APEURO Unit 4 Ch15,16,17

Laissez-Faire

"let (them) do (as they please)" -economic doctrine that holds that an economy is best served when the gov doesn't interfere but allows the economy to self-regulate according to the forces of supply and demand -Adam Smith's belief on gov's theory promoted free trade w no gov restrictions, tariffs and subsidies (rejected mercantilism)

Pascal

(1623-1662) -French Scientist w a goal to keep science and religion united -intenved calculating machine and devised theory of chance/ probability and worked on conic sections -mystical vision 11/23/1654 which made him devote rest of this life to religious matters -Pensées (thoughts-book) tried to convert rationalists to Christianity by appealing to their reason and emotions -focused on faith since reason could only take 1 so far -if God exists we win all, if he doesn't we lose nothing -growing secularism split science and religion -allied w Jansenists - believed "finite man" was lost in new infinite world

What innovations in art, music, and literature occurred in the eighteenth century?

*Art* -Rococo and Neoclassicism *Music* -formative years (17-18thc) of classical music and rise of opera and oratorio, the sonata, the concerto and the symphony -techniques of Baroque musical styles perfected by Bach and Handel(both Germans) -Bach: Saint Matthew's Passion; music was above all means to worship God and his task in life was to make "well-ordered music in the honor of God" -Handel: profoundly Secular (Fireworks Music) supposed to be accompanied by 101 cannons -ironically known for religious music (Messiah) know as one of the rare works that appeals immediately to everyone yet is indisputably a masterpiece of the highest order -classical era(1750-1830) Haydn+Mozart shifted music from Italy and Germany to Austria -Hayden: 104 symphonies; wrote for patrons and public which he called a "liberty" The Creation and The Seasons were dedicated to the common folk -Mozart: child prodigy, Italian comic opera: The Marriage of Figaro + Don Giovanni + The Magic Flute (worlds 3 greatest operas) composed w ease, grace, precision, and emotion *development of the novel* from medieval romances and picaresque stories of 16thc -English is credited w establishing modern novel for fictional writing -Samuel Richard (Pamela: or, Virtue Rewarded) read for sentiment -Henry Fielding(The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling) adventures of a young scoundrel *the writing of History* philosophes secularized it and God was removed from role in history -politics in history mainly but they also included economic, social, intellectual, and cultural developments -emphasis on science and reason and dislike of Christianity: Gibbon (Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire) growth of Christianity was major reason for the fall; he believed Europeans could learn from this mistake

Who were he leading figures of the Enlightenment and what were their main contributions?

*Hobbes*: Leviathan(sea monster) -man is amoral(bad) -gov must keep man in check and balance security and freedom *Montesquieu* Spirit of Laws -man is mainly good but could be corrupted by greed - gov's purpose is separate power and check that power *Voltaire* Candide -"all men are brothers under God" -religious tolerance and deism *Diderot* Encyclopedia -Christianity was fanatical and unreasonable -viewed world as a mass of molecules -gov must created 1 location to find major ideas of the time to fight ignorance and superstition *David Hume* Treatise on Human Nature -possible to view man as a "science of math" *Adam Smith* Wealth of Nations -invisible hand -Laissez Faire -Economic Liberalism and Father of Capitalism *Jean Jacques Rousseau* The Social Contract -most men are mostly good most of the time -entire society agrees to be governed by its general will -man forced to be free -gov. a necessary evil

What role did women play in the Scientific Rev?

*Margaret Cavendish*: participant in crucial scientific debates of her time; works on attacking the defects of the rationalist and empiricist approaches; critical to belief that though science humans would be masters of nature; ex of f and E women in science *Maria Merian*imp. entomologist; exact observations of insects and plants demonstrated through superb illustrations she made; 1699-> Dutch Colony in SA to collect and draw samples of plants and insect life(Metamorphosis of the Insects of Surinam) 60 illustrations to show reproductive and developmental cycles of Surinam's insect life *Maria Winkelman* German astronomer, discovered new comet, faced typical career obstacles (wasn't accepted as assistant by Berlin Academy as a woman w no degree)

What did Paracelsus, Vesalius, and Harvey contribute to a scientific view of medicine?

*Paracelsus*: Macrocosm-Microcosm theory, disease caused by chemical imbalances in specific organs, disease treatment "like cures like" "Father of Modern Med" *Vesalius*: emphasis on practical research to understand human anatomy (On the Fabric of the Human Body) corrected Galen's assertion that great blood vessels originated from liver but from heart *Harvey*: On the Motion of the Heart and Blood: heart was beg. point of circulation of blood in body, same blood flows in veins and arteries, *blood makes a complete circuit as it passes through the body -foundation for modern physiology

Francis Bacon

- Englishman (1561-1626) -rejected Copernicus and Kepler and misunderstood Galileo (The Great Instauration) called for his contemporaries to start a total reconstruction of sciences, arts, and all human knowledge raised upon the proper foundations -believed humans' ability to know the natural world proceeded incorrectly -new foundation: Inductive Method (empiricism) -rather than beg. w assumed 1st principles from which logical conclusions could be deduced, urged scientists to proceed from the particular to the general -correct generalizations developed from organized experiments and thorough, systematic obsv. -true goal of science is to endow human life w/ new discoveries and power -human power should be used to "conquer nature in action" -control and domination of nature became a central proposition of modern science and technology

Copernicus

-(1473-1543) (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) relied on his data from predecessor astronomers, as mathematician he believed that ptolemy's geocentric view was wrong too complex and failed to accord mothers of heavenly bodies; came up with heliocentric view (1st to publish work condemning Aristotelian view, but normal) -didn't reject existence of heavenly spheres moving in circular orbits; retained 1/2 of Ptolemy's epicycles, ended up with system close to Alexandrian astromoner; Prost reformers 1st to reject it bc they relied on scriptures, CC silent until Galileo then they denounced C and his work when a # of astronomers were attracted to his ideas

Brahe

-(1546-1601) island near Copenhagen by King Frederick II, built Uraniborg Castle (library, observatories, instruments for precise astronomical observations he designed) observed for 20 years and got tons of data rejecting Aristotelian-Ptolemaic System, but couldn't accept copernicus's either; last years in Prague as imperial mathematicians Emperor Rudolis II interested in astrology, astronomy, and Hermetic tradition took on assistant Johannes Kepler

Galileo

-(1564-1642) Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher, made improvements to the telescope; (The Starry Messenger) other planets moon composed of materials similar to those of earth Jupiter has 4 moons, agreed with Heliocentric model, roman inq. (holy office) of cc condemned Copernicanism ordered to reject Copernican thesis but was allowed to discuss it if he called it a mathematical supposition (didn't really accept it) Dialogue on 1632 the Two Chief World System Ptolemaic and Copernican in Italian not Latin so more could read; it supported Copernican so Roman inq placed him under house arrest where he spent last 8 years studying mechanics -if a uniformed force was applied to an object it would move at an accelerated speed not constant -discovered principle of inertia when he argued a body in motion continues unless deflected by an external force; his condemnation by inq. undermined further scientific work in Italy moved to English, French and Dutch (Italy had been forefront of scientific innovation)

Kepler

-(1571-1630) work illustrates narrow line between magic science in early science rev., astrologer with interest in Hermetic mathematical magic; theory that universe was constructed on basis on geometric figures (pyramid and cube) focused on discovering "music of the spheres", accepted heliocentric view, (1st law) rejected his circular orbit of planets for an elliptical one with sun at one focus of the ellipse not the center, (2nd law) speed of a planet is greater closer to sun, (-) as it moves away destroying Copernicus+ Aristotle view that the motion was steady (3rd law) square of a planet's period of revolutionary proportional to the cube of its average distance from the sun (planets with larger orbiting revolve at a slower velocity)

Newton

-(1642-1727) English physicist and mathematician, during plague when he returned to Woolsthorpe for 18 months he invented calculus; began investigations into composition of light and inaugurated work on law of universal gravitation; president of the royal Society 1703 and 1705 knighted for his achievements, interested in occult world and repressed being a rep. of Hermetic tradition - (Mathematical Principals of Natural Philosophical) hinge point of modern scientific thought and 3 laws of motion in 1st book of Principia 1) objects go in straight line unless directed by a force 2) rate of change of motion of an object= proportional force acting on it 3) every action theres an = and opp. reaction -universal law of gravitation, every object attracted to each other try gravity -world-machine: universe was one, huge, regulated and uniform machine that operated according to natural laws in absolute time, space and motion; also believed God was everywhere and acted as the force that moved all bodies on the basis of the laws he discovered (later gens dropped spiritual assumptions)

Frondes

--revolt of the nobles who resented centralized power being built up at their expense; allied with members of Parliament of Paris who opposed new taxes from 30yrs war and also w the people of Paris who were also angry -nobles of robe led first Fronde(1648-49) broke out in Paris and ended w comp. -2nd F in 1650 led by nobles of sword(descendants from medieval nobility) wanted to overthrow Mazarin to secure their positions and increase their own power; crushed in 1652, easier since nobles began to fight each other instead -vast majority of French decided best hope for stability lay in crown

Paracelsus

-1493-1541 -vain and quick-tempered, not easy to get along w -rejected work of Aristotle and Galen and attacked the universities as centers of their moribund philosophy -hoped to replace traditional system w new chemical philosophy based on a new understanding of nature derived from fresh obscure. and experiments -view of macrocosm-microcosm analogy (human was small replica (microcosm) of the larger world (macrocosm)) all parts of uni represented in each person -chemical reactions of uni were reproduced in humans (diseases caused by chemical imbalances not of imb. of 4 humors) -the poison that caused a disease would be its cure in proper form and quantity "like cure like" -did cure patients but known as "homicide physician" "father of modern medicine" of forerunner of homeopathy and holistic medicine

30 years war: Bohemian Phase

-1618-1625 -prost Bohemians unhappy w their chose of King Ferdinand(Catholic), defenestrated 2 Hapsburg govs and a secretary in Prague castle, 70-ft but they landed on manure and survived -Bohemian rebels now elected Frederick V who was head of Prost Union but Ferdinand refused deposition who had been elected HRE -ended in Catholic Austrian Haspburg victory -defeated Frederick and Bohemians at Battle of White Mountain, Prague Nov 8, 1620 -Ferdinand II regained Bohemian throne and Spanish acquired Palanate from Frederick V

30 years war: Danish Phase

-1625-1629 -King Christian IV of Denmark (Lutheran) w Dutch and English intervened to support Prost. -Chris IV vs Albert Wallenstein (Cath) commander for Ferdinand -Wallenstein general in charge of HRE army and he destroyed Prost. Forces (Catholics now 2:0) -Ferdinand II issues edict of Restitution

30 years war: Swedish Phase

-1630-35 -Gustavus Adolphus (Swedish king) aides Prost, dutch and french allies -military genius, bold, charismatic; defeats Wallenstein's forces and keeps winning -Emperor Ferdinand II called on Wallenstein to form a new army. In November 1632, at the Battle of Lutzen, the Swedes defeated Wallenstein, but Gustavus Adolphus was killed in the fighting. -When Wallenstein entered into secret negotiations with Sweden and France, he was assassinated a few days later. The emperor's army decisively defeated the Swedes at Nordlingen in southern Germany.

Maria Winklemann

-1670- 1720, German -educated by father and uncle -married German's best astronomer Gottfried Kirch -became his assistant at observatory in Berlin by Academy of Science -made original contributions including an undiscovered comet -denied for position of assistant to astronomer even though she was highly qualified (woman w/ no college degree) -rejection reflected obstacles women had during the period

Rousseau

-1712-1778, Genevan philosopher -The Social Contract: most men are good most of the time -entire society agrees to be governed by its general will -man forced to be free -gov. necessary evil -Émile: work on education of natural man; ed. should foster not restrict kid's natural instincts -precursor of Romanticism -viewed women "naturally" diff. then men -own kids sent to foundling homes where most die young

Diderot

-1713-1784, French philosophe -one of fav topics: Christianity, condemned it to be fanatical and unreasonable and considered it the worst religion "the most absurd and most atrocious in its dogma" "This world is only a mass of molecules" -Encyclopedia became major weapon of philosophers' crusade against old F. system -attacked religious superstition and wanted toleration and political, social, and legal improvements -govs propose is to create 1 location to find major ideas of the time to fight supposition and ignorance

Rococo

-1730s new style of art -emphasized grace and gentle action unlike Baroque -rejected strict and geometrical patterns and has fondness for curves -liked to follow wandering lines of natural objects like flowers and seashells -highly secular, showed pursuit of pleasure, happiness, and love *Antoine Watteau* (Return from Cythera) aristocratic life: refined, sensual, civilized w elegant clothes showed joy; sadness w fragility and transitory nature of pleasure, love, life, -could be easily used with Baroque architecture (Palace of Versailles ) -Balthasar Neumann- pilgrimage church of vierzehnheiligen and Bishop's Palace (Residenz) secular, spiritual, lavish and fanciful ornament, light, bright colors, and elaborate, rich detail

Romanticism

-19thc intellectual movement rejecting emphasis on reason of the Enlightenment, instead romantics stressed imp. of intuition, feeling, emotion, and imagination as sources of knowledge -Rousseau was a precursor to this movement and believed in imp. of prompting the heart and what he sought was a balance between the heart and mind, between sentiment and reason

Louis XIV wars

-4 wars between 1667-1719 1)War of the Devolution: 1667-68, invasion of united prov, gets 1/4 of spanish neth. after philip iV dies 2)Dutch War: 1672-78 war against william of Orange- Treay of Nimwegen: F agrees to give back Dutch territory; acquires France-Comté from Spain 3)War of the League of Augsburg: (spain, HRE, united prof, sweden, England) 1689-97 economic depression and famine to F. --> Treaty of Ryswick: had to give up most of conquests but Strasbourg and part of Alsace 4)War of Spanish Succession: 1701-1713 over successor of Charles II he selected Philip V Bourbon(his grandnephew) and XIV's grandson to succeed -going against succession of Austrian England, UP, Habsburg Austria, German states vs F and S in europe and colonies in NA -Peace of Utrecht in 1713 and of Rastatt in 1714 confirmed Philip V as Spanish ruler, Spanish Bourbon dynasty lasting till 20thc, S and F thrones would remain separate -S. Neth, Milan and Naples went to Austria, Brandenburg-Prussia got territory too, England was real winner (got Gibraltar, French Newfoundland, Hudson Bay Territory, and Nova Scotia in America) -Netherlands loses supremacy to england

What developments enabled Brandenbug-Russia, Austria, and Russia to emerge as major powers in the 17thC?

-BP: Hohenzollern dynasty, Frederick William: built strong army and levied taxes to maintain it, deprived estates from nobles power in return from complete control over peasants and serfdom used mercantilism policies, son Frederick III aided HR Emperor for little of king-in-Russia Austria: benefitted from War of Spanish Succession, Germany no longer one Empire, made one in E and SE Europe; Leopold I: defeated Ottomans 1687 (got Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia and Slovenia with Treaty of Karlowitz 1699) Wof S, Suc. got S. Neth Milan, Mantua, Sardinia and naples no centralized, too many national groups with own laws Estates and political life, great potential military strength -Russia: Ivan IV and boyers (he crushed their power) Peter the Great, influenced Westernization

How did popular religion differ from institutional religion in the eighteenth century?(popular)

-Catholic piety: much externalized form of worship (prayers to saints, pilgrimages) -feared witches and prayed to virgin Mary to save them from personal disasters -Prost. state-run churches established good patterns and served by well-educated clergy -bureaucratic bereft of religious enthusiasm -Pietism= 1 response to rationalism -Wesley: all could be saved by experiencing God and opening the doors to his grace -spoke to masses in open fields and concentrated on neglected lower classes -converts organized into Methodist societies and after his death became separate religious sect despite him wanting to stay in the Anglican church -Methodism proved need for spiritualism not expunged by search for reason

Montesquieu

-Charles de Secondat (1689-1755) french nobility; philosophe -The Spirit of the Laws (1748) applied scientific method to social and political arena; believed in separation of powers w executive, legislative, and judicial powers from England's system would provide greatest freedom and security for the state -influenced framing of US constitution(Jefferson, Hamilition, Adams) -nature of man mainly good but can be corrupted by greed -Persian Letter (1721) attack of traditional religion, advocacy of religious toleration, denunciation of slavery, use reason to liberate human beings from their prejudices

How did popular religion differ from institutional religion in the eighteenth century?(Institutional)

-Churches of 18th century upheld society's hierarchical structure -Protestant Reformation established state control over the churches Protestant state churches flourished throughout Europe in 18th century (Scandinavia, north German states, England, Scotland, etc. ) -CC still exercised much control over Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Hapsburg empire, Poland, and southern Germany -Catholic church remained on top of the hierarchy structure -States sought to control (nationalize) the Catholic churches (Meant controlling the papacy and Society of Jesus) Jesuits acquired much success and power and monarchies distrusted them; termination of them paralleled in decline in papal power -mid 18thc papacy played minor role only in diplomacy and international affairs and could no longer appoint high clerical officials -Philosophes had called for religious toleration -Many rulers still found toleration difficult to accept(XIV) -progress made toward religious toleration through Joseph II of Austria (Toleration Patent of 1781) all subjects who were Christians made equal -Jews most despised religious minority of Europe except in Poland; had pogroms -philosophes denounced their persecution; Jospeh II tried new policy to help them yet it was too limited

What intellectual developments led to the emergence of the Enlightenment?

-Popularization of Science: Bernard de Fontenelle: Secretary of French Royal Academy of Science, deep knowledge of science, made it part of lit. and contributed to skepticism toward religion -New Skepticism -Travel literature: "noble savage" from natural men in new places they discovered, cultural relativism, began to classify racial groups -Legacy of Locke and Newton: intellectual inspirations -Locke: life, liberty, property; gov must protect these rights or the people will rebel and overthrow them; tabula rasa (blank slate)

Theater (England)

-Elizabethan era: shakespeare (1564-1616) plays at Globe and Blackfriars theater -had to please nobles, lawyers, merchants, vagabonds in audience "complete man of theater" -playwriter, actor, and shareholder in Lord Chamberlain's company, universal genius, master of Eng. lang. incredible insight into human psychology in tragedies and comedies he exhibited remarkable understanding of the human condition

How were the ideas of the Scientific rev spread, and what impact did they have on society and religion?

-English Royal Society (1640's) and French Academy (1650's) both societies practical value of scientific research main focus on mechanics and astronomy -demonstrated science as cooperative venture -German princes ad cities sponsored small scale societies -scientific journals (French Journal des Sarvants and Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society) -offered new ways to explicit resources for profit with merchants and gentry -political interest used scientific conception of national world to bolster social stability -radicalism from English Rev. let to puritan reformers to reform and renew their society with science -princes and kings patrolling their scientists for prestige and practical reasons like the math behind gunpowers -absolute rulers (XIV) concerned about matters of belief in their realms and recognized need to control and manage the scientific body of knowledge -XIV ensured the members of their work would be under his control -pascal -church didn't approve of scientists questioning the nature of physical reality against biblical texts and their beliefs -growing secularization in Europe -Spinoza: believed God was creator of universe he is the universe -humans are a part of God or nature or the universal order as our natural objects -things happen due to God's emotions -everything has a rhetorical explanation

Voltaire

-François-Marie Arouvet (1694-1778) greatest figure, from prosperous middle-class -attacks on CC, advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of expression, sep. of church and state -"all men are brothers under God" -Candide-religious toleration, deism, crush religious fanaticism, intolerance, and superstition -Letter on the English-how religious toleration was good -Elements of the Philosophy of Newton

Pogroms

-Jewish communities were looted and massacred made Jewish existence precarious and dependent on the favor of their territorial rulers

Absolutism

-absolute monarch ; the sovereign power/ultimate authority in the state rested in the hands of a king who claimed to rule by divine right and was therefore responsible only to God (form of gov)

Querelles des femmes

-arguments about women -women portrayed as inherently base, prone to vice, easily said, and "sexually insatiable" -centuries long debates on nature and value of women -women argued they also had rational minds and could grow from education

In what type of social environment did the philosophes thrive, and what role did women play in that environment?

-aristocracy and upper class in the literate elite in salons and also coffeehouses, cafes, reading clubs, public lending libraries, societies: Select Society of Edinburg, American Philosophical Society; secret societies such as Freemasons in London, France, Italy, and Prussia -as hostesses, women were in position to affect decision of Kings, sway political opinion and influence literary and artistic taste -reputation of salon depended on the stature of the males a hostess was able to attract -French and foreigners complained females exerted undue influence in French political affairs->led to decline of salons -they were a social interaction between elite men and women

Margaret Cavendish

-aristocrat background -participant in crucial scientific debates of her time -excluded from Royal Society (allowed in 1 meeting) -books: Observations upon Experimental Philosophy and Grounds of Natural Philosophy (both in 1668) -in works she didn't hesitate to attack the defects of the rationalist and empiricist approaches to scientific knowledge and was especially critical of the belief that through science humans would be masters of nature -good ex of women in F and E who worked in science

How did the artistic and literary achievements of this era reflective P&E developments of the period?

-baroque richly detailed and magnificent architecture showed power in kings and princes against subjects -French classicism: triumph reflects shift of F. society from chaos to order -Dutch Realsim: coincided with Golden Age due to Supremacy of Dutch Commerce from wealthy Patricians and burgers of Dutch Urban society -Shakespeare wrote plays to please King James I, during Elizabeth era -French Drama: Louis XIV used it, art and architecture to attract attention to his monarchy, Molière benefited from his patronage with him, his ridiculed religious hypocrisy(Tartuffe) not tolerated by Paris clergy; coincided with rise of absoluthism

Cultural relativism

-belief that no culture is superior to another because culture is a matter of custom, not reason, and derives its meaning from the group hold it; (started from a German prof. praising Confucian mortality as superior to the intolerance of Christianity) -accompanied by religious skepticism(such as Christian perception of God from traveling) some lose whatever shreds of religion remain "every day they see a new religion, new customs, new rites" -began to classify people by race and some believed in polygenesis (sep. of human species) or monogenesis

English Civil War

-between King and Parliament of England 1642-49 -Parliament won (1642-46) from creation of New Model Army and Cromwell; religious disputes w constitutional issues concerning powers of the monarchy captured Charles I in 1646 -radical ind. went to negotiate w hm so he fled in 1647 to Scots for help -enraged Cromwell who started 2nd civil war (1648) he got a victory and captured King -beheaded him which was uncommon in 17thc on Jan 30,1649 -monarchy now destroyed until 1660

Heliocentric

-by Nicolaus Copernious; sun-centered; universe had 8 spheres with motionless sun at center; mercury, V.E.M.J.S revolved around sun, moon around E; the movement of the sun and fixed stars around earth was really daily rotation of earth on its axis and the journey of the earth around the sun each year

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

-controller general of finances under XIV -sought to increase wealth and power of F:general adherence to mercantilism; founded new luxury industries(royal tapestry works at Beauvais, Venetian glassmakers and Flemish cloth makers) (-) imports and (+) exports; regulated quality of goods produced, -special privileges of tax exemptions, loans, subsides to those who established new industries, -built roads and canals to improve communication and transportation -raised tariffs on foreign goods, created merchant marine to carry F. goods -more revenue he collected to enable king to make war, more XIV depleted it, taxes fell on peasants (majority of pop)

What were the man issues in the struggle between King and Parliament in 17""C and how were they resolved?

-developing absolutism -King James I exploited Parl through use of Divine Right of Kings - Parl angered so didn't give him financial aid to meet increased cost of gov. -He refused to support Puritan gentry's plan to use Calvin's Presbyterian model he realized Church of E and it made him more powerful (alienated gentry) -Charles I went around Parl not giving him financial aid with ship $(tax behind their back) -Cromwell fought against merchants, he also had trouble with debate on authority of Parl and soon county was restored with "Restoration" and "Glorious Rev"

Skepticism

-doubtful/questioning attitude, especially about religion, -Fontenelle contributed to i at end of 17thc by portraying churches as enemies of scientific process -Pierre Bayle remained Prost and became leading critic of traditional religious attitudes(attacked superstition, religious intolerance, dogmatism) and believed compelling people to believe particular religious ideas (like XIV) was wrong and created hypocrites, argued for religious toleration

Theater(French Drama)

-dramatic era, unlike E and S playwrights for elite audience depending on royal patronage; emphasized the clever, polished and correct over emotional and imaginative -many from Greco-Roman classical (Jean Baptiste Racine in Phèdre which is = Hippolytus by Greek) focused like ancient Greek tragedians on conflicts between love and honor/inclination and duty that characterized and revealed tragic dimensions of life *perfected French neoclassical tragic style also (Jean-Baptiste Moliève) enjoyed French courts favor and benefitted from King XIV patronage -wrote, produced, and acted in series of comedies starring religious and social world of his time (Tartuffe) ridiculed religious hypocrisy, Paris clergy didn't find it funny had it banned 5 yrs -only king's protection saved him from more severe harassment

Peace of Westphalia

-ended 30 yrs wear, 1648, all german states including calvinist ones were free to determine own religion "curious region eius religio" -france gained part of W. Germany part of Alsace, Metz, Toul, and Verdun -HREmperor just a figure head, 300 states virtually indy -religion and politics now separate -switzerland and Holland became ind. from HRE -ind. of dutch republic formally recognized

30 years war: Franco-Swedish Phase

-french joins to help prost. with Cardinal Richelieu as a politique, French was Catholic and they wanted a balance of power and didn't want the HRE to dominate them since they control land surrounding France -Battle of Rocrio 1643 proved decisive as F beat spain and brought an end to their military greatness -1635 F declares war on Spain -5 yrs of negotiation and then in 1648 Peace of Westphalia

Salons

-gatherings of philosophers and other nobles to discuss the ideas of the Enlightenment -so called from the elegant drawing rooms where they met -spread its ideas to literate elite -as hostesses, women were in position to affect decision of Kings, sway political opinion and influence literary and artistic taste -provided havens for people and views unwelcome in royal courts -reputation of salon depended on the stature of the males a hostess was able to attract -French and foreigners complained females exerted undue influence in French political affairs->led to decline of salons -they were a social interaction between elite men and women

Louis XIV

-greatest if 17thc monarchs -1643-1715 -king @ 23 of France "sun king" -created an inner circle of gov w a few trusted advisors; high nobles and princes of the blood(royal) were removed from royal council and enticed them to his court(how he restricted central policy making machinery go gov since it was part of his own court and household at Palace of Versailles) "One king, one law, one faith"--> Edict of Fontainebleau -built court of Versailles: residence of king, reception hall for state affairs, office building for members of King's gov. home to thousands of royal officials and aristocratic courtiers; home to high nobility and royal princes who were kept in Myriad activities

Economic liberalism

-idea that gov shouldn't interfere in the workings of the economy -Smiths view and laid foundation for it along with Physiocrats "basis for modern economics" -should act like "invisible hand" -should only have 3 functions:army, police, and roads and canals that indv. can't afford

Philosophes

-intellectuals of Enlightenment, literary people, prof, journalists, statesmen, economists, political scientists *were all social reformers* -nobility, middle, and some lower class origins -shared common bonds as part of an international movement -role of philosophy to change the world, not just discuss it -rational criticism applied to everything including religion and politics -call for freedom is reminder their work was done in censorship (used fake names to get around it) -often disagreed yet constituted "family circle" bound by common intellectual bonds

Scientific Revolution

-key factor in setting Western civilization along its modern secular and materialistic path -switch in mindset from science being theology and philosophy to mathematical and quantifiable -not as fast as rev. more gradual and piecemeal fashion influenced by ancient authors and Ren authors -technological, innovations, and mathematics and Ren magic contributed to this rev.

Frederick William the Great Elector (1640-88)

-laid foundation for Brandenburg-Prussia State -came to power during 30yrs War -built competent and efficient standing army -established General War Commissariat to sustain army and his power(levied taxes for army and oversaw its growth and training) -deprived Estates of nobles' power and gave them unlimited power over their peasants, exempted them from taxation and awarded highest ranks in army -serfdom reinforced through concessions to nobles -used mercantilism(roads, canals, high tariffs, subsidies, monopolies for manufactures stimulate domestic industry) -favored interest of nobles at expense of middle classes

Pietism

-movement that arose in Germany in the 17thc who goal was to foster a personal experience of God as the focus of true religious experience -spread by Count Nikolaus von Zinzendorf: religious experience consisted of mystical dimensions(personal experience of God) in ones opposed rationalist approach of Lutheran clergy, believed it made one atheist

Geocentric Conception

-ptolemaic universe; motionless earth was at the center composed of 4 elements made earth imperfect and constantly changing; spheres surrounding earth made of crystalline moving in circular orbits as the "perfect" motion (heavenly) 10 spheres and beyond 10th sphere was Empyrean Heaven (God + saved souls) Christianized Ptolematic Uni. -humans had power over earth in the center, but their purpose was to achieve salvation

30 years War

-religion and secular dynastic-nationalist considerations caused it -religion less important -"last religious war" -most took place in HRE bus it was a euro wide struggle -Fredrick IV(prost union) vs Duke Maximilian (catholic league of german states) -1618-1648

Baroque

-replaced mannerism in italy in last 1/4 of 16thc, spread to rest of europe, embraced by catholic ref. and in catholic courts (habsburgs in madrid, prague, vienna, brussels) --classical ideas of ren art w spiritual feelings of 16thc religious revival, dramatic effects to arouse emotions, churches and palaces magnificent and richly detailed (Peter Paul Rubens-Flemish) also had bodies in violent motion, heavily fleshed nudes, dramatic use of light and shadow, rich sensuous pigments to express intense emotions (restless forms and constant movements=dynamic unity) --stressed majesty, power, and movement *Gian Lorenzo Bernini* finished St. Peter's Basilica at Vatican and designed vast colonnade of action, profusion, and drama effects enclosing plazza in front (Ecstasy of Saint Theresa) mystical experience, elegant draperies and expression on her face create sensuously real portrayal of physical ecstasy -*Artemisia Gentileschi*, 1st woman accepted at Florentine Academy of Design; portrait painter, but most famous piece is (Judith Beheading Holofernes)-part of heroines from Old. T.

Intendants

-royal officials in 17thc france sent out by Richelieu into provinces to execute the orders of the central gov. -victorious in most cities against the provincial gov and strengthened the power of the crown

What was absolutism in theory, and how did its actual practice in France reflect/differ from the theory?

-see "absolutism" flashcard -King Louis XIV had complete control over laws, royal army, collected taxes, decreased nobles from parliament "I have no intention of sharing my authority" "L 'etat, c'est moi" "one king, one law, one faith", Edict of Fontainebleau -still had parliament and local agents and had no guarantee his wishes would be carried out (Estates, office holders, some nobles) tied him down and limited him -had colbert controlling finances -had Richelieu and Mazarin cardinals rule

How did popular culture differ from high culture in the eighteenth century?(pop culture)

-social activités, pursuits, and written/unwritten lit. that are fundamental to the lives of most people -Festival (Catholic Europe celebrating local patron saints; Christmas; Easter; and Carnival) -Carnival celebrated in weeks leading up to lent -time of great indulgence which was the opposite of lent: heavy consumption of foo and drinking and intense sexual activity -songs with double meanings allowed (sexual meanings ) -time of aggression to release pent-up feelings (mainly verbal) and pelting food at others -taverns: poor people drank gin and vodka and rich drank pot and brandy -pop culture was 2nd culture to rich people and gradually from 1500 began to abandon it to the poor -taverns were gathering places to talk, play games, conduct small business matters, and drink -popular literature not just oral songs -chapbooks: both spiritual and secular material; insp. stories competed w crude satires and adventure stories -literacy grew 18% in men from 17-18thc and 13% in women -peasants of French pop. remained largely illiterate -literacy closely connected to primary education: Volkschulen in Hapsburg Austria opened -Swiss Cantons and Saxony and Prussia had Prost. reformers open many primary schools -elites feared educated lower classes and wanted them to only learn how to be servants in habits of industry and piety

Theater(Spain's Golden Century)

-theaters from Seville and Madrid in 1570s to mexico city in NW -Lope de Vega (1562-1635) from middle class like WS, prolific writer 1/3 of 1500 plays survived (witty, charming, action packed, realistic) said he made plays to please audiences, in treastie on drama 1609: said main duty of playwright is to satisfy public demand, very cynical about it -he didn't write fro fame but for $

Descartes

-volunteered for service in army in 30 yrs War -made commitments to mind, math, and mechanical uni. -book: (Discourse on Method) would only accept those things that his reason said were true -"I think, therefore I am" -separation of mind and matter -mind can't be doubted but body and world can (Cartesian dualism) -father of rationalism -books placed on papal Index of Forbidden Books and condemned by many Prost. theologians -emphasized deduction and mathematical logic -each step in an argument should be as sharp and well founded as mathematical proof -start w self-evident truth and deduce more complex conclusions -French lower nobility (1596-1650) -separation of mind and body allowed scientists to view matter as dead/inert and could be investigated ind. by reason

Sultan Suleiman I the Magnificent

1520-1566 in Ottoman Empire -brought Turks back to europes attention -seized Belgrade 1521 -Hungary 1526 -Vienna attempts repulsed 1529 -extended power into W Mediterranean threatening to turn it into Turkish lake until Spanish destroyed fleet at Lepanto (in Greece) in 1571

Ivan IV the Terrible

1533-1584 -tsar "caesar" of Russia -1st to use that title, expanded Russia East after W blocked by swish and polish states(powerful) -extended autocracy of tsar by crushing power of R. nobility (boyars) -1598 his dynasty came to end, followed by resurgence of aristocratic power in a period known as Time of Troubles

Witchcraft craze

16-17thc -england, scotland, switzerland, germany, some of france, new england in america -increased # of trails and executions(more than 100,000 in europe) than before, large and small cities affected -intense torture before the "witches" would confess to alliance with the devil with parties and sexual orgies, wreaking havoc by killing livestock, hurting kids, or raising storms to destroy crops -religious uncertainties between Prost. and C. and social conditions from new economic ethics emphasizing looking out for oneself caused witchcraft -old women susceptible, many even sold herbs, potions, or remedies for healing -many thought it made sense women went to devil for pleasure -17thc decline after religious wars and stable gov. which didn't tolerate conditions of the trials

Philip IV

1621-1665 -Spanish King, left management of his kingdom to count-Duke of Olivares who devised new sources revenue but wanted to return to imperial tradition to solve -taxed clergy to pay for a war; after much conflict with the Pope, he called the Estates General to request support, tried to centralize gov but spanish nobles were too many and too powerful -30yrs War led to series of expensive military campaigns led to internal revolts and yrs of civil war, -campaigns failed to produce victory -had much foreign losses: Dutch republic, Artois, S. Neth, border of France

Edict of Restitution

1629 -Ferdinand II issued it at the height of his power -prohibited Calvinist worship and restored all property taken by Prost princes/ cities during past 75yrs to RCC -growth in power to Hapsburg emperor frightened many German princes who feared for their ind. status forced emperor to dismiss Wallenstein

Peter the Great

1689-1725 -tsar of russia, wanted closer ties to W. europe -led to an increase in women's status, women participated more actively in the society, removed traditional veils from their faced -modernized and strengthened Russia -drafted men into the army(only @ peace for 1yr of his reign) -5 yrs of compulsory education for nobles, 1st russian book of etiquette w/ no spitting/scratching at dinner(cut clothes w long skirts and shaved beards) -increased service requirements and serfs worked in increased # of factories+mines -regularly standing army of 200,000+ soldiers (mainly peasants) constant warfare consumed 80-85% of all revenues -Great Northern War w Sweden 1700-21 (won estonia, latvia) -also captured above, baltic port(created St. Petersburg) -1st time under tsar attached explanations to his decrees in attempt to gain confidence and enthusiastic support of pop

Enlightenment

18thc movement of intellectuals who dared to know, -greatly impressed with accomplishments of the Sci Rev -used "reason" to advocate application of scientific method to understanding of all life -people investigated human nature and sought to explain reality through realism

French Classicism

2nd 1/2 of 17thc cultural leader of europe -emphasis on clarity, simplicity balance and harmony of design, austere version of High Res (rejected baroque) grander in portrayal of noble subjects mainly from classical antiquity like Baroque -Nicolar Poussin(1594-1665) scenes from classical mythology, orderliness of landscapes, figures postures from antiquity, sculptures and use of brown tones

Why is Descartes considered the "founder of modern rationalism"

After serving military he began to believe that only what he reasoned to be true is actually true -developed line of deductive thinking so that anything he held to be true came directly from this thoughts -led him to Cartesian dualism theory -theory separated mind and material things completely -his line of deductive reasoning is essentially what rationalism is -didn't use anything outside his own knowledge to come to a conclusion and rationalism uses the mind as the main source of info.

What developments during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance contributed to the Scientific Revolution of the 17thc?

Ancient Authors and Ren. Authors: such as Aristotle and Galen had been contradicted other thinkers; desire to discover which school of thought was correct -Ren Authors desire to imitate nature made them observe it carefully and established new standardized story of natural phenomena; Ren authors also were practicing mathematician to master painting -technological innovations and math: invention of printing press, telescopes, microscopes made new discoveries possible, mathematical reasoning was seen as promoting a degree or certainty that was otherwise impossible -Ren. Magic: Hermetic magic fused with alchemic thought into single framework -belief that world was living embodiment of divinity, humans who believed it also had that spark with in could use it (especially math magic) to dominate world of nature; big names of science Rev. (cop kepler, Galileo, Newton) all had serious interest in Hermetic ideas and the fields of astrology and alchemy

Glorious Revolution

Charless II and James II we both Catholic, they didn't want to continue into a catholic legacy bc the nobles didn't want to lose the land they had gained from the RCC so 7 prominent English noblemen invited William of Orange and his wife Mary, Jame's daughter, to invade eng. so James and his wife and newborn son fled to France -William and mary confirmed as monarchs in the Revolution settlement as long as they enacted Bill of Rights (Parl. right to make laws and levy taxes and king couldn't deny it) citizens can petition sovereign, keep arms, have a jury trail and not be subject to excessive bail; BoR laid foundation for a constitutional monarchy -Toleration Act 1689: Puritan Dissenters(Cath. excluded)free public worship and marked departure in Eng. history -few would ever again be persecuted for religion -Parl demolished divine-right theory of kingship and confirmed right to participate in gov

Bishop Jacques Bossuet

Chief theorist of divine right monarchy in the 17th century he wrote (politics drawn from the very words of holy scripture) -government divinely ordained so humans could live in organized society, God established kings and reigned over all people of the world so their authority was absolute -resp. only to God *God would hold a king accountable for his actions, Bossuet believed kings faced serious responsibilities as well as real limits on their power

Great Northern States

Denmark and Sweden *Denmark* emerged as ind. state during 17thc, constant rivalries w Sweden -Christian IV, little success for expansion; king has shared power w nobility who expersixed strict control on peasants, military losses in 30yrs war and Northern War(1655-1660) w Sweden led to bloodless revolution; nobility power curtailed, hereditary monarchy reestablished, new absolutist constitution proclaimed in 1665 -Chris V(1670-99) centralized administration instituted w nobility as chief officeholders *Sweden* weak economy, monarch in conflicts w powerful nobility -Gustavus Adolphus formed 1st estate made nobility expanding central gov and stable monarchy -daughter Christina interested in philosophy and religion not politics, in 1654 tired of ruling and wished to be catholic (forbidden) made her cousin King Charles X who reestablished domestic order -Charles XI built swedish monarchy along lines of absolute monarchy: retook control of town lands and revenues from nobility he weakened their ind power, built up a bureaucracy -improved army and navy -Charles XII and his heirs acclaimed as absolute kings, yet he was interested in military affairs; energetic and brilliant general yet conflicts w Poland, Denmark, and Russia provided to be sweden's undoing -his death in 1718:lost much to Russia and was no longer 1st class northern power

Cartesian dualism

Descartes's principle of the separation of mind and matter (and mind and body) that enabled scientists to view matter as something separate from themselves that could be investigated by reason

Cromwell

English military, political, religious figure who led Parliamentarian victory in ECW and called for Charles I execution -had to cross Catholic uprisings in Ireland and England(Levellers who had advances ideas like = and freedom of speech) dispersed Rump Parliament and restored military forces -1st constitution Instrument of Gov and a reconstituted Parl. (it failed and he dissolved it in 1655) divided country into 11 regions ruled each by major general w a 10% land tax on all former Royalists to pay for the generals -unable to establish constitutional basis for a gov had to restore to military forces to maintain rule of land

Frederick III/King Frederick I

F. William's son -1688-1713 -aided HRE and was officially granted King-in-Prussia and became III-->I

Divine right monarchy

Monarchy Based on belief that monarchs receive their power from God directly and are responsible to no one except God

Restoration

after cromwell's death 18months later, military decided that they needed to reestablish the monarch w charles II who was exiled; parliament regained power, house of lords restored; Cavalier Parl. met and restored Anglican church as official church of Eng. -Test Act made only Anglicans could hold military and civil offices -James II still gave Catholics high gov positions when he came to power

Stuarts

after end of Tudor dynasty when Elizabeth died her cousin King James VI of Scotland was inaugurated James I of England which started the Stuart dynasty (restored monarchy to end E. troubles)

Deism

belief in God as the creator of the universe who after setting it in motion ceased to have any direct involvement in it and allowed it to run according to its own natural laws -shared by most philosophers including Voltaire -built on Newtonian world-machine -God didn't extend grace/answer prayer as Christians liked to believe -Jesus might be "good fellow" but he wasn't divine

What did Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton contribute to a new vision of the universe, and how did it differ from the Ptolemaic conception of the universe?

copernicus: heliocentric conception: P. had geocentric conception - 1st angered prost. because they relied on scriptures who say Joshua bid the earth still Kepler: 3 laws of planetary motion; The line from the Sun to a planet sweeps out equal area in equal times., elliptical orbits, planets with larger orbits revolve at a slower velocity Galileo: telescope led to observations of earth like planets rather than ethereal of perfect substances Newton: 3 laws of motion, gravity and the universe was a regulated machine; math could explain all motion in the universe (ptolemy didn't even know what these concepts were)

What PES crises did Europe experience in the 1st 1/2 of the 17thc?

economic: after 30yrs war some areas of germany devastated, others economic growth, most had damaged economy social: 15-20% decline after war, witchcraft craze, accusing old women/women in general became norm, rebellion by peasants and lower class in france, austria, hungary, portugal, catalonia, naples, sicily, russia, sweden, denmakr, united provinces, most famous was english reformation political: 30 yrs war, rebellion bc monarchs attempted to extend their authority and increase their power (increased taxes and created hardships)

Cardinal Richelieu

french, chief minister of King Louis XIII entered war directly and began Fraco-Swedish Phase (1635-1648) -eliminated political and military rights of Huguenots but kept their religious rights, made them more reliable subjects -developed efficient network of spies to uncover noble plots and then crushed the conspiracies and executed the conspirators, eliminating a major threat to royal authority -created intendants -taille tax increased, and joining in the 30yrs war outstripped the additional revenues and france's debt continued in an upward spiral

Cardinal Mazarin

hired by Louis XIV mom Anne of Austria since he was 4 when he came to regency -Italian trained under Richelieu and carried out his policies until his death in 1661 -had to deal w the Frondes since he was a foreigner and greatly disliked by all elements of the French pop.

stadholder

in Dutch Republic each province had one who was responsible for leading the army and maintaining order -started with William of Orange and his heirs who occupied the job in most of 7 provinces and favored centralized gov w them as hereditary monarchs

Neoclassicism

late 18thc artistic movement that emerged in France, sought to recapture the dignity and simplicity of the classical style of ancient Greece and Rome -especially influenced by recent excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii -Jacques-Louis David (Oath of the Horatii) scene from Roman history w/ 3 Horatius brothers swearing on oath before their father w their willingness to sacrifice their lives from their country -his moral seriousness and emphasis on honor and patriotism made him popular in french rev.

How did popular culture differ from high culture in the eighteenth century?(high culture)

literary and artistic world of educated and wealthy ruling classes; expansion of reading public and publishing, middle-class read too including women and urban artisans -growth of publishing made it so authors were less dependent on patrons -development of magazines(Steele and Addisons Spectator brought philosophy out of closets, instructed and entertained at the same time, and appealed to women) -daily newspapers (cheap and special features) -libraries -most philosophes believed education should keep people in own social class -Realschule (first opened in Germany) offered modern languages, geography, bookkeeping for a career in business -girls: focused on religion and domestic skills(new ed. was made to please philosophes, merchants, and other middle-class members) -also wanted intro of new ideas in physics, astronomy, and math *significant that very few important scientific discoveries of 18thc occurred in the universities

Zemsky Sobor

national assembly, ended Time of Troubles by choosing Michael Romanov(163-1645) as new tsar, beginning a dynasty lasting until 1917 in Russia

Edict of Fontainebleau

oct 1685 issued by XIV, revoked Edict of Nantes, provided for destruction of Huguenot churches, closing of Prost. schools -about 200,000 defied prohibition against leaving France and sought asylum in England, United Prov., and the German states -influx of Eng. and Irish political and religious refugees balanced out the economic loss -support for this edict from Catholic lay ppl who rejected prost legal rights, banned them from gov meetings and destroyed Prost churches to gain back C control of heavily pop. Prost region

Parlements

provincial law courts in France -Louis XIV was able to exercise political and economic control over them which were responsible for registering new laws sent to them by the king

Mannerism:

reflected the environment of anxiety, uncertainty, suffering, and a yearning for spiritual experience in its deliberate attempt to break down High Res. principles of balance, harmony, and moderation("in the manner of" Michelangelo's late style) -italians painters deliberately distorted the rules of proportion -elongated figures conveying a sense of suffering and a strong emotional atmosphere filled w anxiety and confusion -El Greco( birth name Doménikos Theotocópoulos) -born in Crete, studied Venice and Rome, Spain(elongated and contoured figures, w unusual shades of yellow and green against an eerie background of turbulent groups to create intense emotion)

Dutch Realism

reflects interest of burgher society: portraits of themselves, group portraits of military companies and guilds, landscapes, seascapes, genre scenes, still lives, and interiors of residences -mainly interested in realistic portrayal of secular every day life -*Judith Leyster* own painting career(remarkable for 17thc) 1st female member of the painting Guild of Saint Luke in Haarlem -set up own workshop w 3 male pupils (painted musicals playing inst. women sewing, children laughing while playing games, actors performing) *Rembrandt Van Rijn* -opulent portraits and grandiose scenes colorful, prolific, and successful but turned away from materialistic success to follow own artistic path and lost public support and died bankrupt, became more introspective when older and didn't follow his contemporaries(largely secular) 1/2 of paintings from biblical tales; stands out as the 1 great prost painter of 17thc

Rationalism

system of thought based on belief that human reason and experience are the chief sources of knowledge -founded by Descartes -secular, critical way of thinking