in vehicles would require much larger tanks than current gasoline tanks

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Benefits: -Reduces death & mutation of non-target species -Reduces effects on human consumers cuz less toxic pesticides -Reduces contamination of surface & ground water by agricultural runoff with pesticides Cons: Can be more time consuming & costly than just crop dusting pesticides

Using a variety of pest control methods that minimize env. disruption and pesticide use Biocontrol: introducing a natural predator, parasite, or competitor to control the pest population Crop Rotation: rotating crops (planting a different crop each season) can prevent pests from becoming established since it disrupts their preferred food choice. Also disrupts weed growth since diff. crops can be planted at different times, preventing bare soil from being taken over by weeds Intercropping: "push" plants emit volatile chemicals that naturally repel pests away from crop. Pull" plants emit chemicals that attract moths to lay eggs in them, instead of crop

reduce air pollution

Vapor recovery nozzle on cars: -Capture hydrocarbon VOCs released from gasoline fumes during refueling -Separate tube inside nozzle captures vapors & returns them to underground storage tank beneath the gas station -Reduces VOCs, which contribute to smog & irritate resp. tracts -Also reduces benzene (carcinogen) released from gasoline vapors Catalytic convertor: -Required on all vehicles after 1975 -Contains metals (platinum & palladium) that bind to NOx and CO -it converts NOx, CO, and other hydrocarbons into CO2, N2, O2, and H2O Crushed limestone: -Used to reduce SO2 from coal power plants -Crushed coal mixed with limestone (calcium carbonate) before being burned in boiler -Calcium carbonate in limestone combines with SO2 to produce calcium sulfate, reducing the SO2 being emitted -Calcium sulfate can be used to make gypsum wallboard or sheetrock for home foundations Fluidized Bed Combustion (NOx): -Jets of air bring more O2 into reaction, making combustion more efficient and bringing SO2 into more contact with calcium carbonate in limestone -Also allows coal to be combusted at lower temp, which emits less NOx

largest tar sands deposit

Venezuela, Canada

largest oil reserves

Venezuela, Saudi Arabia, Canada

Potable Water

Water that is suitable for consumption(Drinking Water)

waterlogging

When underground water rises to surface level as the result of over-irrigation -Overwatering can saturate the soil, filling all soil pore space with water -Doesn't allow air into pores, so roots can't take in O2 they need -can stunt growth or kill crops Solution: drip irrigation, or soil aeration - poking holes or cores in soil to allow air in & water to drain through soil

examples of asbestos

White asbestos/Chrysotile- most common and is 95% of asbestos now, can be found in the roofs, ceilings, walls and floors. also used in automobile brake linings, gaskets and boiler seals, and insulation for pipes, ducts, and appliances. Blue asbestos/Crocidolite-was commonly used to insulate steam engines. It was also used in some spray-on coatings, pipe insulation, plastics and cement products.

Impact of climate change on Atmospheric Currents

Widening & weakening of hadley cell: as temp. diff. between equator and poles decreases, air ascending and expanding from equator travels further before sinking. This shifts subtropical zones (dry, desert biomes) toward the poles and expands the tropics Weakened, destabilized Jet Stream: as arctic warms faster than other areas of earth, temp. difference between equator & poles weakens Because temperature & pressure diff. between polar & subtropical regions is what drives the polar jet stream, less diff. between them means weaker, wobblier jet stream Leads to extreme cold spells in eastern US & dry spells in western US

first national park

Yellowstone

gasohol

a blend of 90% gasoline and 10% alcohol, used to help extend gasoline supples

restoration ecology

a branch of ecology that involves the restoring of degraded or altered ecosystems back to their natural state

threatened species

a category given to some organisms when their populations are declining - species may be numerous in some areas but have low numbers over their entire range

insecticide

a chemical that is used to kill insects

herbicide

a chemical that kills or inhibits growth of plants

DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)

a chlorinated hydrocarbon, pesticide, now banned in the US, but still used in other countries; very persistent, or long lasting, in the environment

humus

a dark brown or black, soft, spongy residue of organic matter, found at the surface of soils; forms due to the decay of leaves or other organic materials

chlorination

a disinfection process by which chlorine is added to drinking water or sewage effluent to kill bacteria

balanced herbivory

a diversified plant community held in balance by various herbivores specific to each plant species

terracing

a farming technique used on a hillside, by cutting flat "platforms" of soil into a steep slope to prevent or slow erosion

Predator-Prey relationship/ Predation

a feeding relationship between animals, where one feeds on another. one organism using another as its' energy source

biogas

a fuel that contains about two-thirds methane, one-third carbon dioxide, and small amounts of compounds from anaerobic (without air) digestion; has a very strong odor

carbon dioxide (CO2)

a gas found in small quantities in the atmosphere, and released by organisms during respiration, aerobic decomposition (decomposition of organic matter by bacteria & decomposers in the presence of oxygen → releases CO2), internal combustion, and volcanoes; principle greenhouse gas

seismograph

a graphic representation of S and P waves that travel through the earth due to geological activity such as from earthquakes

biome

a group of ecosystems/area that share a combination of average yearly temperature and climatic conditions. the community of organisms in a biome are uniquely adapted to live in that biome examples include temperature deciduous forests, arctic tundra, deserts, grasslands, tiaga, and tropical rain forests tundra- frozen soil doesn't allow nutrients in dead organisms to be broken down by decomposers, so there's low soil nutrients, low water availability, few plants that survive. boreal forest- nutrient poor soil cuz low temp and low decomposition rate of dead organic matter. tropical rainforest- nutrient poor soil cuz high competition from so many plant species. temperate forest- nutrient rich soil cuz lots of dead organic matter and warm temp good for decomposition.

legumes

a groups of land plants that have the ability to fix nitrogen; examples include peas, beans, alfalfa and clovers

ozone hole

a large area over the Antarctic where stratospheric ozone air is severely depleted of its normal levels; the possible cause is CFCs

bedload

a load of coarse sediment, mostly coarse silt and sand, that moves along a riverbed (bottom) due to the flowing water, in contrast to being carried in suspension

la nina bring cooler, drier conditions to south america

a major climatic phenomenon characterized by intense easterly trade winds in the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean; results in extensive disruption of weather around the world Effects of la nina: Stronger upwelling & better fisheries in SA than normal Worse tornado activity in US & Hurricane activity in Atlantic Cooler, drier weather in Americas Rannier, warmer, increased monsoons in SE Asia

species evenness

a measure of how all of the individual organisms in an ecosystem are balanced between the different species Evenness indicates if there are one or two dominant species, or if pop. sizes are well balanced

heavy metal

a metal with a high atomic weight, such as lead, mercury, cadmium, and zinc; considered to be very serious water and soil pollutants

slash-and-burn agriculture

a method of clearing land, usually done in the tropics, where trees and shrubs are cut and burned for the purposes of agriculture -Releases CO2, CO, N2O - all GHGs that lead to global warming -Lowers albedo, making area warmer -Increases Particulates in air (asthma)

quadrant sampling

a method of studying an ecosystem, where a representative, or group of representative square sections are selected; this is done when it is impossible to study an entire ecoyststem "inch by inch"

septic system

a method of treating sewage, usually where municipal sewage is not available, where sewage is treated on site in a septic tank and drain field

strip mining

a mining technique where all the soil and earth far below the ground surface is removed. Coal and phosphate mining typically uses this technique - it is very destructive to land

ozone

a natural atmospheric gas formed by three oxygen molecules found in the stratosphere, that shields the earth from damaging electromagnetic radiation Main way to reduce anthropogenic O3 depletion is phasing out & replacing CFCs Natural ozone depletion: -Antarctica spring melt forms polar stratospheric clouds (PSC) -In presence of PSCs, chlorine nitrate (ClONO2) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) react & give off Cl2 -Cl2 is photolyzed (broken by sun) into 2 free Cl atoms - Cl break O3 down into O2 over and over

methane CH4

a natural gas, CH4, that is produced through the decomposition of organic material by bacteria & decomposers in low or oxygen-free conditions

hydrocarbon

a natural or synthetic organic substance that is made up mostly of carbon and hydrogen; examples include carbohydrates, fats, crude oil, and coal; release of these through the burning of fossil fuels is a major cause of air pollution

radon

a natural radioactive gas produced by the decay of rock material; this has been of major concern because it may seep into buildings and cause cancer to occupants

exotic species

a nonnative species introduced to an area; may experience exponential growth due to a lack of natural predators and take over valuable native species

breeder reactor

a nuclear reaction, in a specialized reactor, that converts nonfissionable uranium-238 into fissionable plutonium-239, which in turn can be used as fuel; in other words, it can make its own fuel while still producing power

upwelling

a phenomena that occurs in the oceans where diverging currents and off shore winds blow warm surface water away from a land mass, drawing up colder, deeper water to replace it Brings O2 & nutrients to surface → productive fishing

assimilation

a process in living systems where nutrients are converted into organic molecules, such as proteins. plants and animals taking nitrogen in and incorporating it into their body

nitrification

a process in the nitrogen cycle where ammonium is converted into nitrite and then nitrate(the form of nitrogen that plants uptake) by soil bacteria

ammonification

a process in the nitrogen cycle where soil bacteria, microbes, and decomposers convert organic waste to ammonia and return it to soil

denitrification

a process in the nitrogen cycle, where soil bacteria or cyanobacteria convert different forms of soil nitrogen into atmospheric nitrogen N2, which returns to the atmosphere

aquaculture

a process of aquatic farming or raising aquatic species in cages/enclosures underwater Pros: Reduces risk of Fishery collapse and Doesn't take up any land space (compared to beef, pork, chicken) Cons: High density produces high concentration of waste (e. coli & eutrophication risks), High density increases disease risk, which can be transmitted to wild populations as well, may introduce non-native species or GMOs to local ecosystem if captive fish escape, fish are fed antibiotics which can contaminate water via their waste

incineration

a process of burning minucipal soild wastes, MSW, to reduce the amount of waste going into a sanitary landfill; the heat produced in the process can be used as an energy source, but may produce toxic wastes to the air, if not controlled

combined-cycle natural gas unit

a process of generating electricity using a natural gas turbine and a steam turbine; excess heat produced while running the gas turbine is used to run the steam turbine

deep-well injection

a process that puts chemical wastes into deep human made wells, into at dry stata layer; the practice is somewhat controversial

biological nutrient removal

a process used in sewage treatment that removes nitrogen and phosporus from the effluent or final process before release to the environment

agenda 21

a program designed to promote sustainable development; the result of the Earth summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1992, and is supported by the United Nations General Assembly

algal bloom

a rapid development of plantonic algae, causing water clarity to decrease; usually result from additions of nutrients to aquatic ecosystems

commensalism

a relationship between two organisms in which one benefits and the other does not, but is not harmed

mutualism

a relationship between two organisms of different species in which both organisms benefit from the relationship

R strategist

a reproduction approach where an organism has many offspring born at one time and these offspring are not cared for; this is typical of reptiles and insects

K strategist

a reprodution approach where an organism has few offspring that are born at one time, and then the young are carefully cared for; typical of mammals and birds

oil shale

a sedimentary rock containing kerogen that can be mined and refined into oil

oil sand

a sedimentary tar-like hydrocarbon containing bitumen that can be mined and used as fuel when heated, then refined as crude oil

food chain

a simplified view of the transfer of energy and material from one organism to another; one linear path of energy and matter; never very long due to the tremendous energy lost at each step

limiting factor

a single factor that an organism must have for survival, regardless of how much of the other resources are present; ex. oxygen

landfill

a site where wastes (municipal, industrial, or chemical) are disposed of and sealed in large under or above ground cells Clay/plastic bottom liner: layer of clay/plastic on the bottom of a hole in the ground; prevents* pollutants from leaking out into soil/groundwater Leachate Collection System: System of tubes/pipes at bottom to collect leachate (water draining through waste & carrying pollutants) for treatment & disposal Methane Recovery System: System of tubes/pipes to collect that methane produced by anaerobic decomposition in the landfill. Methane can be used to generate electricity or heat buildings Clay Cap: Clay-soil mixture used to cover the landfill once it's full; keeps out animals, keeps in smell, and allows vegetation to regrow Issue: -Groundwater can be contaminated with heavy metals (lead, mercury), acids, medications, and bacteria if leachate leaks through lining into soil/groundwater beneath -Greenhouse gases (CO2 and CH4 - methane) are released from landfills due to decomposition

loam

a soil consisting of a mixture of about 40% sand, 40% silt, and 20% clay; considered the best soil for agriculture

subsoil

a soil layer that is just below the topsoil that has little to no humus or other organic material

specialization

a species that is adapted to take advantage of only one particular resource. These species are practically vulnerable to changes in an ecosystem

indicator species

a species that, if present in an ecoststem, confirms a particular abiotic or biotic condition, such as soil pH or the presence of a pollutant

endangered species become endangered cuz poaching, invasive species, special food and habitat needs, habitat destruction, climate change (Changes in temp/precip. can occur too rapidly for some species to migrate or adapt) -Prevent by Designating areas with important habitats as: National parks, Wildlife preserves, Animal sanctuaries -Prevent hunting, development, fragmentation, deforestation -Allows species to breed and reestablish population size -create new legislations and hire ppl to monitor populations and prevent poaching

a species where the population is declining, and may be in danger of extinction without positive human intervention; organisms that are most affected include those that are specialists (have very specific habitat needs), live on islands and who require a large home range (area required to feed, reproduce, etc.)

eutrophic

a stage in the ecological succession of a lake, where nutrient-rich water provides abundant growth of algae and/or other aquatic plants; sometomes called a middle-aged lake

catalyst

a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being involved, or changed by the reaction; examples include enzymes in organisms, and substances used in catalytic converters

second generation pesticide

a synthetic (human made) pesticide

halogenerated hydrocarbon

a synthetic organic compound that has one or more atoms of the halogen family, such as chlorine, fluorine, and bromine

infrastructure

a system of roads, bridges, sewer and water systems, power plants, etc. in a community, state, etc.

reuse

a system of using old items to produce new ones, in contrast to throwing them away, otherwise known as recycling

transect sampling method

a technique of studying an ecosystem where all organisms are cataloged several feet on either side along a straight line - gives the researcher a good sampling of the ecosystem because it is usually impossible (or too time consuming) to study an entire area

fecal coliform tests

a test for the presence of the bacteria Escherichia coli, typically found in the gut of humans and other mammals; usually used to determine the contamination of a body of water

industrial revolution

a time in history, the 19th century, where factories used FFs and produced large amounts of products

ecotone

a transitional zone between two ecosystems

turbogenerator

a turbine that drives an electric generator. Driven by steam, gas, or water, it produces electricity

hormonally active agents (HAAs)

a type of POP, chemicals in the environment able to cause reproductive and developmental abnormalities in animals, including humans

turbine

a type of paddle wheel that rotates at high speeds, usually in a magnetic field to produce electricity

sievert

a unit of measurement that measures the amount of penetration radioactive emissions have on biological tissues

cooling tower

a very large tower designed to get rid of thermal wastes from a power plant, or other industrial process, into the atmosphere. allows steam from turbine to condense back into liquid and cool down before being reused (this gives off H2O vapor)

trickling filter system

a wastewater treatment method where sewage trickles over porous rocks, allowing microorganisms to break down the organic material

riparian woodlands

a wooded area that grows along rivers or lakes

brownfields

abandoned, industrial sites that are contaminated to the point that new development is curtailed

microclimate

abiotic conditions of particular location in an ecosystem that may include a shaded area, a pond, etc.

passive solar heating systems

absorbing or blocking heat from the sun, w/out use of mechanical/electrical equip. uses convection currents instead of pumps or other mechanical means to transfer heated air or water Ex: double paned windows, southern facing windows w/roof overhang, deciduous shade trees, skylight to decrease elect. use, dark colored sunlight abs. floor

cultural eutrophication

accelerating a lake's natural aging process by adding human related substances, such as fertilizer

NIMBY

acronym for "not in my backyard"; refers to a common attitude regarding undesirable facilities such as incinerators, nuclear facilities, and hazardous waste treatment plants, etc.

crepuscular

active at dusk and dawn

ambient standards

air quality standards (set by the EPA) stating that the outside average air should always maintain a certain level of purity; regulate levels of pollution that should not be exceeded to maintain environmental and human health

ultraviolet radiation

aka UV radiation, it comes from the sun and has a smaller wavelength than visible light and causes damage to living tissue

ecosystem

all living and nonliving things in an area. includes all of the plants, animals, rocks, soil, water, and air, interacting with each other and with their environment

Plant community

all living organisms in an area

chlorinated hydrocarbons

also called organochlorides; these are synthetic organic molecules in which one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by chlorine atoms; these compounds are extremely hazardous because they are usually nonbiodegradeable and tend to biomagnify; some are also carcinogenic, causing cancer

law of limiting factors

also known as Liebig's Law of Minimums; an ecosystem can be limited by the absence or minimum amount of any one vital factor

epiphytes

also known as air plants because they receive some of their nutrients for the ait; usually tropical plants; grow on trees but are not parasitic; ex. spanish moss, pineapple, and bromeliads

nutrient cycle

also known as biogeochemical cycle, it represents the pathway of nutrients in an ecosystem through the soil, air, water, and organisms; the major cycles are represented by the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, and the phosphorus cycle

secondary treatment

also known as biological treatment, it is the third major step in the sewage treatment process; using a trickling filter, or activated-sludge process, bacteria break down the organic waste; aerobic process that requires O

primary consumer

also known as herbivore and occupies the second trophic level, and more or less feeds exclusively on green plants or their products

synthetic fuels

also known as synfuels; fuels produced from natural gas, coal, oil, oil shale, or tar sands

bottle law

also known as the bottle bill, this law gives cash back for the return of containers, usually bottles; not all states have this, and the amount of cash received varies from state to state

first law of thermodynamics

also known as the law of conservation of energy; states that energy is never created or destroyed, but only converted from one form to another, such as light to heat

common pool resources

also referred to as commons; natural resources owned by many people, such as a state park or federal rangeland; also refers to resources no one owns like the ocean or the atmosphere

evapotranspiration

amount of H2O that enters atmosphere from the combination of evaporation(process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas or vapor) and transpiration (process plants use to draw groundwater from roots up to their leaves). both processes are driven by energy from the sun

NIMTOO

an acronym for "not in my term of office"

OPEC

an acronym for the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

no-till agriculture

an agriculture process where weeds are killed, usually with chemicals, without tilling the land to reduce erosion. Leaving leftover crop remains in soil instead of tilling under, which adds org. matter to soil

sulfur dioxide

an air pollutant that usually comes from the burning of coal for the production of energy

territoriality

an animal behavioral characteristic where animals mark and defend a particular area, the size of which differs from animal to animal

omnivore

an animal that consumes other animals

euphotic zone

an area in aquatic ecosystems where there is enough light penetration to support photosynthesis

watershed

an area of land that drains or "sheds" water into a specific waterbody. Determined by slope; ridges of land divide watersheds (diff. runoff directions) Vegetation, soil composition, slope play a large role in how watersheds drain: More vegetation = more infiltration & groundwater recharge (rain water percolating down through soil into aquifer) Greater slope = faster velocity of runoff & more soil erosion Soil permeability determines runoff vs. infiltration rates Human activities of a watershed impact H2O quality Ex: agriculture, clearcutting, urbanization, dams, mining Remediate by adding cover crops, riparian buffers, upgrading septic tanks

rain shadows

an area of low rainfall due to its position on the leeward (downwind) side of mountain ranges; the height of the mountain range prevents precipitation from falling on the leeward side Warm, moist air from ocean hits the "windward" side of the mountain, rises, cools (condensing H2O vapor & causing rain) → lush, green vegetation Dry air descends down "leeward" side of mtn, warming as it sinks; Leads to arid (dry) desert conditions Ex: Windward (E) side of Andes receives heavy rainfall Leeward (W) side of Andes receives arid (dry) air

seep

an area where groundwater comes to the surface of the soil, or cracks in rock, from many different places and/or over a large area

hadley cell

an atmospheric system of vertical and horizontal moving air circulation predominantly in the tropics, producing the major weather patterns on the earth

adaptation

an ecological or evolutionary adjustment to environmental changes, that may produce physical or structural changes in an organism, allowing it to cope better with the new conditions; ex. fur color that allows an animal to blend in with ecosystem

intrinsic value

an idea that things are valuable, without dollar value, just for their own being

radioisotope

an isoptope of an element that is unstable and may tend to gain stability by giving off radioactive emissions

autotroph

an organism that can produce its own food from raw materials, using light, photosynthesizers or inorganic chemicals, chemosynthesizers; examples include green plants, algae, and some forms of bacteria

heterotroph

an organism that cannot manufacture its own food, and therefore depends on other organisms for its nutrition

secondary consumers aka carnivores &omnivores

an organism that feeds on herbivores or primary consumers, and is on the 3rd trophic level in an ecosystem

carnivore

an organism that feeds on other anims; examples include lions, wolves, sharks, etc.

herbivore or primary consumer

an organism that feeds on plant material

keystone species

an organism that is absolutely necessary for the survival of many other species

parasite

an organism that uses a host organism for energy, often without killing the host and often by living inside the host

resilience

an organism's ability to repopulate an area after a catastrophe. ecosystem resilience: the ability of an ecosystem to return to its original conditions after a major disturbance Higher species diversity = higher ecosystem resilience

special interest group

an organized group of people who lobby government for a particular issue, or concern

benefit-cost analysis

analysis and/or comparison of the value of benefits received from a certain project or action in contrast to the costs

tertiary consumer aka top/apex predator

animals that eat secondary consumers or carnivores & omnivores

nonpersistent

any chemical that will quickly break down into harmless compounds

solid waste

any discarded materials that are not flushed down toilets or sinks

hazardous materials (HAZMAT)

any material that is either ignitable, corrosive, reactive, or toxic

birth control

any means, natural or artificial, that may be used to reduce the number of live births

microbe

any microscopic organism, such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoan

consumers

any organism in an ecosystem that does not make its own food; includes all organims other than autotrophs and chemotrophs

indicator organism

any organism that can determine or indicate a certain environmental condition, such as trout living and breeding in a mountain stream, indicates a good supply of dissolved oxygen

aerosols

any small (microscopic) liquid or solid particle coming from land or water surfaces that are carried into the atmosphere

wetlands

areas that are wet for at least most of the year, and are a natural control to flooding, and home to numerous organisms, shallow enough for emergent plants, they recharge groundwater by absorbing rainfall into soil, filter pollutants from water draining through, pollinator habitats, nutrient cycling, pest control Threats: overfishing, land development, pollutants like motor oil or too many nutrients like N and P

Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

avg. number of children a woman in a population will bear throughout her lifetime Higher TFR = higher birth rate, higher pop. growth rate (generally) Lower IMR = lower TFR More developed/wealthy nations have a lower TFR than less developed nations cuz...... More educational access for women More economic opportunity for women Higher access to family planning education & contraceptives Later age of first pregnancy Less need for children to provide income through agricultural labor Gov policy can play a huge role in fertility by coercive (forceful) or noncoercive (encouraging) policies like..... Forced or voluntary sterilization China's 1 (now 2) child policy Tax incentives to have fewer children Microcredits to women without children to start businesses

examples of infectious agents

bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites; H1N1 flu

waterpump

brings in cool water to be turned into steam and also cools reactor down from overheating

organic compounds

carbon compounds produced naturally by living organisms or synthetically by industrial processes (ex. carbs, lipids, proteins, fructose, glucose, sucrose, methane, ethanol)

mutagenic

causing mutations, genetic disformities, and cancer

crop rotation

changing the variety of crops grown every year or two; many times this is done to enrich the soil by planting legumes that enrich the nitrogen in the soil

persistent organic pollutants (POPs)

chemical carbon (chlorine) compounds that persist in the environment and retain biological activity for a long time (decade or hundreds of years). persistent toxicants that bioaccumulate in organisms and travel by wind, water, and sediment to contaminate sites far from their source. don't break down easily, carbon based molecular structure, most are synthetic/manufactured by people, they're soluble in fat and likely to accumulate in living tissue Ex: -DDT (outdated insecticide) -PCBs (plastic/paint additive) -BPA (plastic additive) -Dioxins (byproduct of fertilizer production & combustion of waste and biomass) -Phthalates (Plastics) -Steroids, reproductive hormones, antibiotics

broad-spectrum pesticide

chemical pesticides that kill many different kinds of pests, both the target pests and the nontarget pests (beneficial) ones

direct exchange

co2 moves directly between atmosphere and ocean by dissolving into and out of the ocean water at the surface, it increases ocean co2 amounts leading to ocean acidification (CO2 combines with ocean water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3) Then carbonic acid dissociates into Bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) and H+ ion) Anthropogenic causes for ocean acidification: fossil fuel combustion (CO2), deforestation (CO2), and coal/gas combustion (NOx/SOx → acid precip.) -Marine org. that make shells use calcium (Ca+) and carbonate (CO32-) ions to build their calcium carbonate shells (calcification) -CO2 increase & ocean acidification makes carbonate ions less available -Marine shells breakdown as pH decreases and carbonate ions are less soluble in ocean water -Fewer carbonate ions = less calcification; weaker shells of coral, mollusks, and urchins

highest carbon dioxide emission

coal

cost-benefit analysis

comparing of the value benefits of an action or project in to the costs

temporal partitioning

competing species use the same resource but at different times

interspecific competition

competition between members of different species

compaction

compression of soil by machines (tractors, bulldozers, etc.), grazing livestock, and humans reduces ability to hold moisture -Dry soil erodes more easily -Dry soil supports less plant growth, less root structure, leading to more erosion

acid precipitation aka acid rain Acidity = higher H+ ion concentration, lower pH Soil/Water Acidification -H+ ions displace or leech other positive charged nutrients (Ca2+, K+) from soil -H+ ions also make toxic metals like aluminum and mercury more soluble in soil and water -This can slow growth or kill plants and animals living in the soil or water pH Tolerance: -as pH decreases (more acidic) outside optimal range for a species, pop. declines -when pH leaves range of tolerance, they cannot survive at all, due to: -Aluminum toxicity -Disrupted blood osmolarity (Na+/Cl- balance disrupted at low pH) Indicator species can be surveyed and used to determine conditions of an ecosystem (soil, water, etc.) Ex: high whitemoss/filamentous algae pop. indicates pH < 6.0

condensed or frozen water vapor that includes acid rain, acid fog, and acid snow; usually, any pH below 5.5 could be considered acid precipitation; anthropogenic (human made) and usually comes from the release of excessive or pollutants NOx and SO2 are the primary pollutants that cause it. SO2 - coal fired power plants, metal factories, vehicles that burn diesel fuel NOx - vehicle emissions, diesel generators coal power plants How to decrease it -Higher CAFE Standards -More public transit -Renewable energy sources -More efficient electricity use -Limestone (calcium carbonate) is a natural base that can neutralize acidic soil/water -Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) reacts with H+ ions, forming HCO3 and giving off Ca2+. This "neutralizes" acidic water/soil, moving it closer to a pH of 7 -Humans can also add crushed limestone to soils/waters to neutralize NOx and SO2 react with O2 and H2O in the atmosphere, forming nitric and sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid and nitric acid dissociate in the presence of water into sulfate and nitrate ions, and hydrogen ions (H+). Acidic rain water (higher H+ conc.) decreases soil and water pH; can limit tree growth in forests down wind from major SO2 & NOx sources

adiabatic warming

cool air descends into higher pressure; descending air removes moisture frm air, such as over deserts

adiabatic cooling

cooling that occurs when warm air, such as in the tropics, rises and bumps into lower atmospheric pressure

most eaten grain

corn, rice, wheat

developing countries

countries such as Latin America, Africa, and most of Asia, in which the gross domestic product is less than $7000 per capita

asbestos fibers

crystals of asbestos, that form minute strands; known to cause cancer

clearcutting

cutting of all trees in an area, leaving NOTHING standing; this may lead to severe soil erosion caused by loss of stabilizing root structure; Also removes soil organic matter & nutrients from forest, Deposits sediments in local streams, Warms water & makes it more turbid (cloudy) The loss of the shade provided by the trees also allows more sunlight to reach the soil and the stream, which increases the temperature of both the soil and water. An increase in the occurrence of flooding and landslides or mudslides. Logging machinery compacts the soil, and increased sunlight dries it out, and these facts combined with the loss of root structure, and organic matter in the topsoil decreases the soil's ability to hold water. So when it rains, the soil holds less water, and produces more runoff, which can flood nearby areas. It can even cause landslides which destroy animal habitats and human structures

detritus

dead organic matter, such as plant and animal wastes, leaves, etc. in an ecosystem

greenhouse effect

describes the mechanism of global warming, due to gases in earth's atmosphere trapping heat from the sun & radiating it back down to earth, such as carbon dioxide, which forms a blanket around the planet Pro: maintains earth temp, blocks harmful solar radiation Con: reduces rate of photosynthesis

flow

determines which plants and organisms can survive, how much O2 can dissolve in water. warmer water holds less dissolved O2 so it can support fewer aquatic organisms

resource partitioning

different species using the same resource in different ways to reduce competition: when one or more species compete for a resource, and due to this competition, the species will move or separate to different habitats

extraction and combustion

digging up or mining FFs and burning them as an energy source Combustion is a reaction between Oxygen & fossil fuels (hydrocarbons) that releases energy as heat and produces CO2 & H2O as products Methane (natural gas), gasoline, propane, butane, coal are all fossil fuels (hydrocarbons) that release energy in the same way Wood and biomass work the same, carbon is burned & reacts with O2 to form CO2 & give off energy

examples of particulates

dirt, soot, lead, asbestos, salt, sulfuric acid

environmentally transmitted infectious disease

diseases that can be controlled by manipulating the environment or treating water(sanitation) are classified as environmental health concerns; greatest mortality in developing countries is caused by these types of diseases; waterborne illness and food poisoning can be spread by people, mosquitoes/fleas, contact with contaminated food/water/soil, ventilation systems in buildings.

soil horizons

distinct layers in soil that contain different properties O Horizon: layer of organic matter (plant roots, dead leaves, animal waste, etc) on top of soil Provides nutrients and limits H2O loss to evaporation A Horizon: aka topsoil; layer of humus (decomposed organic matter) and minerals from parent material A-Horizon has most biological activity (earthworms, soil microbes) breaking down organic matter to release nutrients tiling (turning soil for ag.) + loss of vegetation disturb soil and make it more easily eroded by wind and rain Loss of top soil dries out soil, removes nutrients + soil organisms that recycle nutrients B Horizon: aka subsoil; lighter layer below topsoil, mostly made of minerals w/little to no organic matter Contains some nutrients C Horizon: aka bedrock; least weathered soil that is closest to the parent material R Horizon: parent material

fire climax ecosystems

ecosystems that are dependent on the fire for their reproduction and regeneration

examples of electromagnetic fields

electric motors, transmission lines, appliances, computers, electric blankets, phones; kids are more at risk

renewable resources

energy resources that can be renewed or replenished naturally, at or near rate of consumption, & reused Depletable renewables can run out if overused Ex: Biomass (wood, charcoal, ethanol) Nondepletable renewables do not run out if overused Ex: Solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal

fossil fuels

energy sources that come from millions of years of heat and pressure acting upon prehistoric photosynthetic organic matter; ex. crude oil, coal(from dead ferns), and natural gas The #1 source of electricity production globally is coal, followed by natural gas These steps of electricity gen. are the same, no matter what you're burning to produce the initial heat Heat →Water into Steam → Steam turns a turbine → Turbine powers generator → Generator produces electricity

nuclear energy

energy that uses a nuclear reactor and nuclear fuel, usually uranium, as a source to run a steam turbogenerator. Uranium fission releases heat to turn water into steam to turn a turbine to generate electricity Same electricity generation process as with FFs, just uranium fission to heat water into steam Heat →Water into Steam → Steam turns a turbine → Turbine powers generator → Generator produces electricity -No air pollutants (PM, SOx/NOx) or CO2/CH4 released when electricity is generated -mining of uranium & plant construction still release GHGs -drawbacks include possibility of meltdown & radioactive contamination -Spent Fuel Rods: used fuel rods remain radioactive for millions of years & need to be stored in lead containers on site @ Nuclear Power plants -Mine tailings: leftover rock & soil from mining may have radioactive elements that can contaminate water or soil nearby -Water use: nuclear PPs require lots of water and can deplete local surface or groundwater sources -Thermal Pollution: hot water from power plant released back into surface waters can cause thermal shock (decreased O2 & suffocation)

Ammonia volatilization

excess fertilizer use can lead to loss of NH3 gas from the soil surface, so it releases into the atmosphere which could lead to acid rain and respiratory irritation in humans

density-dependent factor

factors that influence pop. growth based on size. Ex: food, competition for habitat, water, light, disease Takes into account the density in an ecosystem's population, and is related to abiotic and biotic events, such as parasitism (because as a population increases, it's more prone to parasitism) All of these things limit pop. growth based on their size; aka - small pop. don't experience these, but large do

density-independent factor

factors that influence pop. growth independent of their size Ex: natural disasters (flood, hurricane, tornado, fire) It doesn't matter how big or small a pop. is, natural disasters limit them both Does not take into account the density of an ecosystem's population

primary sewage treatment

first step of sewage treatment; eliminates most particulate material from raw sewage using grates, screens, and gravity (settling).

lead lead (pb)

found in old paint (in homes), old water pipes, and soils contaminated by PM from vehicle exhaust before lead was phased out of gas in 70s Also released in fly ash (PM) of coal combustion -Neurotoxicant (damages central nervous system, especially in children) -Endocrine disruptor -Can be removed with water filters

highest albedo

fresh snow

greenhouse gases GHGs

gases such as carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, nitrous oxide, CFC's and other hydrocarbons that absorb infrared energy CO2 - FF comb, decomposition, deforestation Methane (CH4) - natural gas extraction & combustion, animal agriculture, anaerobic decomp. (especially permafrost thaw) Nitrous oxide (N2O) - agricultural soils (denitrification of nitrate, especially in overwatered, over fertilized soils) CFCs/HCFCs/HFCs - refrigerants, blowing agents in aerosol products Water vapor (H2O) - evaporation & transpiration from plants (doesn't drive atm. temp change)

age structure diagrams

graphic representation of the age distribution of a human population; if the base of the graph is narrow then the population is experiencing negative growth because this represents a large elderly population and small young population; if the base of the graph is wide then the population is growing, the wider the base, the more rapid the growth; uniform shape represents a zero population growth

largest cause of decline in biodiversity

habitat destruction

k species -"quality"

have few offspring, heavy parental care to protect them, usually reproduce many times Ex: most mammals, birds Long lifespan, long time to sexual maturity = low biotic potential = slow pop. growth rate More likely to be disrupted by env. change or invasives Low biotic potential (reproductive rate) = hard for pop. to recover after a disturbance High parental care means death of parent = death of offspring Invasives (usually r) outcompete for resources with high biotic potential & rapid pop. growth Less likely to adapt & more likely to go extinct

toxic heavy metals

heavy metals that pose health hazards to people and ecosystems. They are used in industry and are a byproduct of mining. They can be found naturally in soil or water. they can have direct physiological toxic effects. they can be stored permanently in living tissue. The quantity of heavy metals in our bodies is referred to as the body burden.

genetic diversity

how different the genes are of individuals within a population (group of the same species) The more genetic diversity in a pop. the better the population can respond to env. stressors like drought, disease, or famine

salinity

how much salt there is in a body of water, which determines which species can survive, and usability for drinking

synthetic fixation

human combust FFs to convert N2 gas into nitrates, which are used in fertilizers

castings

humus-rich pellets made as a result of earthworm activity

litter

in an ecosystem it regers to leaves, twigs, and other dead plant matter

hypoxia

in aquatic ecosystems, a condition where dissolved oxygen is greatly lowered, where life can no longer be supported

environment

includes all of the biotic and abiotic factors that can affect and organism

inorganic compounds

includes nonliving chemicals in air water, soil, etc.; also refers to compounds that do not contain carbon

developed countries

industrialized countries such as the United States, Canada, Western European nations, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand where the gross domestic product exceeds $7000 per capita

infectious agents (pathogens) A living organism (virus, bacteria, fungus, protist, worm) that causes an infectious disease

infectious diseases—spread by the interactions between individuals and by the food, water, air, soil, and animals we come in contact with—constitute some of the oldest health problems that people face; can be controlled by manipulating the environment

depth

influences how much sunlight can penetrate water and reach plants below the surface for photosynthesis

logistic growth

initial rapid growth, then limiting factors limit population to K

most core

iron Dense mass of solid nickel, iron, and radioactive elements that release massive amount of heat

most mantle

iron liquid layer of magma surrounding core, kept liquified by intense heat from core

organic food

is food that is produced without the use of synthetic fertilizers, synthetic pesticides, genetic engineering, etc.

over cultivation

is the farming practice that overuses the land by repeatedly growing crops faster than the soil can be regenerated; this practice may lead to desertification

overgrazing

is the grazing of livestock in greater numbers than the land can sustain, leading to destruction of the land and topsoil erosion. Animals also compact soil, decreasing H2O holding capacity, leading to more erosion Rotational grazing (moving animals periodically) can prevent overgrazing. Can even increase growth of grass by distributing manure (natural fertilizer) & clipping grass back to size where growth is most rapid

subsistence farming

is when farmers produce enough food to meet the needs of their family. It is common practice in developing countries and usually involves hand labor in contrast to machinery

temperature inversion aka thermal inversion

it is a weather phenomenon where a warm layer of air is on top of a cooler layer of air, trapping pollutants in the lower atmosphere, such as smog, close to the ground. -Due to a warm front moving in over it -Or due to hot urban surfaces cooling overnight while Infrared radiation absorbed during the day is still being released Effects: -Respiratory irritation: asthma flare ups leading to hospitalization, worsened COPD, emphysema -decreased photosynthetic rate -decreased tourism revenue

turbid

it's a determination of a waters transparency, that is, a measure of visibility

gyer

large circular ocean patterns due to global wind (clockwise in N hem, counterclockwise in S hem.)

green manure

leftover plant matter from a cover crop - a crop planted in the offseason, between harvest & replanting of main crop Cover crop roots stabilize soil, limiting topsoil erosion

survivorship curve

line that shows survival rate of a cohort (group of same-aged individuals) in a pop. from birth to death Faster drop in line = quicker die-off of individuals Slower drop in line = longer avg. lifespan

biofuels

liquid fuels (ethanol, biodiesel) created from refined biomass (corn, sugar cane, palm oil) -Corn & sugar cane are fermented into ethanol which is mixed w/ gasoline -Decreases oil consumption for transport, but is less efficient than pure gasoline -"renewable" only to the extent that the production of corn is sustainable (sugar cane is a perennial, and is more sustainable) Environmental consequences = all the neg. consequences of monocrop ag.... -Greatly decreases biodiversity (more prone to pests, fewer nat. predators) -Increases soil erosion (crops harvested all at once & soil left bare) -Decreases habitat diversity for species living in area

biotic

living or once living things

tar sands

mined material that contains bitumen, and that can be refined like crude oil when heated -Extracting & using oil from tar sands is extremely energy and water intensive -Lots of water needs to be heated (requiring energy) to create steam that's piped down into the tar sand to melt the bitumen(a thick, sticky, semi-solid form of petroleum) into a liquid that can flow up a pipe -Lots more water is used to separate the oil from all of the impurities (sand, clay) at the refinery Environmental consequences -Habitat destruction to clear land for: roads, drilling equipment, digging through ground surface to reach deposits (biodiv. loss) -Ground or nearby surface water depletion (H2O needed for steam & for washing impurities from bitumen at refinery) -Water contamination: tailing ponds (holes dug for storing wastewater) can overflow & run into nearby surface waters, or leach into groundwater -Benzene (carcinogen) salts, acids, hydrocarbons, bitumen that are all toxic to plant and animals -CO2 released by machinery during extraction, transport, refinement

sand

mineral particles 0.2 - 2.0 mm in diameter

wind turbines

modern "windmills" used for the purpose of generating electricity

thermohaline circulation

movement of ocean currents that connects all of the world's oceans, and mixes salt, nutrients, and temperature throughout all of them. Warm water from Gulf of Mexico moves toward North Pole, Cools & evaporates as it moves toward poles, Saltier & colder water @ poles, is more dense, making it sink, Spreads along ocean floor, Rises back up into shallow warm ocean current @ upwelling zones It has important impacts on the climates of different regions. For instance, the warm gulf stream provides a warming effect for Europe, keeping it much warmer than similar latitudes of North America like Canada.

externalities

negative costs associated with a human actions, that aren't accounted for in the price (unintended side-effects)

control rods

neutron-absorbing material that is inserted or removed to control the rate of nuclear fission, located in the core of a nuclear reactor. they absorb neutrons and slow down the reaction, preventing meltdown (explosion)

crude birth rate

number of birthes per 1000 individuals per year

Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)

number of deaths of children under age of 1, per 1000 babies born Higher in less developed countries due to lack of access to health care, clean water, enough food Higher IMR = higher Total Fertility Rate, due to families having replacement children Lower IMR = lower Total Fertility Rate

crude death rate

number of deaths per 1000 individuals per year

death rate

number of deaths per 1000 individuals per year

aeration

occurs in both soil and in the water; in soil it refers to the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide; necessary for roots to carry on cellular respiration; in water, it is the bubbling of air or oxygen through water to increase the dissolved oxygen

saltwater intrusion

occurs near coastal towns and is the result of over pumping or drawing groundwater down to the point where it can no longer hold back the saltwater, from the oceans or other brackish (semi salty) sources, lowers water table pressure, allowing saltwater to seep into groundwater

fragmentation

occurs when habitats are divided into a patch work of intact forest land and deforested lands

thermal pollution (aka heat pollution)

occurs when heat released into water or air produces undesirable effects. Heat pollution can occur as a sudden, acute disease or as a long term, chronic disease.

competitive exclusion principle

occurs when two species compete for the same resource; one will prevail and the other is excluded from the vicinity

water logging

occurs when water completely saturates soil. Some plant roots can tolerate water logging but many root systems can't, due to lack of oxygen and the growth of fungus, causing root rot and eventual death or weakening of the plant.

largest carbon sink

ocean; carbon sink is a carbon reservoir that stores more carbon than it releases(helps mitigate effects of climate change) algae doing photosynthesis and coral reefs help take CO2 out of the ocean

decomposers

organisms that break down or feed on organic material; most are fungi or bacteria, which recycle organic material

Parasitoids

organisms that lay eggs inside other organisms; eggs hatch and consume host from the inside out until it dies

producers

organisms, such as green plants, that use light energy, photosynthesis, to make their food (chemical energy or glucose)

burial

over long periods of time the pressure of water or overlying rock compresses carbon-containing sediments into sedimentary stone like limestone, which are long term carbon reservoirs

dissolved oxygen (DO)

oxygen that is dissolved in water; probably the most important single parameter in aquatic ecostsems since all aerobic organisms depend on it for their cellular respiration

ring of fire

pattern of volcanoes all around pacific plate Ex: Offshore island arcs (Japan)

PANs

peroxyacetylnitrates; compounds that are present in photochemical smog; these air pollutants are very harmful to plants and cause eyes, nose, and throat irritation to humans

abiotic

pertaining to the non-living factors in an ecosystem; examples include air, water, soil, humidity, pH, wind temperature speed, dissolved oxygen, salinity, etc.

climate

pertains to all historical data, temperature and rainfall, gathered over a long period of time. largely determined by insolation

biotechnology

pertains to genetic engineering (changing DNA sequences) of organisms; this has a practical application in that scientists are able to create new organisms that have more vigor, are more resistant to disease, have a bettr flavor, produce larger yields, and a host of other possibilities that make the product more valuable

aerobic respiration

pertains to organisms that require oxygen during the break down of organic molecules, the end result is carbon dioxide and water

tectonic plates

pertains to the individual blocks of rock found on the earth's crust. Movement of these blocks, or plates, causes most of the geological activity on the earth

grit chamber

pertains to the preliminary treatment phase in wastewater-treatment plants, where the velocity of flow is slowed down to a point where large materials can settle out

hard water

pertains to water that contains relatively high amounts of calcium carbonate

organic phosphate

phosphate bonded to any organic molecule

algae

photosynthetic microphytic (small) plants that live and reproduce entirely in aquatic environments; Planktonic forms, may be single or colonial; ex. spirogyra, volvox, desmids; some marine algae are very large (100 plus feet) and attached, such as kelp

respiration loss

plants use up some of the energy they generate via photosynthesis by doing cell respiration

thermal pollution

pollution caused when hot water, or heat, is added to water or air (usually from power plants), having the potential to lower dissolved oxygen and to cause algal blooms + heat increases respiration rate of aquatic organisms (thermal shock) Sources: -Power plants use cool water from surface/ground water sources nearby to cool steam used to turn a turbine back into water to reuse -Steel mills, paper mills, and other manufacturing plants that use cool water to cool down machinery & return warmed water to local surface waters -Urban stormwater runoff can also cause thermal pollution due to heat from blacktop/asphalt Remediate: Cooling towers/ponds can be optimized to cool steam back into water & to hold warmed water before returning to local surface water

examples of POPs

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)- heat-stable oils originally used as an insulator in electric transformers. through runoff on contaminated soil, they were deposited in ponds, lakes, or rivers, where they entered the food chain (biomagnification). ended up in fatty tissue and mothers milk. Aldrina - Insecticide Atrazineb - Herbicide DDTa - Insecticide Dieldrina - Insecticide Endrinc - Insecticide PCBsa - Liquid insulators in electrictransformers ***DIOXINS*** - By-product of herbicide production

Primary air pollutants

produced by humans & nature (CO, CO2, SO2, NO, hydrocarbons, particulates, VOCs) Emitted directly from sources such as vehicles, power plants, factories, or natural sources (volcanoes, forest fires)

Carbon monoxide CO

produced by incomplete combustion of basically any fuel; Not all the fuel is combusted due to low O2 or temp. Sources: motor vehicles, kerosene and gas space heaters, gas and wood stoves, fireplaces; smoking Effects: dizziness, headaches, nausea, death It's an asphyxiant: causes suffocation due to CO binding to hemoglobin in blood, displacing O2 Remediate: keep gas appliances properly adjusted

consumptive use

producing just enough resources to provide for the present needs; the opposite of overproducing

background radiation

radioactive radiation that comes from natural cources, not caused by human activity; exposure includes sunlight and radon

indoor air pollutants

radon(radioactive gas released by decay of uranium naturally found in rocks underground), cigarette smoke, carbon monoxides(produced by incomplete combustion of basically any fuel; Not all the fuel is combusted due to low O2 or temp), nitrogen dioxide (gas stoves), formaldehyde (carpeting, furniture), household pesticides, cleaning solvents, ozone (photocopiers), asbestos + organic pests in ventilation, lead paint(paint chips off walls and is eaten by small children or inhaled as dust) (Damages central nervous system of children due to smaller size and still developing brain) (Can be removed from home by stripping lead paint and replacing with non-lead based paint) Mold develops in areas that are dark and damp and aren't well ventilated (under sinks/showers, behind panels in walls and ceiling) Can be removed by physically cleaning mold out and fixing the water leak or ventilation issue that lead to mold forming

acid mine drainage

rainwater leaks into abandoned mine tunnels & mixes with pyrite, forming sulfuric acid. Rainwater carries sulfuric acid into nearby streams, or infiltrates ground water. It lowers the pH of water, making toxic metals like mercury & aluminum more soluble in water sources (killing aquatic org.)

primary productivity

rate at which solar energy is converted into organic compounds via photosynthesis over a unit of time. it's basically the rate of photosynthesis of all producers in an area over a given period. High PP = high plant growth = lots of food and shelter for animals = high biodiversity Units: kcal/m^2/yr energy/area/time

recycle

recovery of materials that would otherwise be buried in landfills or combusted, and refers to the reusing of the recovered products

host-specific

referring to organisms such as insects, or fungal diseases that can affect only one particular host

alkaline, alkalinity

refers to a chemical that has a pH above 7.0; absorb hydrogen ions and/or release hydroxyl ions

oligotrophic

refers to a lake that is unproductive and low in nutrients; it is characterized by low biodiversity, high dissolved oxygen, and usually refers to a new lake during the first stage of aquatic succession

biodegradable

refers to a substance that can be broken down to natural substances such as carbon dioxide nd water by biological organisms; decomposers typically break down these organic substances

optimal range

refers to an abiotic condition that will best support a particular kind of organism; this also refers to populations of organisms, thus the term optimum population

trophic level

refers to an ecosystem feeding level, such as autotrophs (green plants) are at the first trophic level, followed by primary consumers on the second level, secondary consumers on the third level, etc

acid deposition

refers to any kind of release of acid precipitation, over a particular area. Coal burning power plants contribute a lot to this

evolution

refers to change over time; the theory states that all species now on Earth descended gradually from ancestral species through a process known as natural selection The longer the lifespan of the organism, the slower the rate of evolution. (viruses= fast, humans=slow)

kinetic energy

refers to energy of motion

alternative energy

refers to energy sources that do not require FFs or nuclear power; ex. solar, wind, tidal, hydrogen

anthropogenic

refers to human activities such as pollution or habitat destruction that have impacted out planet

activated sludge

refers to material, typically found in the waste water treatment process, made up of a mass of living bacterial organisms feeding on waste material that has settled; recycled to the aeration tank of secondary wastewater treatment

resistance

refers to organisms that beceome immune to certain pesticides, antibodies or other treatment, that was supposed to kill them

fuel assembly

refers to rods containing nuclear fuel, usually uranium

sediment

refers to sand, silt, and clay particles that have settled or are being carried by rivers and streams

nonbiodegradable

refers to substances that can be either consumed or broken down by living things; examples include plastics, aluminum, nuclear wastes, and many types of chemicals

bioaccumulation

refers to the accumulation of inceasing higher and higher concentrations of potentially toxic chemicals in organisms through a food chain; substances that are ingested, nonbiodegradable, and stored in living tissue are passed along the food chain; also known as biomagnification

fission products

refers to the atoms, usually radioactive, and subatomic particles, resulting from the splitting of atoms in a nuclear reactor

biota

refers to the living or once living things in an ecosystem

aesthetics

refers to the natural beauty of something; could refer to a forest, mountain, ocean, or even a quiet place away from noise

biodiversity

refers to the variety of life; occurs at the genetic, species, and ecosystem levels

municipal solid waste

refers to trash that is thrown away, mostly paper, from communities

nonconsumptive water use

refers to water that is not consumed, like bathing water, dish water, etc.

sustainability

refers to whether a process can be continued indefinitely without depleting the energy or material resources on which it depends Indicators of sustainability: - Biodiversity; declining biodiv. can indicate pollution, habitat destruction, climate change - Global extinction rate = strong env. indicator since species extinction decreases species richness of earth - Food production Indicates ability of earth's soil, water, and climate to support ag. - increasing temperature and Increasing CO2 = unsustainable (Dries out arable (farmable) land, destroys habitats, worsense storm intensity) - Human pop. growing, which means resource depletion grows as well

trophic cascade

removal or addition of a top predator has a ripple effect down through lower trophic levels

nutrient depletion

repeatedly growing crops on the same soil removes key nutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sodium, Magnesium) over time and reduces ability to grow future crops

age structure

represents the proportions of people of different age groups; ex. it tracks certain groups such as, children, teenagers, young adults, middle-aged, and the elderly; Each similar age group is called a cohort Larger 0-14 cohort = current & future growth Roughly equal 0-14 & 15-44 = slight growth/stable Larger 15-44 = pop. decline Extreme Pyramid shape = rapid growth Less extreme pyramid = slow, stable growth House = stable, little to no growth Narrowest at base = declining pop.

nonrenewable resources

resources that cannot be easily regenerated or replaced because they take long periods of time to generate Fossil Fuels: fossilized remains of ancient biomass that take millions of years to form Oil ⇒ gasoline = main fuel for vehicles Coal = main fuel for electricity generation Natural gas = secondary fuel for electricity gen. & main fuel for heating Peat is partially decomposed organic matter (often ferns or other plants) found in wet, acidic ecosystems like bogs and moors; Can be dried and used as a biomass fuel source Nuclear: energy generated from uranium or other radioactive fuels, third largest energy source

examples of noise pollution urban noise pollution Construction: jack hammers, trucks, concrete pouring Transportation: cars, busses, trains Industrial activity: manufacturing plants Domestic activity: neighbor's music, lawn mowing, home projects

rustling of leaf- 10 faint whisper- 20 average home- 45 normal conversation- 65 chain saw- 80 jet plane- 100 rock music- 110 thunder- 120 rocket- 180 (depends on proximity)

monsoon

seasonal heavy rainfall

secondary sewage treatment

second step of sewage treatment; bacteria breakdown organic waste; aeration accelerates the process.

largest carbon reservoir

sedimentary rock

asbestos

several minerals that take the form of small, elongated particles, or fibers. can cause cancer when inhaled. Used to prevent fires, insulation, and protect from overheating. Not dangerous until insulation is disturbed and asbestos particles enter air & then resp. tract Can cause mesothelioma, a type of cancerous tumor primarily affecting the lining (epithelium) of the respiratory tract, heart, or abdominal cavity

first cloned mammal

sheep "Dolly"

Tragedy of the Commons

situation in which people acting individually and in their own interest use up commonly available but limited resources, creating disaster for the entire community Combat this by making land private instead of public, charging taxes and fees for using something, and setting limits

particulates

small solid and liquid particles of dust released into the atmosphere by many natural processes and human activities. -Sea salt, pollen, modern farming, the burning of oil and coal , dust storms, fires, and volcanic eruptions add considerable amounts of particulates to the atmosphere -Leads to haze (scattering of sunlight & reduced visibility) -a common indoor air poll PM10 -Particles or droplets like dust, pollen, ash, or mold -Too small to be filtered out by nose hairs and trachea cilia; can irritate respiratory tract & cause inflammation PM2.5 -Particles from combustion (especially vehicles) smaller dust particles -More likely to travel deep into the lungs due to smaller size -Associated with chronic bronchitis and increased risk of lung cancer Reducing PM: Electrostatic Precipitator: -power plant/factory emissions passed through device with a neg. charged electrode, giving particles a neg. charge -neg. charged particles stick to positive charged collection plates, trapping them -plates discharged occasionally so particles fall down into collection hopper for disposal in landfills Baghouse Filter: -large fabric bag filters that trap PM as air from combustion/industrial process passes through -shaker device knocks trapped particles loose into collection hopper below -PM collected & taken to landfill

Asthenosphere

solid, flexible outer layer of mantle, beneath the lithosphere, lithosphere floats on top of this layer

Point Source

source from specific location such as pipe or smokestack Ex: -Animal waste runoff from a CAFO (ammonia (N), fecal coliform bacteria) -Emissions from smokestack of a coal power plant (CO2, NOx, SO2, PM) -BP Oil Spill (hydrocarbons, benzene)

Non-point Source

source spread over an area such as agricultural/feedlot runoff, urban runoff, and traffic runoff. Ex: -Urban runoff (motor oil, nitrate fertilizer, road salt, sediment) -Pesticides sprayed on agricultural fields; carried by wind and washed off large agricultural regions ino bodies of water

Asbestos

source: fireproofing, insulation, vinyl floor and cement products; vehicle brake lining health effects: skin irritation, lung cancer remediate: reduce levels of construction dust

Lead(metal particulate)

sources: automobile exhaust effects: toxic, carcinogen remediate: clean your house regularly to remove dust and particles that may contain lead

Sulfur dioxide

sources: coal and oil combustion, kerosene space heaters, outside air effects: respiratory and mucous irritant remediate: use coal that contains less sulfur or "wash" the coal to remove some of the sulfur.

Formaldehyde

sources: foam insulation; plywood, particleboard, ceiling tile, paneling, and other construction materials effects: skin irritation, carcinogen remediate: use vented fuel-burning appliances

Biological aerosols/microorganisms

sources: infectious agents, bacteria in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems- allergens effects: diseases, weakened immunity remediate: make sure sewage systems work properly

Carbon dioxide

sources: motor vehicles, gas appliances, smoking, fossil fuels, animal agriculture, deforestation effects: dizziness, headaches, nausea remediate: drive less, don't eat red meat, recycle, shop sustainably

Mercury(metal particulate) Mercury itself isn't toxic, but bacteria in water sources convert it to methylmercury which is highly toxic to animals (neurotoxicant that damages central nervous system)

sources: old fungicides; fossil fuel combustion, trash incineration, burning medical waste effects: toxic, carcinogen remediate: pre-combustion coal cleaning, switching to non-coal fuel -Attaches to PM released by burning & deposits in soil/water wherever PM settles -Can be released if coal ash stored in ponds overflow & runoff Endocrine disruptor: inhibits estrogen & insulin (interferes with menstrual cycle & ovulation) Teratogen: (chemical harmful to developing fetuses) can accumulate in fetus brain Pregnant women can reduce risk by eating less seafood

Sulfates(inorganic particulate)

sources: outdoor air effects: irritation to your eyes, skin, mouth, and lungs, acne remediate: improved efficiency of conversion of fuel to electricity, shift fossil fuel plants to lower sulfur fuels

Nitrates(inorganic particulate)

sources: outdoor air effects: methemoglobinemia (aka blue baby syndrome) remediate: prevent waterlogging, use less nitrogen fertilizer

Ozone ozone ONLY HARMFUL IN TROPOSPHERE (beneficial in stratosphere)

sources: photocopying machines, electrostatic air cleaners, outdoor air effects: respiratory irritant, causes fatigue, damaging to plant stomata, which limits growth remediate: limit driving -Sunlight breaks NO2 into NO + O -O bonds with O2 to form O3 -At night, O3 reacts with NO to form NO2 and O2 once again; O3 levels drop overnight -O3 formation typically peaks in afternoon when sunlight is most direct and NO2 emissions from morning traffic have peaked

Volatile organics

sources: smoking, cooking, solvents, paints, varnishes, cleaning sprays, carpets, furniture, draperies, clothing effects: possible carcinogens remediate: avoid using aerosol consumer products such as hairsprays, air fresheners, deodorants, and insecticides that often use VOCs as their propellants. Replace solvent-based paints with water-based paints

Inhalable particulates

sources: smoking, fireplaces, dust combustion sources (wildfires, burning trash, etc.) effects: respiratory and mucous irritant, carcinogen remediate: Stop smoking; if you do smoke, do not smoke indoors. Mulch garden refuse instead of burning it. Limit the use of fireplaces and wood stoves. Switch to cleaner burning appliances. Take action to reduce wildfires

Cadmium(metal particulate)

sources: smoking, fungicides effects: toxic, carcinogen remediate: stop smoking, eat a healthy balanced diet with only moderate amounts of shellfish and organ meats

Arsenic(metal particulate) a naturally occuring element in rocks in the ground that can dissolve into drinking water -Release into groundwater can be caused by mining which breaks up rocks and exposes arsenic to groundwater -Wood preservative chemicals can also contain arsenic, so improper disposal of chemicals used in these plants can release arsenic into surface or groundwater

sources: smoking, pesticides, rodent poisons, can be caused by mining which breaks up rocks and exposes arsenic to groundwater effects: toxic, carcinogen, cancer of the lungs, skin, bladder, and kidneys, hormone disruptor remediate: find solutions to the polluting industrial processes like mining, smelting, and coal-fired power plants; can use water filters to help remove it

Pesticides pesticides and other semivolatile organics

sources: sprays and strips, outdoor air, chemicals sprayed on crops that kill weeds, insects, rodents and other pests that eat or damage crops. Increases yield and profits. Can wash off crops in runoff and kill or harm non-target species in local soil or waters (bees especially) effects: possible carcinogens remediate: reducing risk of pesticide transport to surface or ground water

generalists

species with larger range of tolerance, broader niche makes them less prone to extinction & more likely to be invasive, broad food requirement, high adaptability

LD 50

stands for lethal dose 50%, the dose or concentration of a chemical that kills 50% of the population LD50 data are usually expressed as: mass (g, mg)/body unit mass (kg) ppm - parts per million (in air) mass/volume (in water of blood) To determine maximum allowable levels for humans, we generally divide LD50 or ED50 dose concentration by 1,000 for extreme caution

secondary succession

starts from already established soil, in an area where a disturbance (fire/tornado/human land clearing) cleared out majority of the plant life Grasses, sedges, wildflowers, and berry bushes have seeds dispersed by wind or animal droppings.

primary succession

starts from bare rock in an area with no previous soil formation. Moss & lichen spores carried by the wind grow directly on rocks, breaking them down to form soil to start process by secreting acids that break down rock & release minerals containing nutrients they need (N/P/K)

second law of thermodynamics

states that in every energy conversion, some energy is lost as heat and some heat always escapes; therefore, in every energy conversion, a portion of energy is lost, and since energy cannot be created, any system requires the input of energy

natural selection

states that organisms which are best suited/adapted to the environmental conditions of an ecosystem have a better chance of survival and passing their genes on to the next generation Selective pressure/force: the environmental condition that kills individuals without the adaptation

surface mining: open pit, strip, mountaintop removal, placer

subsurface mining: More expensive due to higher insurance & health care costs for workers Risks: poor ventilation leading to toxic gas exposure, mine shaft collapse, injury from falling rock, lung cancer, asbestos, fires, explosions Vertical "shaft" drilled down into ground Elevator to carry down workers & transport out resource; Often used for coal Methane Release: coal mining releases methane gas (CH4) from rock around coal -Vented out of mine to prevent explosion & continues seeping out after mine closes -GHG → climate change

examples of organic compounds

synthetic organic compounds are used in industrial processes, pest control, pharmaceuticals, and food additives. 20 million in use and we are making 1 million more per year

chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's)

synthetic organic molecules that contain one or more of both chlorine and fluorine atoms, and are implicated in ozone destruction -UV radiation causes free chlorine atom to separate from CFCs -Highly electronegative chlorine atom bonds to one of the oxygen atoms of ozone (O3) converting it into oxygen (O2) -Free O atom then bonds to O from chlorine monoxide to form O2 and free Cl atom to go break down more O3

food web

takes into account all the food chains in an ecosystem. shows how matter and energy flow through an ecosystem from organism to organism; has at least 2 different interconnected food chains

subduction

takes place when an oceanic plate slides under a continental plate

appropriate technology

technology that increases the efficiency and productivity of hand labor without diplacing workers; workers improve their security without changing the social or economic system

geological uplift

tectonic plate collision forces up rock layers that form mountains

Replacement Level Fertility

the TFR required to offset deaths in a pop. and keep pop. size stable About 2.1 in developed countries (replace mom & dad) Higher in less developed countries due to higher infant mortality

water-holding capacity

the ability of a soil to hold water so that it will be available to plants

limits of tolerance

the absolute extreme of any factor; ex. temperature or pressure that an organism can tolerate before it will die

net primary production NPP

the amount of energy or biomass leftover for consumers after plants have used some for respiration; the available energy in the form of organic material that is available for transfer to the next level of the food chain; this is equal to the gross primary productivity of an organism minus the energy used by that organism NPP= GPP - RL water availability, higher temperature, and nutrient availability are all factors that lead to high NPP

British Thermal Unit (BTU)

the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree fahrenheit

Biological Oxygen demand (BOD)

the amount of oxygen tht is used or demanded as waste material is digested or oxidized in organisms; higher values remove greater amounts dissolved oxygen from aquaic ecosystems; raw sewage has extremely high values and thus can lower dissolved oxygen very rapidly; measured in mg/L

biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

the amount of oxygen tht is used or demanded as waste material is digested or oxidized in organisms; higher values remove greater amounts dissolved oxygen from aquaic ecosystems; raw sewage has extremely high values and thus can lower dissolved oxygen very rapidly; measured in mg/L

insolation -26% of solar radiation is reflected back into space by clouds & atm. -19% absorbed by atm. & clouds & radiated out into space & down to earth -The rest reaches earth's surface where it can be absorbed or reflected (depending on the albedo of the surface it strikes)

the amount of solar radiation (energy from sun's rays) reaching an area; Measured in Watts/m2 Solar intensity of insolation (Watts/m2) depends on: -Angle: how directly rays strike earth's surface -The amount of atmosphere the sun's rays pass through -Equator = higher insolation than higher latitudes Orbit of earth around sun & tilt on axis changes angle of sun's rays. This causes varying insolation, varying length of day, and seasons. Tilt of earth's axis stays fixed during orbit June & December Solstices: N or S hemisphere is maximally tilted toward sun (summer/winter) March & Sept Equinox: N & S hemispheres equally facing sun Tilt of Earth's Axis Causes Variation in: Angle of Insolation (which changes intensity), Length of day, Season Higher latitudes receive less insolation: cooler, less precipitation (especially 30degrees) Equator receives most intense insolation: higher temp, air rises, high precipitation

humidity

the amount of water vapor in the air

environmental science

the branch of science that studies environmental issues

symbiosis

the close and long-term interaction between two organisms of different species where there is some kind of interaction, either positive or negative

sustainable development

the concept that maintains the world's ecosystems while still allowing people to use the land's resources

biological control

the control placed on unwanted pest population by using living organisms; includes introduction of predatory, parasitic, or disease-causing organism

desertification

the creation of "desert-like" conditions due to overgrazing, over cultivation, and excessive irrigation; can occur if plants are killed by overgrazing & soil is compacted so much that it can't hold enough water anymore

hydroponics

the cultivation of plants without soil, and where a water solution replaces the minerals found in soil

extinction

the death of all individuals of a particular species; results in a loss of genes and biodiversity

biosphere

the entire ecosystem of Earth; it is the sum total of all the biomes and smaller ecosystems, which are all intercnnected and interdependent through global processes such as water and atmospheric cycles

weathering

the erosion of rock into smaller pieces and eventually into soil minerals. This is caused by natural chemical acids founds in lichens, physical changes(freezing and cracking), and biological factors(plant roots growing in rock)

Endangered Species Act

the federal legislation that mandates protection of species and their habitats that are in danger of extinction

Lacey Act

the first national act, passed in 1900, that gave protection to wildlife by forbidding interstate commerce in illegally killed wildlife

preliminary treatment

the first stage of sewage treatment where large debris, such as sticks, grit, and rags pass through a screen followed by a grit chamber, where the flow of water is slowed down enough to allow for sedimentation (when marine organisms die, their bodies sink to ocean floor where they're broken down into sediments that contain carbon)

succession

the gradual, or sometimes rapid, change in a species that occupies an ecosystem. The mechanism behind it is a change in abiotic or biotic factors that facilitates (helps) some species and inhibits others. It can be either primary (bare rock) or secondary (old field/disturbed area).

zooplankton

the group of small organisms that include protozoa, and the larvae of crustaceans, worms, mollusks, and cnidarians, that drift with the oceans currents

monoculture or monocropping

the growing of a single crop with the same genetic makeup over a very large area -Highly efficient for harvest, pesticide and fertilizer application -Greatly decreases biodiversity (more prone to pests, fewer nat. predators) -Increases soil erosion (crops harvested all at once & soil left bare) -Decreases habitat diversity for species living in area

preservation

the idea that land should be left in its natural state, never touched or developed

electromagnetic fields

the invisible electric and magnetic fields generated by an electrically charged conductor. A field of electromagnetic energy produced by electricity flowing through power lines.

climax ecosystem

the last stage in ecological succession; stable and unchanging, unless acted upon by fire, storms, disease, or human activity

transpiration

the loss of water from plants through leaf pores (stomata) in the form of vapor

cone of depression

the lowering of the water table cuz of excessive pumping, depleting water & drying nearby wells

conservation

the management of a resource to make certain that it produces the greatest benefit to humans in the future

maximum sustainable yield

the maximum amount of a renewable resource that can be taken year after year without depleting the resource. Roughly ½ carrying capacity. This maximizes yield and regeneration rate of population

theshold level

the maximum exposure to adverse environmental effects, such as pollution, without having physical effects, such as death

carrying capacity

the maximum population of a given species that an ecosystem can support based on limiting resources like food, water, habitat; populations often fluctuate above and below this, due to migration, resourse availability, and competition, etc. Pop. briefly "overshoots"or briefly exceeds carrying capacity (k) and then die-off happens (sharp decrease in pop. size when resource depletion (overshoot) leads to many individuals dying)

biotic potential

the maximum rate at which organisms may increase its population without any limiting factors affecting them; Refers to the reproductive potential of a species; it's exponential growth

leachate

the mixture of water and materials that are leaching (moving) through the ground; typically pertains to landfills

savanna

the name used for the grassland biome

eutrophication

the natural aging process of a body of water that is greatly accelerated by human actions; caused by additions of nutrients, mainly nitrogen and phosphorus, which leads to nitrates leaching/being carried out of the soil by water, which causes a huge growth of plants(like algae blooms). when algae dies, bacteria that break down dead algae use up O2 in water because decomposition is an aerobic process, lower O2 levels kills animal life from lack of oxygen. this creates a positive feedback loop and can create dead zones in the ocean

radioactive decay

the natural reduction of radioactivity(the energy given off by the nucleus of a radioactive isotope) in unstable (radioactive) isotopes that give off radiation until it becomes stable

replacement-fertility level

the number of children a couple must have to just replace themselves; in developing countires this number is 2.7, while in developed countries, it is 2.1 children per couple

ecosystem diversity

the number of diff habitats available in a given area

species diversity

the number of diff species in an ecosystem and the balance or evenness of the pop. sizes of all species in the ecosystem

birth rates

the number of live births per thousand individuals

mortality

the occurrence of death in a population

morbidity

the occurrence of disease in a population

biosolids

the organic material removed from sewage effluents; also known as sludge

parent material

the original rock which, after weathering, produces the minerals in soil It effects soil pH and nutrient content

epicenter

the origination point of an earthquake

ecological efficiency

the percentage of usable energy transferred as biomass from one trophic level to the next; the portion of incoming solar energy that's captured by plants and converted into biomass(NPP or food available for consumers) Only about 1% of all incoming sunlight is captured and converted into GPP via photosynthesis. Only 0.4% of that is converted into NPP

land subsidence

the phenomenon where land gradually sinks, due to excessive removal or ground water or oil

Fire Suppression

the practice of putting out all natural forest fires as soon as they start. leads to more dry biomass buildup and makes future fires worse. Close monitoring can prevent fire damage & worse fires in the future Prescribed Burns burn dead biomass (fuel), preventing larger forest fires later Nutrients in dead biomass are recycled → new growth

nitrogen fixation

the process of directly converting nitrogen gas from the atmosphere into nitrates or ammonia that plants can use for their nutrition

industrialization

the process of economic and social transition from an agrarian (farming) economy to an industrial one (manufacturing based) Pre-industrialized/Less developed country: A country that has not yet made the agrarian to industrial transition Typically very poor (low GDP) Typically high death rate & high infant mortality High TFR for replacement children & agricultural labor Little to no growth due to high CBR & CDR balancing each other out Industrializing/developing country: part way through this transition Decreasing death rate & IMR Rising GDP Rapid growth, due to high CBR and declining CDR Industrialized/developed: completed the transition Very low DR & IMR Very High GDP Low TFR Slowing growth rate as CBR drops closer to CDR Post Industrialized: CBR drops lower that CDR & growth becomes negative(pop. decline)

distillation

the process of purifying water or other liquids through boiling and recondensing the vapor, leaving the solid material in the boiler

deforestation

the process of removing all the vegetation in an area -Reduces air filtering and carbon storing services -Cutting trees down releases CO2 from decomposition of leftover organic material -Slash and burn method of clearing land for agriculture by cutting trees & burning them releases CO2, N2O and water vapor into the atmosphere (all GHGs)

percolation

the process of water soaking into the soil

ecological succession

the process whereby an ecosystem (a forest) changes gradually over time from one stage to another, until a climax ecosystem is reached

albedo

the proportion of light that is reflected by a surface Surfaces with higher albedo reflect more light, and absorb less (ice/snow) + absorb less heat Surfaces with low albedo reflect less light, and absorb more (water) + absorb more heat

range of tolerance

the range of abiotic conditions within which an organism or population can survive and reproduce

urban sprawl

the rapid growth of areas surrounding the inner city, that spreads out housing, shopping, and businesses around the city. But abandoned homes + businesses create blight (unsightly, rundown infrastructure) Solutions: Urban growth boundaries: zoning laws set by cities preventing development beyond a certain boundary Mixed land use: residential, business, and entertainment buildings all located in the same area of a city, which enables walkability & sense of place

compost

the recycling or organic household waste products, like leaves, food, etc. into useable plant fertilizer

groundwater remediation

the repurification of contaminated groundwater (H2O stored in pore space of permeable rock & sediment layers)

remediation

the return of a contaminated ecosystem to its original uncontaminated state

niche

the role an organism has in an ecosystem; sometimes referred as an organism's job; no two organisms have the same one

primary treatment

the second stage of sewage treatment, where the sewage water flows very slowly allowing particulate organic material to settle out; the settle material is raw sludge Physical removal of large debris (TP, leaves, plastic, sediment) with a screen or grate

habitat

the specific environment in which an organism lives; sometimes called an organism's address

fission

the splitting of an atom into two atoms of lighter elements; basis of nuclear energy production. A neutron is fired into the nucleus of a radioactive (unstable) element, such as Uranium. Nucleus breaks apart and releases lots of energy (heat) + more neutrons that break more nuclei apart, releasing more energy (chain reaction)

canalization/canalized

the straightening and deepening of stream or river channels to speed up water flow and reduce flooding

demography

the study of population trends such as growth, movement, and development

toxicology

the study of the toxic substances and their impacts on human health - toxicologists investigate the source of toxins and their effects on the environment and human health

topsoil

the surface layer of soil rich in humus and other organic material Loss of top soil dries out soil, removes nutrients + soil organisms that recycle nutrients

sustainable agriculture

the technique of growing crops that maintains the qualities of the land's resources indefinitely (in theory)

benthic plant

the term benthic refers to the bottom; therefore, the term includes plants that grow under water rooted or attached to the bottom of a lake, stream, or the ocean

nocturnal

the term for organisms that are active at night

equilibrium theory

the theory that ecosystems have natural checks and balances

doubling time

the time it takes a population to double in size, assuming the rate of growth is steady; can be calculated by the rule of 70, that is, the time it takes (in years) for a population to double is equal to 70 divided by the growth rate doubling time = 70/% of growth rate

half-life

the time it takes for half of a radioactive substance to decay

gross primary production GPP

the total amount of sun energy or light that plants need to capture and convert to energy or glucose through photosynthesis. the total energy that primary producers/ autotrophs produce organic matter.

environmental resistance

the totality of factors such as adverse weather conditions, shortage of food or water, predators, and diseases that will keep populations from growing to their biotic potential

water table

the upper surface or level of groundwater that changes its levels according to season and amount of rain an area receives. Wetlands typically have their water table at or near the surface of the topsoil.

bioconversion

the use of biomass as fuel, which includes the burning of wood, paper, and plant wastes produce energy; biomass can also be converted into fuels such as alcohol and methane

integrated waste management

the use of several options for the handling of solid wastes; includes recycling, waste reduction, composting, landfulling, and others

cost-benefit ratio/benefit-cost ratio

the value of the benefits to be gained from a project divided by the costs of the project; if the ratio is greater than 1, the project is economically justified; if the ratio is less than 1, the project is not economically justified

exponential increase

the very rapid growth of a species, only possible if considerable resources are present and limiting factors are held to a minimum; produces a J-shaped curve

urban blight

the wasting away of the inner city that occurred when many city dwellers moved to the suburbs, lowering the tax base, and causing loss or shortest of services such as roads, bridges, building, education, etc. General deterioration of structures and facilities such as buildings and roadways, and also the decline in quality of services such as education, that has occurred in inner city areas as growth has been focused on suburbs and exurbs.

erosion erosion

the wearing away of Earth's surface by the breakdown and transportation of rock and soil by wind and rain. Carried to new location and deposited (deposition)

fuel wood

the wood used in many developing countries for cooking and heating

volatile organic compounds (VOC)

these chemicals vaporize into the air. Examples include gasoline, paint solvents, many cleaning agents, and are a major factor in the formation of photochemical smog

Lithosphere

thin, brittle layer of rock floating on top of mantle (broken up into tectonic plates)

noise pollution

type of pollution characterized by unwanted or potentially damaging sound. Very loud noises (more than 140 dB) cause pain and potential hearing loss. Human ears can take sound up to about 60 dB without damage Can disrupt animal communication, migration, and damage hearing. Can prevent predators from hearing prey and vice versa; can prevent mates from locating each other (both of these decrease chances of survival) Aquatic noise pollution comes from the noise of ship engines, military sonar, and seismic air blasts from oil & gas surveying ships Physiological stress: hearing loss, disrupted communication, mating calls, predator and prey navigation (Whales are especially prone to having migration routes disrupted as their vocal communication is disrupted) Ex: Seismic surveying ships send huge air blasts down into the water, searching for oil by recording how the echo is returned from ocean floor

nonpoint sources

types of pollution that the source is usually difficult to locate and manage, such as farm or urban runoff of fertilizers, pesticides, and oils

treated sludge

typically refers to the solid organic wastes of sewage treatment that is nonhazardous

deregulation

typically used to describe the power industry, where consumers are able to choose what power or utility they want their electricity to come from; similar to being able to choose which cellular phone service you want to use

Active solar

use of mechanical/electrical equip. to capture sun's heat (solar water heaters or CST - concentrated solar thermal), or convert light rays directly into electricity (PV cells) Ex: Solar water heaters capture sun's heat in water or circulating fluid & transfer heat to warm water for home - in place of electric/gas water heater

natural chemical control

use of one or more natural chemicals such as hormones or pheromones to control a pest

waste-to-energy

use of solid wastes as a fuel to generate electricity

aquifer

useable groundwater deposits for humans. an underground layer of porous rock, sand, or other material where water moves between layers of nonporous rock or clay. used as a major water supply by sinking wells hundreds of feet below the ground Unconfined aquifers recharge quickly. Confined aquifers are longer-term water deposits that recharge more slowly.

mitigation

used in restoring or moderating the quality or condition of an ecosystem; may reduce the intensity of a pollutant, or include replacing a clear cut forest to moderate or alleviate an environmental problem; may also include a punishment or penalty

natural biological control

used in sewage treatment to remove nitrogen and phosphorus

global warming

used to describe the warming of the Earth's atmosphere

bioremediation

uses microorganisms to decontaminate soil or groundwater; this can be done by introducing organisms and/or oxygen into contaminated ecosystems

gray water

wastewater from sinks and showers, bath tubs, washing machines, etc. that does not contain human excrement; sometimes reused, without purification, for irrigation

storm water

water from rainfall

surface water

water that is from lakes, rivers, ponds, streams, etc...

capillary action

water that moves upward, against gravity, in soil by clinging together with its hydrogen bonds and powered by evaporation

soft water

water with little or no calcium, magnesium, or other ions

meltdown

when a nuclear reactor loses its cooling water and melts from the excessive heat produced; also known as the China Syndrome because it was once jokingly said that a complete meltdown would cause radioactive substances to melt to China Environmental consequences of meltdowns: genetic mutations & cancer in surrounding people, animals, and plants due to radiation released from reactor core Contaminated soil: radiation can remain in soil and harm plants and animals in the future (genetic mutations) Radiation spread: radiation can be carried by the wind over long distances, affecting ecosystems far from the meltdown site

bacterial fixation

when certain bacteria that live in the soil or in a symbiotic relationship with plant root nodules, convert dinitrogen N2 into ammonia NH3

10% rule of energy transfer

when energy is passed in an ecosystem from one trophic level to the next, only about 10% of the energy will be passed on, so only 10% of the biomass can be supported. the other 90% is used by the organism and is lost as heat (calculations: divide by 10 as you go up each level)

inbreeding depression

when individuals with similar genotypes - typically relatives - breed with each other and produce offspring that have an impaired ability to survive and reproduce

cogeneration

when the heat produced from electricity generation is used to provide heat (air & hot water) to a building; CHP (Combined Heat and Power) systems are close to 90% efficient (much better than coal/natural gas alone)

spatial partitioning

when two competing species use the same resource by occupying different areas. this is true for example, when different species of anoles (tropical lizards) can be found in different positions on a tree, some on lower branches, some in the middle and other at the top of trees

morphological partitioning

when two species share the same resource but have evolved slightly different structures to utilize the same resource

infiltration

when water percolates into soil; the more the infiltration, the less the runoff

estuary

where rivers empty into the ocean. a bay open to the ocean at one end and receiving fresh water from a river at the other end, hence, mixing of fresh and salt water occurs (brackish) ex: salt marsh, mangrove swamp

largest renewable energy growth in US

wind

anaerobic

without oxygen or oxygen-free