APUSH 1st semester

Marbury v Madison

A court case of the Federalist John Marshall (head of Supreme Court & Adams' Secretary of State) in 1803 involving James Madison (Jefferson's Secretary of State) & William Marbury (appointed judge). John Adams appointed justices of the peace for the District of Colombia on the eve of leaving office and James Madison refused to give the documents allowing the appointed judges to assume their posts. William Marbury was one of four appointed judges who sued for their offices. John Marshall ruled that it was unconstitutional for Madison to issue the commission for Marbury (ie that the section of the Judiciary Act of 1789, forcing courts to make executive officials deliver the commissions was unconstitutional). Such power was greater than that of Congress as stated in the Constitution & therefore the Judiciary Act of 1789 was void. The court case is significant because it is the first example of "judicial review," a power in which the Supreme Court takes on the right to decide whether an act of Congress violates the Constitution.

Commonwealth v Hunt

A court decision made by Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court by chief justice Lemuel Shaw that ruled that it was perfectly legal for workers to organize unions and have strikes in 1842. The ruling reflected a change in law, because previously workers were punished for seeking higher wages. Changes in law were a reflection of the times because as there were more immigrants and factory workers people demanded better conditions and higher wages. The decision was important because it gave workers the right to protest (strike) and organize in unions to discuss bettering work conditions and wages.

Nullification Crisis

A crisis during President Jackson's administration that was a sectional issue (North v South) brought on by South Carolina's nullification of tariffs of 1828 and 1832. South Carolina claimed it had the power to nullify laws passed by Congress that were unconstitutional and could choose what to enforce within the boundaries of the state (state v fed issue). Calhoun supported nullification, while Jackson didn't. Jackson believed that nullification would lead to disunion, while Calhoun thought that nullification was a way of ensuring political stability in a large nation. The issue of nullification was brought up in 1832 when a tariff was enacted that South Carolina declared void and refused to follow. A Force Bill was passed by Congress, authorizing the use of the army and navy to collect the tariffs on imported manufactured goods. The Nullification Crisis was significant because it brought it highlighted the sectionalism in the nation (N v S) and hinted at the possibility of disunion.

Alein and Sedition Acts

A crisis during the President Adams' administration due to laws passed in 1798. The Alien Act was meant to further target immigrants, already the number of years in residency from 4 to 15 was changed to gain US citizenship, and allowed for the deportation of any immigrant who was "dangerous." The Sedition Act allowed for the prosecution of any public assembly or publication critical of the government and targeted the Republican press, which Adams saw as a danger to "genuine liberty." Although the Sedition Act was not as strict as Britain's limit on the press, Republicans coined the time period as a "reign of witches" noting the parallel with the Salem Witch Trials (only 18 people were charged & it was set to expire in 1801). The Alien and Sedition Acts were significant because they showed the great political divisions amongst the people of the US and the unfair actions the President took against his opposition political party and the freedom of speech. Also, the presence of immigrants and the time period necessary to wait in order to gain citizenship was an ever-increasing question.

Roger Williams

A dissenter, Roger Williams clashed with Massachusetts Puritans over the issue of separation of church and state. After being banished from Massachusetts in 1636, he traveled south, where he founded the colony of Rhode Island, which granted full religious freedom to its inhabitants.

The Association

A document produced by the Continental Congress in 1775 that called for a complete boycott of British goods. This included non-importation, non-exportation and non-consumption. It was the closest approach to a written constitution yet from the colonies. It was hoped to bring back the days before Parliamentary taxation. Those who violated The Association in America were tarred and feathered

Declaration of Sentiments

A document written primarily by Elizabeth Cady Stanton at the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 in NY that was modeled on the Declaration of Independence. It listed the grievances of women, ie all the rights denied to them that were granted to men and a list of all the rights they wanted, ie the same as men. The lack of female suffrage was the first grievance listed and one of the main demands wanted by women. However, equal status in marriage, property rights, and equal opportunity for jobs and education were also important demands made by women, listed in the document that if met would help equalize women with men. The Declaration of Sentiments was significant because it voiced the concerns of women and listed all the demands and lack of rights that women had, therefore raising the issue of women's rights to a more prominent and important place.

"Peculiar Institution"

A euphemism for slavery and the economic ramifications of it in the American South. The term aimed to explain away the seeming contradiction of legalized slavery in a country whose Declaration of Independence states that "all men are created equal". It was one of the key causes of the Civil War.

Albany Plan of Union

A failed attempt in 1754 by Benjamin Franklin to create a frame of government in the colonies that would unite them together. Each colony would send a delegate to a Grand Council that would have the power to create taxes and come up with solutions to problems such as Indian relations and defense. The plan was rejected by the colonial assemblies and never even sent to London to be considered. The Albany Plan of Union was one of the first attempts to unify the colonies to decide bigger issues together.

Sojourner Truth

A female black abolitionist born into slavery around 1799 in NY, who was emancipated in 1827 when slavery was emancipated in NY. She spoke in 1851 a women's rights convention and wanted feminism to focus particularly on poor and middle-class women. Sojourner Truth insisted that women were not just delicate; they could work hard too. She was important to the women's rights movement, not only because she was a slave, but because she challenged the idea of women being inferior, physically, to men.

Panic of 1837

A financial crisis during Jackson's Presidency triggered by two events that made people pay only using "hard cash" (gold or silver). The Specie Circular (1836) was issued by Jackson and made people pay in "hard cash" only for public lands due to the devalued nature of paper money. The British also made American merchants pay in gold or silver, but then an economic downturn in Britain lowered demand for American exports. As a result there was an economic collapse and depression until 1843. Jackson was able to separate the government, state & fed, from the economy, but at the expense of many people's jobs and economic well-being.

Panic of 1819

A financial crisis in the United States. After the Second National Bank of the US was established, the bank helped spread the speculative fever across the country and gave out loans to people to buy land (westward expansion). The Bank of the US printed more paper money to meet the rising demand of people to get loans to buy land (esp. in South). Soon, European demand for American goods returned to normal (they were higher when trade with Europe resumed) and demand for land dropped. The price of land therefore fell and speculators lost money. The Bank of the US began to ask for money back from the loans, but the people who borrowed money were unable to pay it back and declared bankruptcy. The Panic of 1819 lasted about a year, but it disrupted the political stability and harmony of the US. The Panic of 1819 also led to many American's distrust of banks.

Hamilton's Program

A financial plan created by Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton in 1790-1791 in an effort to establish financial stability in the new nation and encourage economic development. His plan was modeled on Great Britain and the long-term goal was to make the US a commercial and military power. Hamilton's Program consisted of five parts: 1) establish credit-worthiness (ppl loan gov money & gov pawy it back) 2) creation of a new national debt (old debts replaced with bonds carrying interest) 3) establish a Bank (private, not branch of government) 4) raise revenue by taxing whiskey producers and 5) establish a tax on imported foreign goods (allow for government subsidies on imported goods that could be made in the colonies). The plan also called for establishing a national army to deal with uprisings. Many criticized Hamilton's Plan because of the inevitable ties with Europe due to trading and the taxes that would hurt small farmers making whiskey. The financial plan proposed by Hamilton is significant because it aims to get the new nation's finances in a decent state and run like those of other nations (GB), while generating revenue and serving the people.

Shay's Rebellion

A group of debt-ridden farmers led by Daniel Shays in late 1786 and early 1787 stopped the courts in western Massachusetts to prevent their land from being taken as a result of not paying taxes and debts. They believed they were acting in the spirit of the Revolution, although the governor did no sympathize with their cause and the rebels were dispersed and some arrested in January 1787. The law had to be upheld to prevent anarchy and Shay's Rebellion was a cry for a stronger national government and greater property protection. Shay's Rebellion was important because it made people realize that the power of the people (public liberty) could endanger private liberty (property) needed to be "checked"/have limits.

First Continental Congress

A group of delegates from 12 mainland colonies (except Georgia) that met in September 1774 to discuss resistance to the Intolerable Acts. Delegates included John & Samuel Adams (Mass), George Washington, Richard Henry Lee, and Patrick Henry (Virginia). The Congress used the ideas of liberty and law of nature and John Locke's ideas as justification for the colonies to resist Britain. Thomas Jefferson introduced the idea of the British Empire being a collection of equal parts with loyalty to a constitutional monarch, instead of the colonies being ruled over by the king in a piece of literature produced before the Congress. The First Continental Congress was an example of an every growing inter-colonial unity, taking place in the colonies. Delegates, as representatives of their colony, were able to communicate their ideas with those of other colonies and collectively come to a conclusion on how to proceed with handling a certain situation, in this particular case, that of the Intolerable Acts.

Regulators

A group of residents in the South Carolina backcountry in the 1760s who protested the lack of government in the backcountry enforcing the law and order. The term also referred to a movement in North Carolina where small farmers refused to pay taxes and kidnapped local officials as a way to protest the corrupt country officials in the government. The local officials limited access to land for most settlers by charging high taxes and court fees. The Regulators were upset that the rich and powerful elites were successful at the expense of the poor farmers. In South Carolina, the Regulators referred to a group of wealthy residents, who were upset with gangs that committed crimes and the lack of any laws being enforced. There was turmoil in North Carolina until the battle of Alamance suppressed the farmers. Both groups of Regulators were upset with the way the law was being handled in their region and wanted change and justice to be served. The power and corruption of the elites was a continuous source of anger for poorer settlers, while the lack of equal law enforcement everywhere in a colony also angered people.

Proclamation of 1763

A law issued by the British government in an attempt to prevent future Indian uprisings due to land/border disputes. The proclamation prohibited colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains and banned the sale of Indian lands to individuals. Only colonial government could set up purchasing Indian land. The law was ignored for the most part. George Washington tried to buy up as much Indian land as possible, while keeping it a secret. The Proclamation of 1763 is significant because it shows the British trying to minimize the tension over land between the colonists and the Indians, but ends up being ignored due to the weak nature of the involvement of the British government in the colonies.

John Locke

A leading philosopher of liberty in the 17th century. He wrote Two Treatises on Government in 1680 that influenced the next century. He believed that government should be organized differently than a family and should be a mutual agreement between equals. In his idea of thinking, men gave up some rights and power in exchange for the benefits of laws, but still retained their natural rights. He defended the property rights of women, their right to divorce, and slaves (to a certain extent). His ideas about liberty were especially significant in the 18th c. as they allowed more freedoms to those who never had access to certain rights.

Feminism

A movement in the 1900s led by women seeking equal rights and opportunities with men. The movement was international, but in America especially was important because America was a democracy that promised freedom & liberty for all, except women were being left out so they decided to demand their rights. Feminism came to be when many middle-class women were left at home with nothing to do (less to do) chore-wise and realized they lacked the individual choices available to men such as pursuing education or careers. Women wanted to freedom in order to be equals to men. Feminism was important because it brought up the issues of women's rights and promoted a definition of freedom that included women, therefore included more of the American people than the previously held belief of freedom did.

Temperance Movement

A movement initiated by the American Temperance Society in 1826 to convince people of the evils of drinking alcohol for drunkards and moderate drinkers alike. The Temperance Movement was successful, supposedly, because by 1840 the amount of alcohol consumed was greatly reduced. Advocates against drinking supported their argument by saying drinking was a sin and that they were instilling good morals and helping out those who lacked morals by persuading people to not drink. However, not everyone agreed with the Temperance Movement and the moral reform brought on by the movement was met with hostility because different people had different ideas of what kind of behavior was sinful and to what extent. The moral reform associated with the movement was seen as an attack on freedom by many Catholics especially because they believed it was a Protestant view of freedom imposed on them (mostly Irish & German immigrants). Many disliked the immigrants and believed they need to be morally reformed because Americans claimed they were prone to vices, especially drinking, which was a form of slavery and that by promoting not drinking, they were helping people succeed and not be enslaved.

Transcendentalism

A movement that valued individual judgment over existing social traditions and institutions during the mid 1800s. Such a belief was held by a group of New England intellectuals known as transcendentalists, which included literary personas such as Emerson and Thoreau. Transcendentalism was important because the increased value of the individual, in this case individual judgment was significant because it although it seemed contrary to the market revolution, the greater focus on the individual was one of the major outcomes of the current time period.

Townshend duties

A new set of taxes imposed on Americans in 1767 devised by Charles Townshend. While there was opposition against the Stamp Act, some colonists suggested they would not mind if Britain regulated trade as a way to make extra revenue. Townshend brought this idea to Parliament, who then passed taxes on imported goods in the colonies with new regulators to collect the taxes and stop smugglers. The taxes were supposed to support the salaries of American governors and judges in order to free dependence on colonial assemblies. The opposition to the Townshend duties developed slower than that of the Stamp Act, but people still boycotted imported goods. The Townshend duties were significant because they served as a precursor to the Boston Massacre.

Unicameral legislature

A one house legislature. Pennsylvania adopted a single house legislature after a new constitution, three months after independence (1776) , in order to institutionalize democracy. All men over 21 who paid taxes could be elected to the legislature in Pennsylvania. A unicameral legislature was a one - house legislature because it was thought that the people only had a single set of interests. Unicameral legislatures were significant because they showed an effort to democratize politics in reaction to the independence of the colonies.

Common Sense

A pamphlet printed in 1776, written by Thomas Paine, but attributed only to an "Englishman." The pamphlet makes use of simple, common, language, understandable to a very broad audience. Paine makes the argument that the colonies should be independent from Britain for their own good. Britain has only dragged down the colonies in numerous unnecessary wars. Near the end, he alludes to America being an "asylum for mankind," meaning a utopia in a sense, for people to start over with no social hierarchy. Whereas most literature spread around in the public sphere was written for an educated audience, Paine's pamphlet was aimed at the common person who could read and included the common person in his idea of the independent colonies.

Era of Good Feelings

A period in US history under President James Monroe's administration in which there were years of one-party government (no two parties meant no bitterness between the 2 parties, but plenty of over division). Instead of division between parties, there was division on issues within one party. The issue of slaver, for example was a divisive issue within one party government. The end of the Era of Good Feelings came with the election of 1824 in which there was no majority of electoral votes for president. The Era of Good Feelings was significant because the question political parties (more than one) was still being examined and its benefits weighed. During the Era of Good Feelings, with only one political party, there were still divisions, so essentially multiple political parties were good & necessary as they did not encourage divisiveness, but unity.

American Enlightenment

A philosophical movement during the 18th c. in America that was inspired by the Enlightenment in Europe. The enlightenment encouraged everything to be judged by reason and was a reaction against the bloody religious wars in Europe during the 17th c. Benjamin Franklin was a key figure in the American Enlightenment and conducted experiments to show that lightening is a form of electricity, established a library, and started a newspaper. The idea of Arminianism that reason established the essentials of religion, was an American belief that came out of the Enlightenment. The American Enlightenment was significant because it encouraged people to apply reason to their thinking and question accepted beliefs about God, the church, etc.

Compromise of 1850

A plan established by Senator Henry Clay to address issues over the newly acquired land from Mexico called the Mexican Cessation. Clay proposed four things: 1) CA enter the Union as a free state 2) Slave trade would be banned in the nation's capital, but slavery would be allowed 3) Southerners would be able to reclaim runaway slaves 4) Popular sovereignty would be used to determine the slavery issue in the territories. The compromise was controversial, especially because CA was to be admitted as a free state, but it was able to pass because unlike the Wilmot Proviso, it was able to gain southern support. Although the Compromise of 1850 did ban the slave trade, it allowed slavery to continue to exist in America and did not take any serious measures to addressing the slavery issue. However, it dealt with the slavery issue enough for the time being.

American System

A plan for economic development outlined by President James Madison in his State of the Union address in December 1815. The plan was composed of three parts: 1) establishment of a new National Bank 2) imposing a tariff on imported manufactured goods to promote American manufactured goods and 3) federal financing of improved roads & canals (infrastructure). The third, improving infrastructure proved to be the most controversial and Madison himself came to believe that a Constitutional amendment would have to be approved to fix the roads with federal money. The other two parts of his plan did become laws, but the third was left out. The American System was important because a strong National Bank was important in order to keep up with a growing economy and the tariff on imported manufactured goods encouraged the purchase of American manufactured goods. The controversy around federal financing for infrastructure is also significant because it reveals that there was still controversy over the power of the federal government as stated in the Constitution.

New Jersey Plan

A plan that called for a one house Congress in which each state would get one vote no matter how big or small the state. It was supported by smaller states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania who opposed the Virginia Plan. The New Jersey Plan was a more just alternative to the Virginia Plan because it gave all states equal representation in Congress.

Salutary Neglect

A policy adopted by the British government in the beginning of the 18th c toward the colonies. The government decided to leave them alone, allowing them to govern themselves for the most part. Little British involvement in politics allowed the plantation owners, merchants, and lawyers to take over colonial assemblies and by extension, control the local politics of the colonies.

Virginia Company

A private business whose shareholders included merchants, aristocrats, and members of Parliament provided the funding for England's first voyage to the New World. The company had more of an interest in gold and natural resources, instead of agriculture and land. When the company realized it needed to focus on growing plants and developing agriculture, it enticed people to emigrate by awarding 50 acres of land to those who paid their own or another's passage.

Anglicization

A process in which Americans began to think of themselves as less American and acted more and more English. The wealthy Americans sent their sons off to be educated in Britain, proper British etiquette and behavior were employed and the latest fashions from London and other luxuries were imported. Even homes were modeled on British town houses and country estates. Anglicization was significant because although the colonies of the New World were established to be different than England, more and more it appeared that the colonies adopted English customs in all kinds of way, including the wealthy English way of life. Many of the wealthy ended un deep in debt due to trying to become more English and maintain a high standard of life.

John Wilkes

A radical journalist who criticized the king and ministry. He was elected to Parliament in London, but then kicked out after publication of No.45, which attacked the king and prime minister. He was arrested, tried, and acquitted by a jury. Although he was kicked of Parliament, John Wilkes was able to exercise his freedom of speech in London. The treatment of John Wilkes was significant because it shows that although the British government still had a strict control over Parliament and radicals, it also had to acknowledge and accept certain freedoms.

Shakers

A religious community in Ohio that formed a "utopian" society without sin founded in the late 18th c by Mother Ann Lee. Lee emigrated with her followers because she believed Christ had chosen her to do so and she established the first Shaker community in 1787 in NY. The Shakers thought each person had a "dual" personality so therefore both men and women were spiritually equal. They didn't have traditional family life, endorsed "virgin purity," and both men and women lived in separate dorms. The Shakers are known for their frenzied dancing (separated by sex of course) and their furniture. As most utopian societies, the Shakers rejected the ownership of private property. The Shakers like other religious communities were significant because they called for social and moral reform, but were controversial because they were seen as attacking American freedom. Owning private property was seen as a freedom and marriage was seen as the foundation of social order so when both were done away with, critics claimed freedoms were being denied. The Shaker sought to create a society that was equal between both sexes and reform American society as a whole to treat all with equality.

Great Awakening

A religious movement that began in the 1730s in the colonies to create a more individual and emotional Christianity in churches. Also known as revivals, the Great Awakening, were a series of local events that changed the religious churches in the colonies by creating religious alternatives not currently offered. The Great Awakening popularized a very emotional style of preaching and it tried to spark a greater interest in religion in the colonies. When the colonies were founded, religion was very important and a large part of colonial life. However, over time religion became less important and the Great Awakening was a call to bring back, revive, religion in colonial life as well as introduce religious diversity. The Great Awakening questioned current church authority and social tension of the society.

Wilmot Proviso

A resolution presented in 1846 by Congressman David Wilmot of Pennsylvania banning slavery in all land acquired from Mexico. All northerners supported the Wilmot Proviso, while most southerners opposed it. The measure was able to pass in the House due to a northern majority, but it failed in the Senate due to an equal number of northerners and southerners. The Wilmot Proviso was significant because it brought up the slavery issue and forced it to be discussed in the political sphere, but unfortunately it was not able to pass.

Charles Grandison Finney

A reverend in the 1830s in the USA who held month-long revival meetings in upstate NY and NY city during the Second Great Awakening. He was a son of some farmers and warned of hell and gave vivid speeches. He was well known and very successful in terms of scaring people. In Oneida County everyone abandoned the tavern and theater after he gave a sermon. Revered Charles Grandison Finney was significant because he was part of the Second Great Awakening, which encouraged the idea of the individual making separate decisions from "society," but also because he was such a good speaker & could inspire change.

Bleeding Kansas

A sequence of violent events involving abolitionists and pro-Slavery elements that took place in Kansas-Nebraska Territory. The dispute further strained the relations of the North and South, making civil war imminent.

Intolerable Acts

A series of laws enacted as a direct response to the Boston Tea Party. The port of Boston was closed until the cost of the tea dumped overboard was paid for, the governor had to appoint members that were previously elected to the council, and parliament made locals put up soldiers in private homes. Parliament also passed the Quebec Act, allowing religious toleration to Catholics in Canada. Colonists say the Quebec Act as a strengthening of the Catholic Church and feared the British would impose Catholicism to a majority of Protestants in America. The Intolerable Acts were disliked by the colonists and considered an attempt to take away liberty from the colonies. The Intolerable Acts were significant because it was a series of responses that demonstrated the power and authority of Parliament and the British over the colonies. Also, it was a somewhat desperate measure to keep the settlers in line. The British already seemed to sense the colonists were not going to be obedient.

Triangular Trade

A series of trade routes in the 18th c that crisscrossed the Atlantic, connecting Europe, Africa and America. Manufactured goods were sent to Africa and the colonies, slaves were brought to the New World, and colonial goods were sent to Europe. The slave trade became one of the main economic activities of the 18th c, but especially so for England because of the acquisition of the Spanish asiento from the Dutch. The asiento was an agreement that Spain had with other powers that they would supply slaves to Spanish America. In turn, England became much more involved in the slave trade and the slaves in turn produced products, which were shipped out of the colonies. The triangular trade is significant because of the dependence England had on the supply of African slaves in order to continue the profitable trading. Without slaves, manufactured goods and raw materials would not be made and England's trade would not be as strong as it was with the slave trade.

Stono Rebellion

A slave rebellion that started in 1739 and ended in 1741 involving a group of South Carolina slaves banded together and headed to Florida burning houses and killing whites along the way. The slaves were thought to be ex-soldiers from the Kongo. Those who reached Florida were ensured Spain's protection and the Spanish armed those slaves who managed to make it. The armed salves helped fight an attack on St. Augustine by a force from Georgia. In response, South Carolina tightened the slave code and temporarily imposed a prohibitive tax on imported slaves. The Stono Rebellion is significant because it was a major uprising that spread fear throughout the colonies of future rebellions by the slave population. The power of the slave population bond together was stronger than the white's and that scared the colonists.

Amistad

A slave ship that 53 slaves were able to take control of in 1839 that was transporting slaves originally from Africa to a port in Cuba. The slaves wanted the ship to be steered towards Africa, but an American vessel seized the ship near Long Island. The President, van Buren, wanted the slaves returned to Africa, but abolitionists had their day in court and the some of the slaves were returned to Africa. As the slaves were brought from Africa the international treaty banning slave trade was violated, therefore they should be freed. The legal case did not change anything for the blacks enslaved in America, but did possibly inspire another uprising in 1841 with slaves aboard the Creole, heading toward British territory. The British gave refuge to the slaves, shocking President Tyler's administration. The rebellion of slaves taking over their ship shows that blacks did fight and resist being enslaved and did not just give up their freedom.

Separist

A small number of Puritans who wished to "purify" the Church of England left to form independent churches and became known as separists. They lef the church in the 16th c and the Pilgrims were separists. Similar to Purtians as a whole, separists are significant because they questioned the church and tradition of sacraments. Also, they exercised the freedom of religious tolerance.

Olaudah Equiano

A son of an African village chief taken by slave traders in the mid 1750's. He was sold into slavery and taken on many voyages by his masters. He was able to enroll in an English school and became literate. He enlisted in the Royal Navy, was sold once again and went to the Carribean and then finally he was able to purchase his own freedom. Equiano was renamed Gustavus Vasssa by one of his masters and he settled down in London, where he published a book telling his story, while also condemning the idea that his people are inferior and can't be educated. He participated in several expeditions (to the Artic Circle) and died in 1797. Despite the color of his skin and his past as a slave, Olaudah Equiano was able to be overcome slavery and gain his freedom as well as a certain amount of respect (he published a book, the expedition). He is a rare example of a slave who was able to make it out and be remembered as well as leave a mark in the world.

Lowell system

A system of factory labor that used "mill girls" and relied on female and child labor to produce goods. Young women left home to live at strict boarding houses and work, earning a sense of independence, while under vigilant supervision and a highly structured and restrictive private life. Most girls worked for a few years then moved on to marry or leave the factory in search of other work opportunities. The Lowell system was significant because as oppressive as it was, it allowed young women a taste of freedom and independence, previously unavailable to them.

Republicanism

A term later used to describe a government without a king in the 18th c. Republicanism was one kind of liberty that had a public and social quality to it. It encouraged people to be economically independent and that only land owning citizens were "virtuous" (willing to give up their own interests for the greater good of the public). Republicanism was significant because it was one of the types of political ideas that supported more democratic ideals in the sense that there could be a functioning government without a king.

Strict Constructionists

A term used to describe many southerners who supported the Constitution, but believed that the federal government only had the powers listed in the Constitution. Hamilton's Program was the cause of such a belief as it did not benefit southerners and some people, even Thomas Jefferson thought that establishing a national bank was unconstitutional since it is not mentioned as one of the powers of Congress in the Constitution. To resolve the conflict, Hamilton brokered a deal with Jefferson in which southerners accepted Hamilton's plan in exchange for the having the national capital be located on their side (Potomac River btw Maryland & Virginia). Strict Constructionists are significant because they questioned the amount of power granted to the federal government and the "implied" powers. Even today people bring up similar questions of how much power the federal government can Constitutionally exercise.

Liberalism

A term used to describe one type of political ideas in the 18th c. that celebrated individual and private freedom. Liberalism was the belief that in order to have freedom, the government should not interfere in private matters such as family relations, religious preferences and economic activity. It was significant because it made certain issues private and encouraged a more democratic political approach to government in that the government can't meddle in someone's private affairs, protecting individuals' rights.

Free Labor

A term used to describe people who work for wages, own a farm or a shop. Free labor identifies with the northern economy, as opposed to slave labor, which identifies with the southern economy. Independence gave rise to free labor as indentured servitude was phased out and apprenticeships started losing appeal as they no longer conformed with the idea of freedom. Former slaves and white females who worked as domestic servants were paid wages. Free labor was significant because it demonstrated how the idea of liberty and freedom were applied in the north. All people had the opportunity to earn wages and gain economic resources, which according to Thomas Jefferson was necessary to be free.

Treaty of Ghent

A treaty between Britain and the US that was signed in December 1814, but the news only reached America after the Battle of New Orleans. The treaty did not include anything that changed impressments, neutral shipping rights, and no land was exchanged. The status quo went back to normal, as it was before the war. The Treaty of Ghent was significant because it calmed the tension between the US and Britain, but it did not include any significant changes in British policy towards the US (essentially the US did not get anything out of it, but the US did not exactly triumph militarily).

Jay's Treaty

A treaty negotiated by John Jay with the British in 1794 over tensions left over, but never dealt with brought up by the French Revolution. In exchange for the British abandoning their outposts on the western frontier, the US would favor British imported goods. Jay's Treaty "canceled" the American-French alliance and proved that Britain was an important economic and naval power. It was a very controversial treaty because it appeared that the US was "siding" with a monarchial Britain, instead of endorsing the French Revolution and spirit of liberty. Jay's Treaty furthered political divides in the US and led to an organized opposition party.

Trial of Zenger

A trial that took place in 1735, involving John Peter Zenger, a German printer who emigrated to New York. His newspaper, the Weekly Journal criticized the governor for corruption, etc. The court ultimately decided that Zenger was not guilty and the victory of the case set a warning to all that it would be difficult to win cases involving libel. The victory also promoted freedom of speech to the extent that if something is true, it should be published.

Mexican War

A war between America and Mexico that lasted from 1846 to 1848 during US President James K.Polk's administration. President Polk wanted California, at the time part of Mexico, to become part of the Union and when Mexico refused to sell, Polk had Zachary Taylor provoke Mexican troops into fighting near a disputed border. President Polk then claimed that "blood was shed" on US soil and declared war on Mexico. Declaring war on Mexico on flimsy proof was a questionable move on President Polk's part and questioned by Congress. However, the US was stronger than Mexico militarily and acted like a European country, finally exerting power over other countries. The idea of "manifest destiny" and white supremacy led Americans to believe they had the right to expand their territory and annex Mexico, in this case California. The Mexican War was significant because it was essentially a war provoked by Americans because Mexicans wouldn't sell them land. The Mexican War was the beginning of US domination and superiority among other nations.

Battle of Fallen Timbers

A war between American troops and Indian troops led by Little Turtle in 1794. The American troops defeated the Indians and the victory, for Americans, led to the Treaty of Greenville of 1795, basically giving Indian land up to the federal government. In return, the Indians received yearly grants of federal money through a system called the "annuity" system. The outcome of the Battle of Fallen Timbers is significant because it forced the Americans to decide how to deal with the Indians. The Indians were not to be included as part of the American people, but were separate as they were not taxed because they did not have representation in the government. At least they were granted money annually, but the policy towards Indians became one of let's get their land and the Indians lost almost all their land in the process.

Seven Years' War (French/Indian War)

A war started around the 1750s between the French and the Indians of Ohio Valley over land. The French claimed land in the Ohio Valley that threatened Indians. The government of Virginia gave a land grant to the Ohio Company that sparked the French to become more interested in the region. The Ohio Company wanted the French to recognize its land claim and that really started the war. The Seven Years' War was one of the first imperial wars fought in the colonies with a decisive win for one side. The war changed the global balance of power.

Middle ranks

About two-thirds of free males owned their own land and were part of the middle ranks. They were neither rich, nor poor, but they had their own property and resented those who limited access to land (Indians, government, great landlords). Many had families and they had a certain independence unknown to most in England, where very few families owned their own land. The establishment of a fairly independent middle class is significant because it did not exist in England and allowed the poor to have hopes of rising up to at least the middle ranks, where they could be well off, but not rich.

Puritan

Active Protestants who wished to rid the Church of England of "Popish" ritual, vestments, ornaments. Sometimes referred to as the "hotter sort of Protestant".

Quakers

Also known as the Society of Friends, the Quakers were a religious group who were persecuted in England. Therefore, many Quakers settled in the New World most in the colony of Pennsylvania. Quakers were pacifists and were not armed. They helped the local Indians and upheld a strict moral code. No swearing, drunkenness, adultery, cock-fighting, etc. were allowed in public. Equality among all people: women, blacks, and Indians was very important for Quakers. Women held a prominent role in Quaker gatherings and life and Indians were treated well. The Quakers were significant in the New World because they upheld a much stricter moral code than other colonists and believed in equality, even for blacks, which became important when slavery was introduced in the colonies, as the Quakers rejected slavery.

Tenth Amendment

Amendment stating that the powers not delegated to the federal gov. are reserved to the states

Know-Nothings

An American political party formed around 1854 that was comprised of nativists (hostility towards immigrants, Catholics in particular). In the North, the party combined anti-immigrant, mainly anti-Irish & Catholic sentiments, with anti-slavery as the main values of the party. The political party tried to oppose the sale of liquor because part of the nativist belief was that the Irish drank too much. The political party started out as a secret organization, whose members replied, "I don't know" when asked about the organization from which the name of the political party came. The Know-Nothing party was successful in state elections in 1854 in Massachusetts and was able to get mayor's office in Philadelphia, SF, and Chicago. The Know-Nothing party was significant because it demonstrated the strong unity of American-born people, nativists, against immigrants, especially in the North because most immigrants came to the North for jobs. The formation of such a political party also revealed that so called "native" Americans felt threatened by immigrants and feared competition for jobs and land.

George Whitefield

An English minister who is credited with sparking the Great Awakening around the 1730s. He was known for his emotional style of preaching, which he brought with him to the colonies. His sermons provoked many colonists to think about the direction of their life and change what they did not like about themselves. Benjamin Franklin even helped publicize Whitefield's tour in the colonies. Whitefield's sermons and journals were even published to help spread the word. George Whitefield is significant because he was a key figure of the Great Awakening and helped pioneer a more emotional style of preaching in attempt to reach out to colonists on a more emotional level.

Pontiac's Rebellion

An Indian revolt against the British in 1763 by Indians from the Ohio Valley and the Great Lakes named after an Ottawa war leader. The tension was caused due to the French ceding land to the British that they took from the Indians. The rebellion was partially inspired by the teachings of Neolin, a religious prophet who preached that the Indians should free themselves from commercial ties with the British. His message also tied in with the idea of all Indians being united, instead of members of individual tribes. Pontiac's Rebellion is significant because it called Indians to unite and return to living their lives like they did before the British came to America.

Roanoke

An Island in the New World off the North Carolina coast where 100 colonists were sent from the England in 1585. A year later the colonists returned to England and another group of 100 settlers set out for Roanoke Island. The colony was found abandoned and it their fate remains unknown.

Declaratory Act

An act passed by Parliament after the repeal of the Stamp Act in 1766 that stated that Parliament has the right to pass laws for the colonies and people of America, ie taxation without representation. The colonies did not have representation in Parliament, but Parliament's right to tax the colonies was put into law so that it was clear to the colonies who had the power. The British government needed to tax the colonies in order to pay off some of the debt, accumulated from the Seven Year's War. The Declaratory Act furthered tension and conflict in the colonies.

Charles Sumner

An anti-slavery senator of Massachusetts who was beaten with a cane by South Carolina representative Preston Brooks in the 1850s. Sumner was unconscious after the beating. He was beaten with a gold-tipped cane after giving a speech titled "The Crime Against Kansas." Southerners supported Brooks and even sent him canes with inscriptions saying, "hit him again." Sumner's speech that possibly provoked the beating was about Bleeding Kansas and the violence of anti-slavery supporters towards pro-slavery supporters. The beating incident with Charles Sumner was significant because members of Congress were using violence to support their beliefs, never a good thing. The need for acts of violence against those who didn't share the same beliefs, in this case pro-slavery, showed that the slavery issue was on the brink of exploding and needed to be seriously dealt with.

XYZ Affair

An event that strained the United States' relationship with France. The US continued to trade nonmilitary items with both Britain and France, but France would take over American ships in what was a quasi-war. When American diplomats were sent to negotiate with the French, in 1797, three Frenchmen, X, Y, Z, demanded bribes before any negotiations could begin. The XYZ Affair tainted the relationship with France and essentially made the US become a military ally of the British. President Adams was able to finally negotiate peace with France in 1800, despite Hamliton's wish to declare war. The XYZ Affair is significant because it reveals the tensions left over from Jay's Treaty and the importance of foreign relations (with France/Britain) and diplomatic policy for the new nation.

Republican Motherhood

An ideology that came from independence. The role of mothers was seen as very important because they raised the future generation and instilled morals, education, and the principles of liberty and government. Women were still not supposed to be directly involved in the government, but it became necessary for women to be educated better therefore increasing opportunities for most women. Although were women were not to be equals to their husbands, the trend for marriages to be more of a "companionate" marriage grew in which people were married voluntarily, cared for each other, and had a dependency on one another, rather than just absolute male domination. The ever-growing role of women and their importance in family and society became more evident after independence as ideas of freedom made everyone, women included, question the freedoms and opportunities available to them.

Dred Scott Decision

An important Supreme Court ruling in March of 1857 with Chief Justice Roger B.Taney claiming that slaves were not citizens, could not sue in court, and that the federal government did not have the right to prohibit slavery in its new territories. Lastly, slaves were property that must be protected and not taken away from their owners. Dred Scott sued for his freedom after being taken from Missouri to Illinois, a free state. Scott thought that since Illinois was a free state he should be granted freedom after living there for a certain amount of time, then returning to Missouri. Even though Dred Scott was still a slave after the decision, he had a new master who emancipated him and his wife. They died after a few years of freedom before the Civil War. The North was disappointed with the ruling and the Supreme Court and believed the South to influence the Supreme Court due to its pro-slavery leaning. President Buchanan declared that slavery must therefore exist in all US territories due to the Dred Scott decision.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

An outcome of the Mexican War, 1848, that resulted in Mexico confirming the annexation of Texas and ceding California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, and Utah to the United States in exchange for $15 million dollars. The area of land that became US territory became known as the Mexican Cessation. All males in the newly added territory of the US were also granted full rights of US citizens. The vast amount of land added to the US included many non-whites: Mexicans and Indians (Spanish were considered white) and allowed racism and discrimination to spread. In Texas, non-whites had limited rights and Indians' property was not protected. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was important because the US was able to significantly expand the size of its territory. Also the treaty was significant because it established US boundaries near Mexico that would be a source of controversy for years to come.

Declaration of Independence

Approved on July 4,1776 by Congress, the Declaration of Independence was a document written mainly by Thomas Jefferson that declared the colonies free from Britain and established a set of rights. It stated that all are equals with basic rights for everyone that no government could take away. Jefferson justified the colonies' independence by claiming Britain threatened the rights' of the colonists, giving the people the power to abolish or alter the government. The Declaration of Independence states that the colonies have the authority to have a revolution as well as present a theory of government. The lack of a monarch meant a more democratic system of government for the people. The idea of freedom and opportunity for all were established by this one document. The Declaration of Independence is still the foundation of the current government of the United States and shows a unity amongst the colonies as well as an important document to set up the government and establish the basic rights to serve the people.

Cotton Kingdom

Areas in the south where cotton farming developed because of the high demand for cotton. This furthered the issue with slavery.

Freedom petitions

Arguments presented to New England's courts and legislatures in the 1770s demanding liberty for African American slaves. The petitions questioned how African Americans could be enslaved when the American Revolution was preaching liberty, equality, and freedom for all. Slaves believed they were entitled to these rights as well and used such arguments in courts. Some even sued states for being illegally held in bondage. Freedom petitions were significant because they were the very first steps taken toward the emancipation of slavery. They forced whites to question how they were able to not apply the concept of universal freedom to the black slaves as well.

pueblo revolt

Around 1680, some 2,000 Pueblo Indians united against the Spaniards in an uprising led by Popé and destroyed farms, missions and killed 400 colonists. The Spanish survivors fled and the Native Americans regained their land, cultural practices, and religious practices.

Manifest Destiny

Coined in the 1840s by (O'Sullivan) the Jacksonian Democrats, was the belief that the United States was "destined" to spread from the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific Ocean. Used to promote the annexation of most of the Western United States (Oregon Territory, Texas Annexation, and the Mexican Cessation). Always regarded as a general notion rather than a specific policy.

Cotton is King

Cotton had become such a huge import by the time of the Civil War it was 60% of all American Imports. Southerners believed that it was so essential to Europeans that they would intervene in the Civil War. The term "Cotton is King" comes from Senator J. H. Hammond's fro South Carolina boast "Without firing a gun...should they make war on us, we could bring the whole world to our feet...What would happen if no cotton was furnished for three years?... England would topple headlong and carry the whole civilized world with her save the South. No, you dare not to make war on cotton. No power on the earth dares to make war upon it. Cotton is King."

Articles of Confederation

Drafted by Congress in 1777, the Articles of Confederation were the first written constitution of the United States. It was ratified by the states in 1781. The purpose of the Articles of Confederation was to form a "firm league of friendship" among the states and balance the need for national coordination with the fear of a strong centralized government. The national government was granted the power to declare war, conduct foreign affairs, and make treaties with other governments. The thirteen states were still able to retain their freedoms and independence under the Articles of Confederation. A one house Congress was established, giving each state on vote regardless of the size. There was no president, nor judiciary to interpret the law. In order to approve major decisions, nine states had to support the decision instead of simple majority. The Articles of Confederation were important because they established rights of the national government in the United States and were the first written constitution. After independence, the idea of inter-colonial unity still grew and the Articles of Confederation demonstrated the need for all the colonies (now states) to coordinate/make decisions together instead of individually.

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

Drafted by Madison and Jefferson in opposition of the Alien and Sedition Acts, they stated that the Alien & Sedition Acts were unconstitutional and violated the First Amendment (freedom of speech/press). They also argued for states rights and strict adherence to the Constitution. Originally, the Virginia & Kentucky Resolutions called for allowing states the right to prevent certain laws from being enforced within their borders, but it was omitted. No other state supported the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions and many disapproved of state action that could lead to more dissent and endanger the Union of the states. The Resolutions were significant because they furthered the importance of protecting the freedom of speech and contributed to Jefferson being elected the next president.

Market Revolution

Dramatic increase btwn 1820 and 1850 in the exchange of goods and services in market transactions. Resulted from thee combo impact of the increased output of farms and factories, the entrepreneurial activities of traders and merchants, and the dev of a transportation network of roads, canals and RR.

The Federalist

Essays promoting ratification of the Constitution, published anonymously by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison in 1787 and 1788.

Frederick Douglas

Famous black abolitionist that escaped from slavery who would later right a narrative of his own life that described his life. He promoted the abolitionist cause and drew the line where evil must be denounced.

Stamp Act

For the first time, Parlimentary law introduced in 1765 that tried to raise taxes directly by taxing the colonists on any kind of printed material made in the colonies (books, newspapers, official documents, etc). All of these printed materials had to bear a stamp to prove that they were purchased from authorities. The tax supported British operations of the empire, such as stationing British troops in the colonies. The Stamp Act effected many more people than the Sugar Act and enraged the colonists. There was no colonial consent before the Stamp Act was enabled. The British exercised their power in a way that challenged colonial authority. Opponents argued the act went against British principles and liberty.

Civic Nationalism

Form of nationalism in which the state derives political legitimacy from the active participation of its citizenry. Liberal values of freedom, tolerance, equality, and individual rights.

Pilgrims

Group of English Protestant dissenters who established Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts in 1620 to seek religious freedom after having lived briefly in the Netherlands. (p. 487)

Samuel Slater

He was a British mechanic that moved to America and in 1791 invented the first American machine for spinning cotton. He is known as "the Father of the Factory System" and he started the idea of child labor in America's factories.

Seneca Falls Convention

Held in upstate NY in 1848 and organized mainly by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, the Seneca Falls Convention was a gathering about women's rights, especially suffrage. The Declaration of Sentiments was one important document that came from the convention, as it brought up the question of women's rights in a very obvious way. The convention wanted women to have the equal rights as men did in America including the right to vote, access to property and education and an equal place in marriage.

King Philip's War

In 1675 an Indian alliance under the Wampanoag leader Metacom (aka King Philip) attacked farms and settlements that were on the edge of Indian lands. At first it appeared that the Indian alliance would defeat the colonists of southern New England, as they had eliminated many of the towns and upset the balance of more whites than Indians. However, the Iroquis and other tribes helped the colonists in defeating King Philip. He was captured and killed, Indian villages were destroyed and captives taken were killed or sold into slavery. Those who survived fled to NY or Canada and even the converted Indians were sent away from their towns and perished. As one of the bloodiest conflicts and almost successful Indian uprising against the colonists, King Philip's War is another example of the colonists' unsuspecting strength and methods against Indians. The colonists were still able to one-up the Indians, thanks to the Iroquis Indians going against other Indian tribes.

Glorious Revolution

In 1688 King James II of England was overthrown by a William of Orange and a small army (similar to a coup). James the II was a Catholic and allowed Catholics and non Anglican Protestants religious tolerance. Aristocrats did not like this and worried about a Catholic monarch. William came to power and Parliament enacted a Bill of Rights to justify getting rid of James II. The Toleration Act followed and allowed non Anglican Protestants to worship freely, but no such rights were given to Catholics. The English colonies had more freedom than most people living in England at that point in time. The Glorious Rebellion is significant because is shows the importance of religion and politics in England as well as the ability for people to overthrow a King. For the New World, the colonists lived with the satisfaction that their daily lives included more liberties than most people in England were allowed.

Slave codes

In 1705 the House of Burgesses took all the existing slave laws and combined them. Slaves were property to be sold, bought, leased, and traded who could not own arms or strike a white man. These laws aimed to spell out the inferiority of blacks in a white community. Previous laws, such as Las Siete Partidas, granting slaves certain rights in regards to marriage, property and freedom where done away with (in was very difficult to gain freedom for slaves and many did not see freedom as a good enough excuse for running away). Laws passed stating a child with one black parent would be considered black if the mother was black was enacted in order for white men to take advantage of female black slaves and still "own" the son as a slave. Slave codes allowed blacks to be treated as property, not people.

Embargo

In December of 1807, Congress put an embargo, a ban on all American ships sailing for foreign ports, on behalf of President Jefferson's persuasion that an embargo was necessary as a trade weapon against France & Britain. It backfired because neither France nor Britain really noticed and the US economy struggled (port cities). Before Jefferson's term ended, he undid the damage by signing the Non-Intercourse Act, which only banned trade with Britain & France, but allowed all other foreign trade. The embargo is significant because it showed a strong use of federal power by President Jefferson (originally opposed to strong fed. gov) & was a foreign policy that backfired.

Second Middle Passage

Internal US slave trade.

Cotton gin

Invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, the cotton gin was a machine that removed the seed from the cotton. The machine itself was made of rollers and brushes and separating the seed from the cotton, allowing for much easier, large-scale production of cotton. The invention of the cotton gin and the demand for cotton led to the reopening of the slave trade in the years 1803-8 and an increase in the number of plantations (in the South). While a useful technological advancement, the cotton gin reaffirmed the South's dependence on cotton and as a by-product, slaves that were a large part of its economy.

Louisiana Purchase

Jefferson's purchase of Louisiana Territory (Gulf to Mexico to Canada & from MS River to Rocky Mts) from Napoleon for a cost of only $15 million (today around $250mil). The Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of United States land and was seen as controversial because it was not one of the enumerated powers of the Executive branch (President). However, Jefferson (Anti-Federalist) believed that the added land would increase agriculture, which he was big on because it allowed for men to be economically self-sufficient and that agrarian character would help politically stabilize the US. Madison, a Federalist, supported the purchase as well because he believed such a vast amount of land would make self-government possible. The Louisiana Purchase is significant because in a way it unified the two factions (both supported the purchase), ended French presence in North America, and increased the territory of the US.

Eaton affair

John Eaton, Secretary of War, was rumored to have had an affair with Peggy Timberlake, whom he later married, before her husband died in 1828. She was snubbed by the wives of Jackson's cabinet (led by Calhoun's wife). The President wanted to help her because his wife had been the object of similar rumors. This turned Jackson against Calhoun, drew Van Buren and Jackson closer together and dissolved the Cabinet. Calhoun resigned the vice presidency the next year and entered the Senate for South Carolina.

Bacon's Rebellion

Led by Nathaniel Bacon in 1676, an armed force of unhappy white men, (landless, small farmers, & indentured servants) fought against Indians on Virginia's western frontier. The men were upset with Sir William Berkeley's refusal to allow whites to settle on Indian land because he wanted to keep the Indians at peace. The colonists were increasingly becoming poorer and had no hopes of gaining land due to Berkeley's inner circle of tobacco plantation owners who received favors and power. Indians were massacred and Berkeley's authority was questioned, but the rebellion was over when English ships arrived and restored order. The dissenters were hung (Bacon died before due to illness), but the government was cautious and increased the number of slaves working instead of indentured servants in order to prevent future uprisings. Bacon's Rebellion was significant because it demonstrated the significance of Virginia's elite and the tension between the elite and everyone else in the colony. Also, Virginia increased slave labor as a direct result of the rebellion. Land

Hartford Convention

Meeting by Federalists dissatisfied with the war to draft a new Constitution; resulted in seemingly traitorous Federalist party's collapse

Second Continental Congress

Met in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in May 1775, while a war had already broken out between the British soldiers and the armed colonists (American Revolution). The group of delegates at the Congress made decisions such as raising an army against the British, printing money for the army, and making George Washington the leader of the commander of the army. John Adams had the idea of making George Washington the leader of the army as a way to encourage colonial unity (since GW was from the south). Ultimately the Second Continental Congress was the national power that made important decisions for the colonies as a whole with representatives from individual colonies. It was significant because it took on the role of a national government in a time of crisis (war), while uniting the colonists in the war effort against the British.

Nativism

Native-born Americans who were alarmed by the Irish influx (1840s-1850s) and their impact on American political and social life. They claimed that the immigrants were the cause of urban crime, political corruption, and that their drinking posed threats to the American way of life. Also, they weren't pleased that the immigrants filled labor jobs by working for less than native-born Americans. The Irish were also predominately Catholic and many Americans believed that by being subservient to the Catholic Church, the very institution that "threatened" American ideals and freedoms, the Irish were unfit for the same freedoms as other Americans. The concept of nativism was significant because even today the question of immigration is a very divisive topic.

Tecumseh

One of two Shawnee brothers who called for Indians to separate themselves from whites and uphold their native ways. Tecumseh was a chief who didn't sign the Treaty of Greenville in 1795 and traveled along the MS River in an attempt to bring back the pan-Indian alliance of the 1760s. He wanted the various Indian tribes to unite in order to preserve their culture and fight extermination by the whites. In 1810 he called for Indians to attack the American frontier. The US gov. thought the British encouraged Tecumseh and he is significant because this belief led to the War of 1812.

Sons of Liberty

Opponents of the Stamp act; a group led by merchants such as Alexander McDougall, Isaac Sears, and John Lamb who helped enforce the boycott of British imports. These men made fortunes plundering French ships during the Seven Years' War and were opposed to limitations in trade and taxes. Aristocratic families feared them and their rising power. The Sons of Liberty was also the same name given to tenants along the Hudson River who stopped paying rent and seized land. The original Sons of Liberty opposed their uprising (not paying rent etc) and the new Sons were suppressed by the British and colonial troops. The Sons of Liberty were significant because they (both groups) encouraged people to take action against that which they opposed, whether it be boycotting imported goods or not paying rent.

Navigation Acts

Passed under Oliver Cromwell in the 1600s, these laws allowed Englishmen to reap rewards from trade. Certain goods, the most valuable such as sugar and tobacco included, had to be transported in English ships to English ports so that they could be taxed and Englishmen would benefit from these goods from the colonies. The goods could then be re-exported to foreign markets. These laws were the cause of the rise of New England's shipbuilding industry as ships from the New World qualified as English ships.

Sugar Act

Prime Minister George Grenville came up with this law in 1764 to reduce the tax on molasses imported from the French West Indies to America. Instead of a 6 pence per gallon tax, it was reduced to 3 pence per gallon in an effort to end smuggling by colonial merchants. However, colonial merchants tended to be acquitted by local juries so along with the Sugar Act, the admiralty courts were strengthened so that smugglers would not get off the hook. The Sugar Act tried to re-enforce the Navigation Acts that so many had evaded. By making the Sugar Acts appear to be saving the colonists money, reduced tax, it was a nice attempt that really hid the intended "damage" of the act: prosecuting smugglers. The Sugar Act was significant because it showed a more active approach by the British to govern the colonies.

Emerson

Ralph Waldo Emerson was a philosopher in the mid 1800s that redefined freedom as a process of self-realization that allows individuals to remake themselves and their own lives. As a transcendentalist, Emerson valued the individual and individual thinking as necessary for freedom. He believed individuals should make their own judgments and decisions separate from societal traditions and institutions. Emerson wrote about his ideas (famous writer) and gave a famous speech at Harvard in 1837, "The American Scholar" that talked a bit about the individual. Emerson was significant because he spread the belief that the individual is important and should make judgments separate from the "whole" or society that fit in with the larger idea of transcendentalism.

"Corrupt bargain"

Refers the charge that Henry Clay of Kentucky bartered for votes in the presidential contest for public office in the election of 1824. There was no majority of electoral votes for a presidential candidate, so clay one of the candidates was eliminated b/c he was 4th & the choice between the other 3 candidates went to the House of Representatives. Clay supported Adams because he thought Adams was most qualified (over Jackson) and he would promote the American System. Clay thought that Jackson would impede any possibility of Clay to reach the White House (Clay was made Adams' Secretary of State). The "corrupt bargain" was significant because it got Adams elected as President, but also showed a turn for the worse in US politics (major political power plays).

Daughters of Liberty

Refers to a group of women who were a part of the revolutionary struggle for independence. A spoof on Sons of Liberty, Daughters of Liberty took part in the boycotting of imported goods by making homespun goods and participated in crowd actions against merchants. Despite limited opportunity to participate politically, these women did all they could. Deborah Sampson was one such woman who enlisted in the Continental Army disguised as a man and even fought in battles. Many wives of political leaders helped raise funds for soldiers and even wanted to have a woman in each colony collect money to give to the governor's wife or mistress. Some women contributed through the arts by writing poems and plays about the revolutionary cause. The Daughters of Liberty were significant because they made the role of women in politics more active and made women in general more aware of politics and helped them get involved somehow, if only through activism.

Great Migration

Settlement of over twenty thousand Puritans in Massachusetts Bay and other parts of New England between 1630 and 1642.

Anne Hutchinson

She preached the idea that God communicated directly to individuals instead of through the church elders. She was forced to leave Massachusetts in 1637. Her followers (the Antinomianists) founded the colony of New Hampshire in 1639.

Bill of Rights

Ten constitutional amendments approved by Congress and ratified by the states in 1791. Madison, the man who introduced the bill, did not believe it necessary to even include a Bill of Rights because he thought the Constitution did such a good job of laying out checks and balances to limit the power of the government. The First Amendment granted freedom of speech, religion, and press. The Second Amendment granted the right to bear arms and provide for a well-regulated militia. The Eighth Amendment banned unfair bail and cruel & unusual punishment. Other amendments granted rights not specifically mentioned in the Constitution that were "retained by the people" (such as the right to privacy). British laws passed by the House of Lords influenced many of the amendments. The Bill of Rights were significant because they stated and granted rights that many Anti-Federalists believed needed to be put down on paper. The rights they granted were "basic" in the sense that freedom of religion, speech, and press became considered the norms in terms of rights granted to Americans.

Antietam

The Battle of Antietam in Maryland was fought in 1862 and resulted in McClellan and the Union's Army of the Potomac successfully repelling Confederate Robert E. Lee's advance. The casualties were enormous, with over 4,300 men dead in one day of fighting and 18,000 wounded. The wounded were prone to a high rate of infection and death due to poor medical technology and treatment. More men died in Antietam then in all other (US) wars of the 19th century combined. The North, Union, claimed Antietam as a victory since Lee was forced to retreat. The Battle of Antietam was significant for astonishing amount of soldiers dead.

"Wall of Separation"

The belief that Church and State should be completely separate of one another. Politics should not be controlled by religious leaders, and religious leaders do not need the support of politics. Many colonies began to separate themselves from established churches and no longer funded churches, but some still gave money to the Protestant church in general. Massachusetts kept Church and State very close together until 1833; people were obligated to attend church, but were allowed freedom of worship. The Wall of Separation was significant because separating the Church and State was key to allowing greater religious toleration. People should not be forced attend church as deists for example, just as the government should not fund churches.

Columbian Exchange

The exchange of goods and people from the Old and New World due to settlers and explorers discovering the New World in 1942. Products such as corn, tomatoes, potatoes, peanuts, tobacco and cotton were brought from America to Europe. Wheat, rice, sugar cane, horses, cattle, pigs and sheep were brought to the New World from Europe, along with all kinds of germs and diseases unknown to the native populations.

Atlantic World

The formation of an interdependence between the European empires due to the flow of people, ideas and goods across the Atlantic. Sugar and tobacco went to eastern Europe from America, London bankers paid for slave trade from Africa, and Spain used gold and silver to import goods from elsewhere. In the West Indies, rum was made and went to the Indians and colonists and the Navigation Acts were fairly relaxed. The significance of the newfound interdependence was that it was to a much greater extent than ever before and more imported goods from foreign places were available to most everyday people in the colonies.

William Penn

The founder of Pennsylvania in the 17th century who wanted to create a safe haven for those facing religious persecution in England. Charles II granted him land in order to clear debts with William Penn's father. The colony that became Delaware was also included in his land grant. Penn was a Quaker and created a frame of government that was the most liberal of the era and established religious freedom (except for Jews who couldn't hold office). A strong moral code was put in place that banned swearing, drunkenness, adultery, and other common entertainments of the era. He tried to patch up relations with the Indians and paid for their land before buying. William Penn is significant because he truly wanted his colony to tolerant different religious practices as well as to allow significant liberties to its colonists, which are very pure motives for founding a colony in comparison to the other colonies.

American Exceptionalism

The idea of America as a place free from tyranny and a model of freedom. American nationalism gave rise to such an idea and encouraged people to think of America as a place for people to start anew: no social hierarchy, no church, no aristocracy, but with plenty of opportunity for all (more than in England). Thomas Paine's pamphlet, Common Sense, partially introduced "American exceptionalism" through the concept of a utopia for all. Freedom in America was a concept gained by the American Revolution and the Declaration of Independence simply reinforced it. American exceptionalism was significant because it gave rise to America as a land of freedom for all, a model, which was unknown in many places of the world.

Wage Slavery

The idea of blacks, even though free, as still being slaves because they wouldn't get hired/paid to do any job higher than an unskilled, low wage job. Many free blacks were skilled artisans, but they couldn't use their skills because white artisans feared their competition and lower prices. Whites would not hire blacks in any job position higher than menial positions (lower ranks of the labor market) so most blacks were servants (even though most whites did not want to be served by blacks). The concept of wage slavery was significant because even though blacks were free, they did not have the same rights nor did they have the same opportunities (for jobs) as whites so they were still stuck in low paying jobs just like slaves stuck at the bottom of a society. Wage slavery was significant because it prevented blacks from being able to better their lives and economic prosperity.

Cult of Domesticity

The idea that women were supposed to represent perfect "virtue." This idea was developed due to the change in a women's role during the market revolution. As more and more work that a woman did at home was done outside the home (ex: manufactured goods now not made at home) there was less "work" to do for women in terms of physical labor. Instead of contributing to the family's economic prosperity, women devoted themselves to making a private environment in the home that was completely separate from the competitive outside world of the market economy. A woman's role became to nurture love, friendship, and mutual obligation (provide an escape for men/serve them). "Virtue" also changed in the 18th c to mean not just purity, but also beauty, frailty and dependence on men. Women were supposed to be obedient and submissive to men and satisfy all their non-market needs. A woman's role in the world was clearly at home in private and never in the public sphere (or market sphere) like men (women who worked for wages were different). The "cult of domesticity" was significant because it clearly defined a woman's place and role in the home and highlighted the great division between a man's role and a woman's role in the market economy.

Middle Passage

The middle leg of the triangular trade route that shipped slaves from Africa to the New World during the 18th c. The ships packed the most number of slaves possible in order to maximize their profit and the conditions were horrible: cramped, disease filled, and unsanitary. People could not even turn around because they were chained. Captains threw the sick overboard and 1/5 slaves died before arriving to the New World. Most slaves were headed for Brazil or the West Indies, where slaves had a high death rate and needed to be constantly replaced. The rest went to the colonies. Europeans treated Africans like property and only wanted them to survive so that they would be profitable. The Middle Passage is just one terrible example of inhumane treatment of slaves.

Redemptioners

The name given to indentured families that received passage to the New World in exchange for working off the debt. English and Dutch came up with such a system, which served many of the German immigrants because they tended to travel with entire families. Many redemptioners settled in frontier areas and formed small farming communities where German was the dominant language for many years. Redemptioners were significant because they increased the ethnic diversity in the colonies although they kept to themselves and people from different ethnicities did not mix.

Pet Banks

The name given to privately owned banks that Jackson allowed federal funds to be given to. After Jackson vetoed the charter to renew the Second National Bank of the US, pet banks, usually local banks with some kind of connection to Jackson were given federal funds. Two secretaries of state refused to transfer the money to the pet banks as it was unlawful to remove the federal funds without good cause and Congress' approval. The Bank of the US lost control over regulation without the government deposits and issued more paper money devaluing currency. The pet banks were state banks, and were significant because they showed a tension between state and federal power, Congress' power, and the Executive's power.

Dorr War

The result of a conflict due to property restrictions on voters in Rhode Island around 1841. Rhode Island had many factories and therefore many landless white men who wanted to vote in elections, but were not allowed due to the property restriction on voting. These men gathered and organized a People's Convention in an effort to eliminate the property restriction by drafting a new state constitution. They then inaugurated Thomas Dorr, a lawyer, as governor of Rhode Island and this action was met with federal troops on behalf to President John Tyler. Dorr was sentenced to two years in prison for treason, but the controversy showed the importance of political participation for all men. The property restriction was lifted and all native born men, white and black were allowed to vote.

Women's suffrage

The right for women to vote. Under New Jersey's constitution of 1776, the right to vote included property-owning women, usually widows, who could cast ballots due to the terminology of the constitution allowing all property owning "inhabitants" the right to vote. In 1807, the constitution changed the terminology and only white males were allowed to vote, successfully eliminating the women's loophole to voting. In general, women did not have the right to vote and suffrage soon became synonymous with freedom, meaning women did not have the same freedoms as other citizens. Women's suffrage was significant because it seems ironic that women had the right to vote and then that right was taken away. Taking away a person's right to vote seems to counter all the ideas of democracy, freedom, and liberty that were increasing due to the Revolution and independence of the colonies.

Inflation

The rise in prices of necessary everyday items. Around 1776-1779 inflation took place in the colonies. The cost of financing the war, disruption of agriculture & trade, and the hoarding of goods by Americans hoping to profit from shortages led to inflation. People confronted merchants and seized food that was sold at inflated rates and resold it at "normal" rates. The cost of food and other necessities was affected and Congress debated whether it should limit price increases on such items. The argument in turn became one about the role of the government in the economy with the merchants arguing for Congress to let things go and the people wanting some kind of regulation so they can afford food. Inflation was significant because the rising cost of food in a short period of time, mostly due to war effected almost everyone and brought up the issue of government control in the economy.

Irish/German newcomers

There was a huge increase in the number of immigrants, Irish & German, between 1840 and 1860 entering the US. Most went to northern states for jobs. The increase in the number of immigrants was attributed to the modernization of agriculture and the industrial revolution in Europe, which interrupted the life and work patterns for many peasants and craftsmen. Innovations in transportation, such as the steamship and the railroad made travel much more manageable and affordable to immigrants. Many Irish immigrants came to America seeking refuge from disaster, specifically the Great Famine of 1845-51 that destroyed the potato crop. Most of the Irish immigrants took on the low wage, unskilled jobs that other Americans did not want to fill. The male Irish filled manual labor jobs in construction and infrastructure, while the women often worked in domestic service as servants. The women also replaced American born women in the Lowell system (textile factory work). Less Germans immigrated than the Irish. The German immigrants had more skilled craftsmen among them and settled into their own little communities with schools, newspapers, and churches. German immigrants came to the US seeking freedom from an oppressive government and a strict hierarchical society. The large number of immigrants coming to the US was significant because they filled a number of jobs previously filled by native-born Americans who became wary of the immigration and that led to conflicts over how many immigrants should be let in.

Ethnic Nationalism

This suggests that national identity is based on a collective cultural identity and homeland rather than a set of political institutions and laws. [i.e. smith's article "Civic and Ethnic Nationalism".]

Anti-Federalist

Those who opposed the ratification of the new Constitution. Many were small farmers who worried about a strong national government. Others disliked the protection of slaves and feared the total abolition of slaves. Some were concerned that the common people would take over the elites and then ignorant people would have political power. The idea of a strong national government scared Anti-Federalists because they believed that freedom of institutions and a limited government served them best and a stronger government would limit their liberties. The Constitution lacked a Bill of Rights, which worried many because they did not wish to be denied any rights and liberties previously held. Anti-Federalists were significant because they represented a part of Americans that feared a strong national government and believed in small, local government. The tension between the national government and local government is still an important issue today.

Captivity narratives

To counteract the attraction of Indian life, the leaders of New England encouraged publication of Captivity Narratives, written by captured colonists who expressed their desire to return to a christian society after living with the Indians.,

Thoreau

(Henry David Thoreau) Also a transcendentalist, writer, and neighbor of Emerson who focused on the individual. Thoreau believed that individuals should be self-reliant and therefore he disapproved of the market economy because it made people beholden to others. The "deskillig" of jobs in the market economy was a danger to an individual's pursuit of happiness because then a person was "trapped" by the desire to become wealthy. He advocated against materialism and promoted nature instead as an escape. Thoreau thought that "simplification" was necessary for individuals in order to not become greedy and obsessed with wealth. For two years Thoreau lived out in the woods in a cabin on Walden Pond then he wrote a book about his experiences in 1854. He was not able to be free of the market revolution in nature because he could hear the whistle of the train and in his opinion the market revolution was detrimental to Americans' values (liberty & freedom were being squashed in factories) and the natural environment (with industrialization comes pollution). Thoreau was significant because he brought to light the contradictions obvious in the market revolution to the American values and stressed the importance of the individual.

House of Burgesses

- Founded in 1616, the House of Burgesses was the first elected assembly in colonial America, although it was far from democratic. Only landowners were allowed to vote and the Virginia Company and its governor had the right to make the final decisions and reject decisions passed by the body of the elected assembly.

Indentured servants

- People who voluntarily signed a contract to work, usually 5 to 7 years, in exchange for passage to America. Indentured servants gave up certain freedoms and were subject to harsh labor and physical punishment, such as whipping, for disobedience. As glorified slaves, they could not marry without their owner's permission and could be bought and sold. If the indentured servant survived the term of his or her indenture, he or she was awarded "freedom dues" a small amount of money and his or her freedom.

Bank War

- refers to the controversy over the Second National Bank of the US during President Jackson's administration. Jackson essentially wanted to destroy the bank because he was suspicious of "nonproducers" ie those who make money off the nation's wealth from the labor of others. He believed in "hard money" (gold & silver), instead of paper currency that tended to get overissued. Nicholas Biddle of Pennsylvania was in charge of the Bank and told a congressional committee that his Bank had the power to "crush" state banks. The power of the Bank was called into question when the charger for the Bank was about to expire and essentially Congress was blackmailed into extending the charter because the Bank could put up money to oppose Jackson's reelection. Jackson believed the power of the Bank was too strong and Congress essentially created and allowed the Bank to become that strong. The Bank had economic privilege that was unaccountable to the people of the USA. Jackson vetoed the charter that Congress passed to renew the Bank's charter thereby killing the Bank. The Bank War was significant because it brought up the issue of what powers are listed in the constitution and questioned the power of Congress, but also of the Executive (veto power).

Salem Witch Trials

-Beginning in 1692, mostly women and a few men supposedly involved in witchcraft, were put on trial and executed if found guilty of practicing witchcraft. Many women were middle aged, independent, and outspoken, but women of all age and marital status were targeted. To avoid being prosecuted, accused persons named others involved in "witchraft." Some even used it as an excuse to settle debts with others and local authorities took legal action against 150 people. 14 women and 5 men were hanged because they denied that they were guilty of any wrongdoing. One man was killed to death by stones. Eventually the government understood that the justice system was not working and put an end to the trials. Better scientific understanding of the world around the colonists was needed and the focus was on discovering the cause of unexplained or seemingly unnatural occurrences, instead of blaming it on magic. The Salem Witch Trials demonstrates that many feared the power of women (or just women in general) and felt a need to blame the unexplained on those who threatened societal norms.

Horace Mann

-a leader of educational reform, a Massachusetts lawyer and Whig politican influencial in the 19th c. He wanted to create common education, today's public school that was tax-supported and open to all kids. His goal was to restore equality in society by allowing all children, from high to low social class, to learn together in order for the lower class children to have the opportunity to rise in social class. The labor movement supported a common education because it would prepare future workers to work by submitting to authority and following strict behavioral rules. Horace Mann thought schools allowed free individuals to practice self-discipline, which would be important in life. While the North supported tax-supported schools, the South opposed schools because the equality that would inevitably result from such schools would allow free blacks to become literate and more equal with whites and southerners didn't want poor whites to rise in social class. Horace Mann was significant in introducing social change by allowing for greater equality between people of all social classes by having access to education, especially benefiting women.

Harper's Ferry

-the federal arsenal was at Harper's Ferry, Virginia. John Brown organized an armed assault on the arsenal in order to get guns for the war on slavery that he believed would occur. The plan did not make sense militarily and John Brown was captured and executed, but he was right about the soon to be war against slavery. 21 men, 7 of them black, helped with the attack on October 16, 1859 and they did seize Harper's Ferry, although they either killed or captured by federal soldiers. Harper's Ferry was significant because it foreshadowed the coming Civil War, but also the dissatisfaction of Americans with the institution of slavery and the will to take action against slavery.

Mayflower Compact

1620 - The first agreement for self-government in America. It was signed by the 41 men on the Mayflower and set up a government for the Plymouth colony.

Underground Railroad

1830, Harriet Tubman, a system that helped enslaved African Americans follow a network of escape routes out of the South to freedom in the North

Gag Rule

1835 law passed by Southern congress which made it illegal to talk of abolition or anti-slavery arguments in Congress

Eerie Canal

A 363 mile canal completed in 1825 that connected the Great Lakes with New York City. The canal allowed for the transportation of goods and attracted many farmers from New England, who established new cities along the way. Funding for the Eerie Canal was state financed and as predicted by its overseer, made NY an important center of commerce and manufacturing. The Eerie Canal influenced many other states to build canals so much so that they went bankrupt trying, but as a result, transportation was much improved (& cost of transportation reduced). The Eerie Canal is significant because it was a major constructional feat that greatly improved the transportation of goods and therefore contributed to the market revolution.

Alexis de Tocqueville

A French writer who came to the United States in the 1830s and wrote Democracy in America, an account of his visit to the US. He came to study US prisons, but realized he needed to understand the idea of democracy to understand the US. The political transformation that he witnessed in the US was revolutionary because the power rested with the people, not in a single person. People who were came from low social classes were wedging their way into the political system of the US, despite all the barriers set up to prevent ordinary people from rising up in the political system. The right to vote, elections and other events that allowed for political participation gave rise to festivity around such events and helped define the American spirit. Alexis de Tocqueville's visit was important because it proved to Europeans and the rest of the world that democracy could work and doesn't lead to anarchy or tyranny.

Half-way Covenant

A Puritan church document; In 1662, the Halfway Covenant allowed partial membership rights to persons not yet converted into the Puritan church; It lessened the difference between the "elect" members of the church from the regular members; Women soon made up a larger portion of Puritan congregations.

McCulloch v Maryland

A Supreme Court case decided in 1819 under Chief Justice John Marshall. The Supreme Court ruled that the establishment of the Bank was within the powers of Congress as listed in the Constitution under the "necessary and proper" clause. The decision contradicted the "strict construction" view of the Constitution. Essentially this case was a response to the Panic of 1819, after which people no longer trusted the banks so then states wanted to tax banks. The court case deemed that states couldn't tax the banks because the federal government constitutionally backed the banks.

Mercantilism

A belief that the government should regulate economic activity in order to promote national power. Mercantilism should control goods so that the number of exports is greater than the number of imports so that the country will make more money than it is paying for goods imported. In regards to the colonies, their role was to produce raw material for export and the mother country would reap the economic rewards. Mercantilism is significant because it encouraged colonies to produce raw material for export, instead of encouraging growing food in the colonies.

Macon's Bill #2

A bill passed by congress in 1810 under President James Madison's administration lifting the embargoes with Britain or France depending on which country stopped the practice of impressments. The US would not trade with the country that continued the practice of impressments, therefore encouraging Britain & France to stop attacking the American ships. The bill was supposed to fix the problems with the Embargo Act and the Intercourse Act, but unfortunately failed to do so and Madison reinstated the embargo on trade with Britain in 1812. Macons Bill #2 is significant because it increased the tension the US had with Britain & France.

Committee of Correspondence

A committee in Boston that communicated with other colonies in order to spread opposition to the Sugar and Currency Acts. This committee encouraged other committees to be formed in other colonies as a way to exchange ideas and information with each other. By taxing the colonies, Parliament united the colonies against a common cause (taxation) and encouraged them to share and spread ideas with one another.

Missouri Compromise

A compromise adopted around 1820 by Congress based on Senator Jess Thomas of Illinois' plan on dealing with Missouri wanting to enter the Union. The compromise was composed of three parts: 1) Missouri could draft a constitution without Tallmadge's restriction (Tallmadge didn't want any new states to all slavery) 2) Maine would be allowed to enter the Union b/c it prohibited slavery and would balance out the slave & free states 3) slavery would be prohibited in all the remaining territory within the Louisiana Purchase north of the latitude 36º30' (Missouri's s. boundary). The Missouri Compromise was significant because the slavery question was still very undecided in the US and avoided. The building tension and controversy over the slavery issue was obviously going to explode at some point.

Boston Massacre

A conflict on March 5, 1770 between a snow-ball throwing crowd of Bostonians and British troops. It led to an armed confrontation, in which five Bostonians were killed. The British troops were sent to the colonies to enforce the Townshend duties, which were becoming increasingly unpopular. One of the men killed, Crispus Attucks, was of Indian-African-white ancestry and is considered the firsty "martyr" of the American Revolution. The British officer and eight soldiers involved were put on trial and seven were found not guilty, while two were found guilty of manslaughter. Paul Revere, a member of Sons of Liberty, helped popularize the event by producing a historically inaccurate print of the Boston Massacre. The event was much more disorganized than it appears in the print. The Boston Massacre was significant because it showed the frustration and feelings of injustice of the colonists toward Britain and especially toward the Townshend duties. Merchants lost a lot of revenue due to the boycotts of imported goods and many were pleased when the Townshend duties were to be repealed. The British agreed to repeal the duties and remove troops from the colonies, leaving only a tax on tea in exchange. For the time being, that seemed to satisfy the merchants, but eventually the tax on tea gives rise to the American Revolution.

War of 1812

Under President Madison's administration, Congress declared war on Britain because of continued assaults on American ships (impressments). The US was not as prepared or military strong as the British and the British were able to easily fend off the US military will little effort (though there were some surprising US victories- naval especially). The War of 1812 also involved the Indians: those who fought with the British and those who fought with the Americans. Either way, the Indians were divided and they ended up being forced to cede more land to the US. Tecumseh led Indian forces and was killed by the US military. Colored men who were free were promised the same rewards for fighting in the war as white men. The war was significant because after the War of 1812 there was relative peace with Europe, America's "separateness" grew, and its sense of nationalism.

Second Great Awakening

Yet another series of religious revivals throughout the United States in the early 1830s that included self-improvement as part of what they preached. The Second Great Awakening increased the number of church members and strengthened America as a Christian nation. Methodism became the dominant sect of Christianity in 1840 while Deism died out. Vivid images of hell and the path to salvation were still key topics that were discussed often in revival meetings held outdoors. The ability of the individual to have choice say to follow the path of "righteousness" or the way of the devil was stressed. The individual was said to be a "moral free agent" that could choose to follow the path to salvation and by performing good works allow for universal salvation. Although the Second Great Awakening warned against the greed and wealth produced by the market revolution, the Second Great Awakening would not have been possible without the market revolution. Innovations in transportation, such as the steamboat and the railroad allowed for preachers to travel quickly & cheaply and they were able to gather up funds. The mass appeal and widespread nature of the Second Great Awakening was only possible because of the market revolution.

Wade Davis Bill

a bill in Congress named after two Republicans, introduced in 1864, requiring a majority to white southerners (male) to take an oath for the Union before any Reconstruction would begin. The Bill did not grant blacks the right to vote, but it did give deem them equal to whites before the law. Congress passed it, but Lincoln did not sign the bill so it died. The Wade Davis Bill was significant because it showed that northerners did not all agree on what social and political actions needed to be taken after emancipation.

Ostend Manifesto

a document signed by Pierre Soule of Louisiana (US ambassador to Spain), ministers to Britain & France around 1854 that claimed that the United States should purchase or seize Cuba because slavery was still legal there. White southerners felt as if they had fewer opportunities and suffered economically because the number of slaves and the amount of land was limited. Around this time, southerners wanted to separate from the North in order to keep the institution of slavery and improve their economic prosperity. Reinstating the slave trade was another desire of southerners. Essentially the Ostend Manifesto was important because it showed the South's firm desire in maintaining the slave trade at all costs, even potentially seizing Cuba.

Electoral College

a group selected by the states to elect the president and the vice-president, in which each state's number of electors is equal to the number of its senators and representatives in Congress

Kansas-Nebraska Act

a law introduced by Illinois senator Stephen A. Douglas in 1854 to allow for territorial governments in Kansas and Nebraska, part of the Louisiana Purchase. Douglas believed in westward expansion and wanted there to be a railroad built through Kansas or Nebraska. He knew government must be involved to build the railroad, but he doubted that southerners in Congress would not want new free territories because it could disrupt the sectional balance. So the idea of popular sovereignty was applied as part of the Kansas-Nebraska Act to please the South. Douglas' bill passed and when it became law, the Missouri Compromise, banning slavery, was repealed. The Democratic Party's unity was completely shot after the bill passed and American politics reorganized as a result. The Whig Party collapsed and the South became Democratic. The old Whigs then joined the Republican Party, which was against the expansion of slavery.

Liberty Party

a minor political party in the US during the 1840s that supported the abolition of slavery as its major political movement. The Liberty party was formed due to a split among abolitionists. Some believed women shouldn't be so involved in abolitionism, while other supported women's work for abolitionism. The Liberty Party was made up of more radical individuals who supported women's rights and wanted abolitionism to be a more important political movement. James G. Birney was nominated as a candidate for president by the Liberty party and received only about 1/3 of the votes. Most antislavery northerners did not support Birney, as he was a third-party candidate with little chance of winning. The lack of support for a third-party candidate shows that in a currently 2-party system, even though there is democracy in America, an outsider, third-party candidate, has little practical hope of winning an election. Also, the formation of the Liberty party shows the division among abolitionists, which isn't very good because they should be unified in order to be stronger to fight against slavery.

Gadsden Purchase

a piece of land purchased by the US from Mexico in 1853. The Gadsden Purchase included a part of Arizona and New Mexico previously part of Mexico and formed part of the southern border of the United States. The Gadsden Purchase was another example of "manifest destiny" that led Americans to acquire more land and expand America's boundaries.

Ten Percent Plan

a plan introduced by President Lincoln in 1863 as a way to offer amnesty and restore rights to white southerners who took an oath of loyalty to the Union and support for emancipation. Lincoln allowed the southerners in the Confederacy to regain the ability to elect a new state government when 10 percent of the population had taken the oath. The new state government would then in turn abolish slavery. The Ten Percent Plan was seemingly overly kind to southerners with the assumption that they would want to accept the terms. Lincoln's plan was significant because it did not include blacks in the decisions made after slavery.

Veto

a power stated in the US Constitution that allows the Executive to stop legislation. A 2/3 vote in both the House and the Senate con override a veto. Jackson's use of the veto to not allow the Bank to renew the charter was controversial because the Whigs insisted that the power to veto should only be used in extraordinary circumstances. The power to veto is really important and powerful that the Executive (President) has that is a "check" on the Legislative Branch of the US government. The ability to veto is significant because it shows the amount of power the President has, but also that the power of the President is not limitless.

William Lloyd Garrison

a prominent abolitionist in the 1800s and editor of The Liberator, a weekly abolitionist journal that began in 1831. He was able to use propaganda to spread antislavery arguments. Garrison was a pacifist like most abolitionists. He burned the Constitution because he deemed it a "covenant with the slaver" ie it didn't allow for equality for blacks in his view. He suggested that the North repeal the Constitution and dissolve the Union in order to get rid of its ties with slavery. He called for the immediate abolition of slavery and believed that slaves should be incorporated as equal citizens of America. Garrison's editorials were even printed in southern newspapers to be condemned, but actually the reprinting led to greater publicity and knowledge of his ideas. The Liberator was significant because only due to widespread literacy and print technology was the journal able to such a success and have such a broad exposure in conveying antislavery sentiments. Garrison was important because of his writing and extreme ideas about the abolition of slavery, showing that Americans were finally trying to end slavery and allow blacks greater equality.

Lincoln-Douglas debates

a series of debates between Lincoln and Douglas held in Illinois in 1858 for senator of Illinois that focused on the slavery issue. Douglas believed that it was not Congress's job to impose any kind of morals on the people in regards to slavery and that blacks were and always would be inferior to whites. Douglas also thought that free and slave states could exist forever without ever changing. Lincoln believed blacks to be equal to whites, but did not think they would ever live together in harmony (ie he was racist too). However, Lincoln believed that a compromise, such as the free and slave states, would not last forever and that Americans had to decide the slavery issue and go all the way with their decision (abolish or keep). Personally, Lincoln was against slavery and thought the founding fathers meant for it to die out. Douglas supported local self-government and individual's rights (popular sovereignty). Essentially Douglas claimed that if people wanted to get rid of slavery they would vote against it and if the majority didn't want slavery it would go away. He was also extremely racist and for the betterment of white men only. The debates were significant because they proved that slavery was an explosive topic and important to many, but that no one was free from prejudice against blacks.

Whiskey Rebellion

a tax protest in 1794 by Pennsylvania farmers who opposed the whiskey tax imposed on whiskey producers. The tax was part of Hamilton's financial plan that many opposed because they believed it denied them liberties granted upon them by the revolution. President Washington led an army part of the way to break up the protest and there was no resistance from the "rebels." The Whiskey Rebellion was significant because Washington's response showed Europeans that a democratic form of government could be successful.

Tariff of 1828

a tax put on imported manufactured goods made of wool and raw materials such as iron under President Andrew Jackson's administration. The South opposed the tariff because they said the tariff raised the cost of goods for southern consumers to benefit the North. The tariff was called the Tariff of Abominations in the South because of its detrimental effects on the southern economy. The tariff was imposed in order to promote American manufactured goods (mostly made in the North) so its objective was essentially to help the northern economy. The Tariff of 1828 was significant because it further divided the North and the South (encouraged sectionalism).

Oneida

a utopian society established by John Humphrey Noyes in 1848 in NY. Noyes studied law but then became a minister after attending a religious revival. He believed that he and his followers were sinless and formed a religious community in Vermont. The followers also rejected private property and traditional marriage. All the members of both sexes were considered equals. Instead of traditional marriage, "complex marriage" existed allowing any man to seek sex with any woman, who could accept or reject the offer and then it would be written down in a public record book. Noyes argued that "exclusive affections" ie traditional marriage was a danger to the harmony and unity of the community. He moved his community after being accused of adultery and moved the community to Oneida where it lasted until 1881. The environment was very strict and dictator like with everyone monitoring one another's behavior for following the rules. In the 1860s a committee was even established to decide which couples could have kids, a type of "eugenics," an attempt to improve the human race by regulating reproduction. The Oneida called for reform because they wanted equality for both men and women and thing such as "complex marriage" allowed greater equality for women, typically unequal to men.

Harriet Beecher Stowe

abolitionist and author of the novel Uncle Tom's Cabin published in 1852 as a novel, but released in serialized form in 1851. The novel was partially modeled on the autobiography of the fugitive slave Josiah Henson and exposed the cruelty of slavery. Stowe's novel was an important piece of anti-slavery literature and humanized slaves by depicting them as sympathetic people who suffered just as much as a white person could. Families were broken up by slavery, split by slaveholders, and fugitives were hunted down with bloodhounds. Harriet Beecher Stowe was important because she was one of the rising female abolitionists, who realized the need for equality for slaves as well as themselves by examining their own oppression in society. Her novel was especially important because it was based on a true story of a fugitive slave and not only exposed the evils of slavery, but also humanized slaves in the eyes of a white reader.

Revolution of 1800

also known as the US Presidential election of 1800 in which Thomas Jefferson became President after John Adams. The transfer of presidency was peaceful, but a bit chaotic because each party had an elector eliminate one of his two votes for president, so that a presidential candidate would be two ahead of the VP. The Republican elector didn't do so and so Jefferson & Burr (running together) had the same number of votes. The House of Reps (with a slight Federalist majority) then had to decide, but neither man won majority in the House of Reps. Hamilton decided to support Jefferson even though he didn't really like him because he disliked Burr more and the 12th Amendment (separate votes for President & VP) was adopted as an outcome of the crisis. Burr later killed Hamilton in a duel. The election of 1800 was significant because it demonstrated that a transfer of political power to the opposition power can be peaceful and without violence.

John Brown

an abolitionist who died for the cause. He was in charge of the attack on the federal arsenal at Harper's Ferry. He helped fugitive slaves and despite being badly in debt, he helped finance anti-slavery publications. He was religious, but believed in vengeance. He gathered up abolitionists, including 7 blacks and attacked pro-slavery supporters, raised money, and enlisted people for a war against slavery. He was captured and ordered to be executed for committing treason in Virginia. Colonel Robert E. Lee captured him. His actions were seen as heroic by many northerners and blacks because he was wiling to take action in his own hands against the institution of slavery. However, not all northerners approved of his violent ways.

Homestead Act

an act that took effect January 1, 1863 in order to encourage agricultural development. The Homestead Act, signed under President Lincoln's administration, gave 160 acres of free public land to settlers in the West in order to increase freedom. Access to land was a key part of the agrarian ideal and owning and working one's land was seen as being self-sufficient: the ultimate freedom. The policy of homesteading was a northern policy that was adopted by lawmakers because the South did not have as much representation. Over 400,000 families were able to fulfill the requirements for access to the land (by 1930). The Homestead Act was significant because it was part of the Second American Revolution in terms of encouraging economic growth.

Elijah Lovejoy

an antislavery editor who was killed in 1837 by a mob in Illinois. He was a Maine native and a Presbytarian minister who started his career as an editor in Missouri, but moved to Illinois. He believed slavery was evil and a sin and his press was attacked four times by mobs, the fifth time resulting in his death. He resumed publication after each attack. Mobs attacked his press in Alton, Illinois because many people had economic ties with the South and therefore did not want slavery to end. Lovejoy was important because he was in charge of a press and if people attacked the press in order to prevent antislavery sentiments from spreading, it showed the power and effectiveness of the press to spread the antislavery message. Lovejoy himself is important because he risked his life more than once to continue spreading antislavery literature, which eventually lead to his death and essentially gave up his life in order to continue spreading antislavery sentiments.

Lecompton Constitution

an attempt to admit Kansas as a slave state through the drafting of a constitution by a pro-southern convention. The constitution was not submitted to popular vote and was initiated by President Buchanan's administration in 1858. Stephen A. Douglas was upset because popular sovereignty was violated, so he allied with Republicans to block the Lecompton Constitution. Kansas was not admitted as a slave state and only joined the Union on the eve of the Civil War as a free state. Stephen A. Douglas was a Northern Democrat and his support of Republicans showed southern Democrats that they couldn't trust a northerner. The Lecompton Constitution was showed the breaking down of political parties and that individuals did not always support all their party's values.

Pequot wars

brought on by settelers simply taking Indian villages as their own. colonists joined with rival tribes to wipe out problem tribes.

Crittenden Compromise

created by Senator John J. Crittenden of Kentucky, the compromise would allow all current slave states to remain slave states. Also, the Missouri Compromise line would be extended to the Pacific Ocean, so all territories acquired in the future would be able to have slaves if they fell into the area with the slave states. The seceding states did not like the compromise because they felt it was too late and did not do enough to ensure slavery. The compromise would pass unamendable constitutional amendments to fulfill the compromise. Lincoln didn't support the compromise especially because of the allocation for future territory to have slaves. He thought such an allocation would justify southerners wanting to acquire Cuba and Mexico. The Crittenden Compromise was significant because even though it didn't pass and was not enacted, its serious discussion proved that people were willing to compromise on the issue of slavery for the sake of keeping the Union together.

Paternalism

describes the common relationship between slaves and their masters, sometimes benevolent and warm, and sometimes cruel and tyrannical, and in general, slaves preferred to live on larger plantations where they had a small chance for their own social world.

Owenites

followers of Robert Owen, who established a community called New Harmony in 1824 in Indiana. Owen was a British factor owner who wanted to create a model factory village with strict rules, housing, and free public education. He wanted workers to receive what they deserved for their labor and promoted communitarianism, the idea that individual rights should be balanced with those of the whole community and can be influenced by individuals' environment. However, in practice the community of New Harmony was anything but harmonious and survived for only a few years. The Owenites were significant because they influenced the labor movement, educational reform, and women's rights, which all sought to make reforms in order to promote greater equality.

Transcontinental Railroad

in 1862 Congress granted money and land to the Union Pacific and Central Pacific companies to build a railroad from the Missouri River to the Pacific coast. The transcontinental railroad was a huge feat of labor, mostly Chinese immigrant labor that took a long time to complete because it was difficult to pass through the Sierra Nevada. It ran from Omaha, Nebraska to San Francisco, California and was significant because it encouraged settlement and investment in the West (although at the cost of the Plains Indians).

Emancipation Proclamation

issued by President Lincoln on January 1, 1863 the Emancipation Proclamation freed some, but not all slaves. It was based on a President's authority as military commander in chief. It exempted slaves in areas that were under Union control (ie where the war was over) and didn't apply to border states. However, many of the South's slaves, over 3 million, were freed by the decree, but they had to wait until the Union defeated the Confederacy because they were on Confederate land. The Emancipation Proclamation marked Union victory in the American Civil war because it aimed to destroy the institution of slavery in the South. Even though not all slaves were freed immediately, the proclamation allowed blacks to join the Union army, finally fight, and be somewhat more equal to whites, even though there was still discrimination against blacks.

Free Labor Ideology

key part of republican ideology. This emphasis both rejected Southern society and glorified the North. Members of the "producing classes," such as farmers, laborers, mechanics, and small businessmen, all fit under the category of free labor. Social mobility was possible in the North, and every free laborer was expected to use their hard work and ingenuity to seize the opportunity. Republicans attributed success in this endeavor entirely to individual character, not luck or the dominance of big business. rising up through hard work. contrast with southern ideology, stressed aristocratic values + hierarchy.

Jamestown

located inland on the James River, the capital of the colony of Virginia established in 1607 and the first English settlement started by Sir Walter Raleigh. A permanent settlement was established with colonists living there. Due to the location, near a river and swamp, mosquitos carrying malaria and other diseases and germs were easily spread to the settlers. A lack of food affected the settlers the first year, as many of them were more interested in prospecting for gold than working in order to grow food. The death rate was very high and many died. Nonetheless, England's first colony in the New World encouraged people to emigrate and colonize more of the New World.

Fort Sumter

officially start of the American Civil War when shooting broke out. It was a federal fort in Charlestown Harbor, South Carolina at which a battle took place, resulting in Confederate victory in 1861. President Lincoln declared a naval blockade of the South soon after the Battle of Fort Sumter, a part of the Anaconda Plan, which tired to cut off the South's economy. Fort Sumter was important because it was where the Civil War began and showed that the North had an advantageous economy compared with the South for the war. South Carolina was one of the first states to cede from the Union and was part of the Confederacy so it made sense that the first battle took place on "enemy" land. The blockade only became effective later on in the war, as the Confederates were at a disadvantage in terms of supplies.

Northwest Ordinances

one of the land ordinances passed by Congress in 1787. The Northwest Ordinances allowed for the eventual establishment of 3 to 5 states north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi. The idea of the "empire of liberty" as coined by Thomas Jefferson was enacted by this ordinance. The idea was that the US would grow territorially and so would self-government. The Ordinance promised to be good to the Indians and not take their land without their consent (people recognized Indians owned their land) and also banned slavery in the region north of the Ohio River (Old Northwest), but many slave owners just brought their slaves with them and said they had signed long-term labor contracts. The Northwest Ordinances were significant because they demonstrated the thirst for land that many Americans had, but also the power of the national government and its ability to make decisions.

Nat Turner's Rebellion

one of the largest slave rebellions in southern history led by the slave preacher Nat Turner on August 22, 1831. Nat Turner and his followers went from farm to farm assaulting whites, mainly women & children because the men were off at a religious revival that day, and killing 60 whites. The militia was sent to put down the uprising and Turner as well as other rebels were captured and executed. The revolt was successful because not many knew of the plan, so it was less likely to be discovered. Slaves were at a disadvantage from whites in rebelling because the whites were armed. However, despite difficulties in uprising against whites, slavers managed to resist slavery and by defying orders with more day-to-day protest and resistance. Nat Turner's Rebellion almost inspired emancipation of slavery, but it failed to win legislative approval, so instead the laws were tightened on slaves.

Monroe Doctrine

part of President James Monroe's annual message to Congress drafted by John Quincy Adams in 1823 as a kind of "diplomatic Declaration of Independence." The Monroe Doctrine listed three main principles that the US should follow: 1) oppose any and all colonization efforts by all European powers 2) avoid any involvement in the wars of Europe 3) European powers should not interfere with the newly independent states of Latin America. As a foreign policy adopted by the US, the Monroe Doctrine established US dominance and power in the Western Hemisphere. The Monroe Doctrine was important because it was the first major foreign policy adopted by the US that established the US as an important power that economically would assume Britain's role.

Three-Fifths Clause

part of the US constitution that dealt with the issue of slavery. It was essentially a compromise because the three-fifths clause allowed for states with slaves to count three-fifths of the slave population as part of their population thus enabling many southern states more electors and representatives in the House of Representatives. More southern representatives gave southern states greater political power in determining laws, against taxing slave property etc, while by including part of the slave population as part of a state's population that meant whites were acknowledging to a certain extent that slaves were in fact people "equal" to whites to a certain extent.

Fugitive Slave Act

passed in 1850 as a part of the Compromise of 1850, the law protected slave owner's property rights-their slaves by bringing in federal agents into the North to go after runaway slaves. Local authorities, in say a free state, were not able to stop these agents from going after slaves by law and citizens were required to help catch runaway slaves. It was odd because southerners supported states-rights, but bringing in federal government power to find their slaves was more important to them. The Fugitive Slave Act showed the importance of slavery for southerners and the political power of southerners in order to pass such a law. Ralph Waldo Emerson, an anti-slavery individual, did not support the law because he believed in limited genuine freedom. He claimed the government was being controlled by the South, which overrode people's (northerner's) ability to act according to their own beliefs (ie anti slavery) so was a loss of freedom.

Virginia Plan

proposed by James Madison at the Constitutional Convention in 1786, the Virginia Plan would create a 2 house legislature based on each state's population determining the number of representatives per state. The Virginia Plan would give larger states greater political power than smaller states if those larger states had a larger population.

Federalism

referred to as the "division of powers." Federalism was the relationship between the national government and the states. The Constitution of the United States bound the states with the national government. The "division of powers" part refers to the power of the states being separate from the national government to ensure that power is spread out and not too centralized. Under the Constitution, Congress, the national government, was given more rights and in charge of major decisions, but the states ran day to day affairs such as education and law enforcement. Federalism was significant because it ensured that the power of the government would be separated in order to preserve individual liberty.

Colonization

refers to the idea in the 1800 of that blacks should be deported to Africa, the Caribbean, or Central America to live in a colony, or live apart from whites. The colony of Liberia was established in Africa and black slaves from America were sent there in exchange for freedom. Some blacks even went voluntarily. Colonization would allow America to be rid of all blacks after their emancipation without the need to integrate them into society, a desirable solution for both North and South. Although some blacks supported colonization, the majority opposed it because they identified with America more than Africa and deserved their due rights as Americans. Colonization was significant because even though Americans were becoming open to blacks being free, they didn't want to integrate them into white society, demonstrating that inequality and essentially racism was present in white's thinking.

Trail of Tears

refers to the removal route of Indians from Georgia to Oklahoma during the winter of 1838-9. The US solution for dealing with the issue of Indians was to remove them from their land so that plantations could spread farther west as well as slavery and relocate the Indians to other land. Jackson even ordered Indian tribes deemed civilized because they had a language and Constitution to be removed. The Trail of Tears was a forced march of the Indians that was enforced by the military and moved the Indians west. A terrible tragedy for the Indians, the Trail of Tears shaped the racial identity of America by denying the Indians their rights to land and excluding them from all rights and freedoms enjoyed by Americans.

Abolition

refers to: abolishing, eliminating, emancipating, and the freeing of slaves during the American Revolution. Almost every founding father owned slaves even though it went against the idea of liberty for all. In the North, legislative power was used to end slavery between the years of 1777 and 1804 in all states north of Maryland. Abolition laws usually did not grand freedom outright to slaves. The emancipation act of 1780 in Pennsylvania granted freedom to children born to slave mothers after they worked so many years, say 28 years, for their mothers' master as compensation. Essentially, blacks were being used in a form of indentured servitude, but with a longer term of indenture in exchange for freedom. Some, very few, slave owners chose to voluntarily free their slaves. Nonetheless, the number of slaves increased according to a census from 1790. The abolition of slavery was very significant even though it did not completely end slavery when first enacted, it forced whites to accept that blacks were people just like whites who could not be enslaved, could be intelligent, and that the ideas of the American Revolution of liberty etc applied to them too.

Yeoman farmer

small landowners (the majority of white families in the south) who farmed their own land and usually did not own slaves

Confederacy

the eleven southern states that seceded from the Union in 1861. They established a separate federal government and elected Jefferson Davis as President. The Confederacy became more centralized than the Old South under Davis' administration. President Davis also tried to stop cotton production, which economically hurt the Confederacy. The Confederacy was in some ways more divided than the Union because non-slaveholders, yeoman farmers, began to resent fighting in a war that did not benefit them. Slaveholders obviously had a stake in the war so they cared about fighting in the war, but the division between them and the yeoman was too great for the Confederacy to be united in the cause of war. The blockade also started to work, leaving the Confederacy starving, with food riots breaking out. When the Union army, with Ulysses S. Grant met Lee's arm in Virginia, in 1864, the Confederacy was on the brink of collapsing because they incurred much greater losses than the Union army. The creation of the Confederacy was significant because it showed the importance of preserving the institution of slavery in the South. However, its eventual collapse was due to division within the people of the Confederacy, proving that everyone did not support slavery.

Bull Run

the first major battle of the Civil war, known as the Battle of Bull Run, took place in Northern Virginia (Confederate land) on July 21, 1861. Union soldiers retreated as well as the spectators and politicians. It was a very deadly battle with almost 800 men dead, the most dead than any previous battle, although the figure gets eclipsed in the years after. After the battle, George B. McClellan, an army engineer with the Confederate troops, switches sides and commanded the Union's Army of the Potomac. After assuming command he failed to take military action with the Union army. The Battle of Bull Run made both sides, Union and Confederate, realize that the war would not be a glorious, short battle and that many men would die in battle.

black legend

the idea of Spain as more oppressive and exploitative colonizer of the New World towards the Indians than other European countries, providing a useful justification for other European powers to challenge Spain's power in the New World.

Popular sovereignty

the idea that settlers should be able to decide the issue of slavery in the new territories acquired from Mexico (around1848). Popular sovereignty was a form of very local government and was essentially a middle ground between North and South ways of dealing with the slavery issue. The Democratic Party was united by popular sovereignty as well. Popular sovereignty was important because it was a way of for the government to not have to directly address the slavery issue by having the settlers decide whether or not to allow slavery in their territory. Popular sovereignty showed that the slavery question was still not dealt with by the federal government and eventually would explode.

Slavery of sex

the idea that women were slaves due to being female, instead of male that was used by feminists in the 1840s and 1850s to promote change for women. Essentially, women claimed that their sex kept them held in "bondage" and made men view them as inferior. Marriage was an important example of "slavery of sex" because in marriage women were inferior to men in position, as they could not have control of their own wages and property. Marriage was considered a form of "slavery" to a certain extent because women had limited freedom in marriage especially. Married women had to submit to the sex with their husbands and subject to physical punishment by their husbands, leaving abused women with little legal grounds to fight physical abuse in courts. The concept of "slavery of sex" led women to push for greater equality in marriage ie greater freedom so it was very important in the feminist movement.

Election of 1860

the presidential elections of 1860 were very sectionalist with the North and South essentially having two separate campaigns. In the North, Lincoln & Douglas were candidates, while in the South there were three candidates: Douglas, Breckenridge, and John Bell. Lincoln was favored in the North, while Breckenridge was favored in the South. Douglas was the only candidate with substantial support in both the South and North. Belle carried three states in the Upper South. Lincoln was elected President without any southern votes, which deeply upset the South. He did not win the majority of the national popular vote, but because of the North's population he would have won from the Electoral College. The election of 1860 was significant because there was a power shift, a Republican, Lincoln, was in power and the election showed the great extent to which the nation was divided, North and South, on the issue of slavery.

Judicial Review

the right of the supreme court to determine if a law violates the constitution

Loyalists

those who remained loyal to Britain (the crown) during the American Revolution. They included both prominent and humble Americans and served with the British army against Washington's army. Although there were loyalists in all of the colonies, New York, Pennsylvania, and parts of the Carolinas and Georgia had the most number of Loyalists. Many Loyalists were those whose profession was tied to Britain such as Anglican ministers, lawyers, merchants, and imperial officials. Some slaves even supported the British thinking that an American defeat would bring them freedom. Loyalists also included minorities such as the Highland Scots who thought their right to freedom would be diminished. Southern farmers who disliked that wealthy planters dominated public affairs sided with the British as well. Ironically, many Loyalists supported the American Revolution until independence and war came about. The Loyalists were significant because although they lived in America, they still supported the crown and were an example of just how divided the Americans were during the American Revolution.

George Fitzhugh

was a social theorist who published racial and slavery-based sociological theories in the antebellum era. He argued that "the Negro is but a grown up child" who needs the economic and social protections of slavery. Fitzhugh decried capitalism as spawning a "war of the rich with the poor, and the poor with one another" - rendering free blacks "far outstripped or outwitted in the chase of free competition." Slavery, he contended, ensured that blacks would be economically secure and morally civilized. basically he said that slaves in the south were better off than "freed servants" in the north.

Planter Class

whites that owned at least 20 to 50 slaves and 800 or more acres; exercised immense power and influence over political, economic, and social of region; brought political/economic power to deep south