APUSH Time Periods 3, 4, 5 - 1754-1877
Elaborate on utopian communities formed in this period.
About 100 reform communities were established in the decades before the Civil War. Most communities arose from religious conviction, but others were inspired by the secular desire to counteract the social and economic changes set n motion by the market revolution. Nearly all the communities set out to reorganize society on a cooperative basis, hoping to restore social harmony to a world of excessive individualism and to narrow the widening gap between rich and poor. Most utopian communities also tried to find substitutes for conventional gender relations and marriage patterns. The Shakers, the most successful of the religious communities, had over 5,000 members from Maine to Kentucky at their peak. Shakers completely abandoned traditional family life; men and women lived separately in large dorm-like structures and ate in communal dining rooms. They increased their numbers by attracting converts and adopting children from orphanages, They proved remarkably successful economically - they were among the first to market vegetable and flower seeds and herbal medicines commercial, and their furniture is still widely admired. Oneida was another influential and controversial community, founded in 1836 by John Humphrey Noyes in Putney, Vermont. The community became notorious for what Noyes called "complex marriage," whereby any man could propose sexual relations to any woman, who had the right to cep or reject his invitation, which would then be registered in a public record book. The great danger was "exclusive affections" which, Noyes felt, destroyed social harmony.
Describe the Missouri Controversy and subsequent Missouri Compromise.
After Missouri applied for statehood, controversy arose in the House of Representatives about whether it would be a slave or free state - House Speaker Henry Clay introduced a compromise known as the Missouri Compromise, which sought to end all debate on the expansion of slavery, thereby quelling potential secession or civil war. Under the Compromise, Missouri was admitted to the union as a slave state, but the state of Maine was cut off from Massachusetts and admitted to the union as a free state. The 36-30/Missouri Compromise Line is drawn to separate free and slave states in the territory gained by the Louisiana Purchase: above the line (with the exception of Missouri) were free states, and below the line were slave states. Congress passed the Compromise, and it was signed by James Monroe; Americans are very pleased, seeing the Compromise as a "sacred" document essential to their continued union. At this point, the NRP is still the only major political party, but clear regional divides challenge the Era of Good Feelings.
Describe efforts toward reform between 1820 and 1840. What did these movements hope to achieve? Where were some prominent; where were some not prominent? Why? What tactics did they utilize?
Americans established voluntary organizations that worked to prevent the manufacture and sale of liquor, end public entertainments and the delivery of the mail on Sunday, improve prison conditions, expand public education, uplift the conditions of wage laborers, and reorganize society on the basis of cooperation rather than competitive individualism. Some of these movements - like restraining liquor consumption and alleviating the plight of the blind and insane - flourished nationwide. Others, like women's rights, labor unionism, and educational reform, were weak or nonexistent in the South, where they were widely associated with antislavery sentiment. Reformers adopted a wide variety of tactics to bring about social change. Some relied on "moral suasion" to convert people to their cause. Others, such as opponents of "demon rum," sought to use government power to force sinners to change their ways. Some reformers decided to withdraw altogether from American society and establish their own cooperative settlements. They hoped to change American life by creating "heavens on earth" where they could demonstrate the superiority of a collective way of life.
What was the general mood of Anglo-American relations following the repeal of the Sugar and Stamp Acts? What changed this mood, and how?
Anglo-American relations were generally stable following the repeal of the Sugar and Stamp Acts; though the passage of the Declaratory Acts solidified how Britain viewed its authority toward America, Americans were not being directly targeted by any taxes they saw as unfair. The implementation of the Townshend Acts changed this mood - the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Charles Townshend, attempted indirect taxation on the American colonies. Assuming that colonists dislike direct taxes like the Stamp Act but would be fine with taxes on imported goods (indirect taxation). Merchant were required to pay the tax before selling imported products, leading to considerable higher prices for colonists. This coincided with increased British military presence to enforce the laws.
What new ideas about citizenship and civil rights came about in the abolitionist movement?
Antislavery conventions organized by free Blacks promoted the idea of "birthright citizenship", espousing the idea that "native free born men must be citizens." Black leaders insistently claimed the same civil and political rights as enjoyed by white citizens, as well as what they called "public rights," encompassing equal access to hotels, theaters, streetcars, steamships, and railroads, all of which regularly excluded Blacks. Their efforts toward these goals - launching campaigns for the right to vote, challenging discriminatory laws in courts, suing streetcar companies that excluded black passengers - were usually unsuccessful, though they did achieve the repeal of Ohio's Black Laws in 1849 and the integration of Boston public schools in 1855.
How did word spread about this new abolitionist movement?
Antislavery leaders took advantage of the rapid development of print technology and the expansion of literacy due to common-school education to spread their message. They send on the recently invented steam printing press to produce millions of copies of pamphlets, newspapers, petitions, novels, and broadsides. Between the formation of the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1833 and the end of the decade, some 100,000 northerners joined local groups devoted to abolition; most were ordinary citizens - farmers, shopkeepers, craftsmen, laborers, etc.
Describe the Indian Removal Act and subsequent Trail of Tears.
As more and more white Americans were moving West, conflict with Natives was steadily increasing. Up until 1830, American policy toward Natives east of the Mississippi River was to encourage assimilation (attempting to make Natives adopt Western customs). Jackson opposes Native assimilation; in his 1830 Indian Removal Act, the federal government was given the power to move Native tribes into western territories. About 25,000 natives in eastern states were relocated to Indian Territory in modern-day Oklahoma, mostly by threat of force. This lead to the Trail of Tears; 25,000 Cherokee people in western Georgia, who did not want to leave their territory, were relocated along the Trail of Tears to modern-day Oklahoma. The Trail of Tears did not happen until Martin Van Buren's administration, but it was made possible by Jackson's policy.
What protests against abolitionism took place? What impacts did these protests have?
At first, abolitionism arouse hostility from northerners who feared that the movement threatened the Union, profits wrested from slave labor, and white supremacy. Led by "gentlemen of property and standing" (often merchants with commercial ties to the South), mobs disrupted abolitionist meetings in northern cities. In 1837, antislavery editor Elijah Lovejoy became the movement's first martyr when he was killed by a mob in Alton, Illinois; in 1838, a mob in Philadelphia burned to the ground Pennsylvania Hall, which abolitionists built to hold their meetings. Elsewhere, crowds of southerners burned abolitionist literature that they had removed from the mails. In 1836, when abolitionists began to flood Washington with petitions calling for emancipation in the nation's capital, the House of Representatives adopted the notorious gag rule, which prohibited their condition. The rule was repealed in 1844, thanks largely to the tireless opposition of former president John Quincy Adams. Mob attacks and attempts to limit abolitionists' freedom of speech convinced many northerners that slavery was incompatible with white Americans' democratic liberties. The abolitionist movement now broadened its appeal so as to win the support of northerners who cared little about the rights of Blacks but could be convinced that slavery endangered their own cherished freedoms.
Describe the context behind and consequences of Marbury v. Madison.
At the end of Adams' time in office, there remained 17 commissions for new executive officials (primarily federal judges) that weren't yet delivered - the new president, Thomas Jefferson, commanded Secretary of State James Madison not to deliver these commissions; one appointee, William Marbury, sued the Jefferson Administration for his commission. The Supreme Court decided that they lack the power to deliver the commissions, saying that the law in place (Judiciary Act of 1789) was unconstitutional. More importantly, it gave the Supreme Court the power of judicial review, the power to strike down laws it interprets to be unconstitutional. Jefferson and many D-R's didn't agree with this decision, as an unelected body was wielding even more power than before.
Elaborate on the growth of industrial factories. How did this growth impact American life?
Because of the factory system, items that formerly required skilled labor could be mass-produced by machines; textiles were a major item produced. The cost of living and everyday items went down, as did unemployment in Northern cities, since factories employed a good number of people. The factory system really hurt artisans (skilled producers of a craft), as demand for their work went down with the dawn of factory labor. In spite of this growth, factory workers lead very miserable careers, with no real safety protections for their dangerous work, 12-13 hour days, and meager hourly wages. Moreover, any sense of independence and time management was nonexistent, and people were easily replaceable. Because of industrialization, a new wave of immigrants came to the United States from northern and western Europe, particularly Ireland. Many of them came to Northern cities for job opportunities, making the demographics of Northern states more diverse while the South remained divided between white, Anglo-Saxon Protestants and African slaves. Nativist (anti-immigrant) sentiments rose, with particular backlash toward Irish immigrants, much of which was rooted in anti-Catholicism.
Elaborate on the American Colonization Society. Who supported it, and who did not? Why?
Before the 1830s, white Americans willing to contemplate an end to bondage almost always coupled calls for abolition with the "colonization" of freed slaves - their deportation to Africa, the Caribbean, or Central America. In 1816, proponents of this idea founded the American Colonization Society, which promoted the gradual abolition of slavery and the settlement of Black Americans in Africa. It soon established Liberia on the coast of West Africa, an outpost of American influence whose capital, Monrovia, was named for president James Monroe. Numerous political leaders of the Jacksonian era - Henry Clay, John Marshall, and Jackson himself - supported the Colonization Society. Many colonizationists believed that slavery and racism were so deeply embedded in American life that blacks could never achieve equal if freed and allowed to remain in the country. In the decades before the Civil War, several thousand Black Americans did emigrate to Liberia with the aid of the Colonization Society - some were slaves emancipated by their owners on the condition of departing, while others left voluntarily, hoping to spread Christianity in Africa or to enjoy rights denied them in the US. But most Black Americans adamantly opposed the idea of colonization. In fact, the formation of the American Colonization Society galvanized free Blacks to claim their rights as Americans. Early in 1817, some 3,000 free blacks assembled in Philadelphia for the first national black convention. Their resolutions insisted that blacks were Americans, entitled to the same rights and freedoms enjoyed by whites.
What powers fought in the Seven Years' War? What specific territory did they clash over? Why?
Britain and France fought in the Seven Years' War. The two powers primarily clashed over the Ohio River Valley, land between Pennsylvania and Ohio that both powers claimed and saw as essential to determining which power would be dominant for years to come.
When was Britain victorious? How does the Treaty of Paris shape control of North American territory long-term? How do residents respond?
Britain was victorious in 1763. The war was settled in the Treaty of Paris, in which France lost almost all its North American colonies (though they do keep Haiti). All of France's territory west of the Mississippi, the Louisiana Territory, was ceded to Spain. The Treaty of Paris solidifies that Britain is the dominant European power in North America - residents respond by continuing the proud British nationalism that had been cultivated for years for Britons in the American colonies.
Describe how the Constitution became America's governing document. What states still objected? For what reasons? How did differing factions come to a compromise?
By 1788, about a year into the ratification debate, 9 states had voted to ratify the Constitution, with many states deciding this by a close margin. New York, Virginia, North Carolina, and Rhode Island had not yet ratified it, and this was problematic since New York and Virginia were incredibly important economic centers at this time, and it hindered the young nation's unity. Objections from anti-Federalists were primarily based on how the new Constitution made no mention of people's fundamental rights (Federalists saw these rights as implied). The compromise between Federalists and anti-Federalists was to add a Bill of Rights to the 1787 Constitution, which was eventually added as the Constitution's first ten amendments in 1791; the other four states subsequently ratified the Constitution.
Following King George's response to the Olive Branch Petition, what happens at the Second Continental Congress?
By the summer of 1776, following the publication of George III's Olive Branch Petition in America, the delegates of the Second Continental Congress were unanimous in favor of independence and chose Thomas Jefferson to write the Declaration of Independence. Much of the declaration was a list of objections to the rule of George III; it also mentioned how attempts at reconciliation with him had failed. The first paragraphs notably give the rationale for why the colonists were breaking away, citing the Enlightenment principles of John Locke in saying that citizens have a right to rebel and form a new government when oppressed. Jefferson and other delegates wanted to explain to future generations the circumstances under which one can rebel.
When was the Second Continental Congress? What initially happens there? Why?
Colonists agreed to meet a year later at the Second Continental Congress, again in Philadelphia. They send yet another letter to George III; this one is known as the Olive Branch Petition, and within it, they simply ask George III to tell colonists what rights and liberties they do have as British citizens. The writers say that, if they get a satisfactory response, they will stop rebelling against Britain. There was unanimous consent to send this letter - pro-independence people were assured that the King would send a nasty reply, and anti-independence people genuinely desired his reply. George III replied declaring that the colonies were in open rebellion against his rule, and saying that any continued rebellion is traitorous and will result in the rebels' execution.
How did colonists protest against the Stamp Act? How did the British government feel about these protests? How did they respond?
Colonists protest against the Stamp Act by boycotting all British goods (on a local basis, rather than having a national boycott) in 1765. Though some chose not to participate, there was social pressure to do so - people known to buy British good or seen carrying them were frowned upon. Colonial leaders met at the Stamp Act Congress in 1765 in their second attempt of a unified meeting, sending a united letter of appeal to King George III outlining their desire to be treated equally to British citizens. They express "all due subordination" to Parliament and "allegiance" to the King. The British government is very surprised by the level of protest - Greenville criticizes colonists for complaining about paying much less in taxes than mainlanders do, and the government argues that American colonists have virtual representation since every MP technically represents the whole British Empire. Though the letter is ignored, Great Britain got rid of the Sugar and Stamp Acts, but passed the Declaratory Acts, which reaffirmed Parliament's authority to make laws pertaining to the American colonies. George Greenville is dismissed as British Prime Minister.
What checks on common people's influence did the new Constitution create? Why?
Delegates, influenced by their own elite backgrounds, feared what would happen if too much power were given to commoners - they saw too much common power as a disaster based on their experiences in the era of the AoC, and desired to maintain their own power. While the House of Representatives was directly elected by people in single-member districts, the Senate was elected indirectly by state legislatures, with two senators afforded to each state regardless of the state's government. Presidents and vice presidents were chosen by the Electoral College, which was far from a direct, popular electoral system. In 1787, the Electoral College was a group of wealthy, elite individuals chosen by state legislatures to choose the president and vice president.
What challenges to British power still exist at the end of the war? How does Britain respond?
Despite its colonial dominance, Britain is in a massive debt crisis because of the investments it made in winning the Seven Years' War. Britain also finds it challenging to maintain all its newly acquired land. Britain responds by ending the policy of salutary neglect; it begins to enforce tax and trade laws like the Navigation Acts in North America. When George III takes power, he declares that no American colonist can move west of the Appalachian Mountains in the Proclamation of 1763, thinking that settlements on a smaller expanse of land would be easier to manage.
Describe the bank war under Jackson's administration.
During Jackson's presidency, Jackson drastically lowered taxes and paid down the national debt. Jackson and his supporters staunchly opposed the Second Bank of the United States. The bank's 20-year charter was set to expire in 1836. In July 1832, Jackson vetoed a bill that would have rechartered the bank. This was a very challenging call because he wanted to be seen as a preserver of states' rights and small government. Using his veto power would make him appear overly powerful, while allowing such a strong federal structure to continue existing would make him seem like a supporter of it. Jackson is careful to justify his veto through his support of states' rights. The bank was a central issue in Jackson's 1832 election against Whig Henry Clay. Jackson wins this reelection by a landslide.
What new institutions were created in response to reform movements?
During the 1830s and 1840s, Americans embarked on a program of institution building - jails for criminals, poorhouses for the destitute, asylums for the insane, and orphanages for children without families. These institutions shared with believers in "perfectionism" the idea that social ills once considered incurable could in fact be eliminated. The largest effort at institution building before the Civil War came in the movement to establish common schools - tax-supported state school systems open to all children. In the early-19th century, most children were educated at private academies, charity schools, locally supported schools, or at home; some had no access to education at all. Horace Mann, a Massachusetts lawyer and Whig politician, was the era's leading educational reformer; he hoped that universal public education could restore equality to a fractured society by bringing children of all classes together and equipping the less fortunate to advance. By 1860, every Northern state had established tax-supported school systems. The common-school movement created the first real career opportunity for women, who quickly came to dominate the ranks of teachers. On the contrary, the South - where literate blacks were viewed as a social danger and planters had no desire to educate poor white children - lagged far behind.
Describe how the feminist movement arose in the 1840s.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, the key organizers of the Seneca Falls Convention of 1848, were veterans of the antislavery crusade. In 1840, they had traveled to London as delegates to the World Anti-Slavery Convention, only to be barred from participating because of their gender. The Seneca Falls Convention, a gathering on behalf of women's rights held in Seneca Falls, New York, raised the idea of women's suffrage for the first time. Stanton, the principal author, modeled the Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments on the Declaration of Independence, arguing that women's liberation was part of America's greater democratic tradition. Women's suffrage was not the only issue raised at the convention - the Declaration condemned the entire structure of inequality that denied women access to education and employment and of independent legal status after they married, among other things. Like other reform movements, feminism was an international movement; lacking broad backing at home, early feminists found allies abroad. A notable advocate for feminism in this era was Margaret Fuller, who became literary editor of the New York Tribune, the first woman to achieve a position this important in American journalism. She published Women in the Nineteenth Century, in which she sought to apply to women the transcendentalist idea that freedom meant a quest for personal development.
What schism occurred in the abolitionist movement around this time? Why?
Even in reform circles, the demand for a greater public role for women remained extremely controversial. Around 1840, abolitionism split into pro-feminist and anti-feminist wings; Abby Kelley's election to the business committee of the American Anti-Slavery Society sparked the formation of a rival American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society. Behind the split lay the fear among some abolitionists that Garrison's radicalism on issues like women's rights, as well as his refusal to support abolitionists voting or running for public office, impeded the movement's growth. Determined to make abolitionism a political movement, the seceders formed the Liberty Party; their candidate, James Birney, received only about 7,000 votes. In 1840, antislavery northerners saw little wisdom in throwing away their ballots.
Describe the 1796 election. Who won? What events characterized his presidency?
Federalist John Adams ran against Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson - Adams won and, as runner-up, Jefferson became Vice President. Adams encountered challenges in following the ideal, almost Christlike Washington, and was the first president to be criticized in public on a regular basis. Adams supported the 1798 Alien and Sedition Acts - these were designed to make immigration to the US much more difficult and give the President the power to expel "dangerous" immigrants from the country (this was mostly anti-French), and also to criminalize saying anything "false, malicious, or scandalous" about the federal government in a very deliberate limit on free speech. Democratic-Republicans were extremely upset over these restrictions. Thomas Jefferson and James Madison write in the Virginia & Kentucky Resolutions about how the Resolutions were unconstitutional and that state-level courts could deem federal laws unconstitutional (an argument that is consequential as the 1800s progress).
Elaborate on the divisions between Federalists and anti-Federalists at this time, as well as prominent people on either side.
Federalists favored the new Constitution and wanted it to be ratified - they notably included Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison. They believed in a stronger federal government, worrying about the consequences of giving too much power to state governments; they were also skeptical about giving common people too much say in government, strongly believing that white male landowners should have sole decision making power. They tended to be wealthy, elite individuals who resided in Northeastern cities; wealthy plantation owners in states like South Carolina and Georgia also tended to be Federalists. Federalists generally desired closer relations with Britain. Anti-Federalists agreed that the Articles of Confederation had problems, but thought that the new Constitution gave far too much power to the federal government. Notable anti-Federalists included Patrick Henry and Samuel Adams. They were in favor of giving more power to the states (perhaps not as radically as the AoC did, but to a significant degree) and of giving common people increased power in government, and disagreed with property qualifications for voting. Anti-Federalists generally desired closer relations with France.
How does France increase tension in this region? How do the British respond militarily? Non-militarily?
France increases tension in the Ohio River Valley by building military bases on the territory. Under the leadership of George Washington, British troops respond by advancing into the Ohio River Valley to build a British fort; they see a French scouting party and attack them. The French see this as an act of aggression and respond by invading the entire Valley in 1754, capturing Washington and his troops. This begins the Seven Years' War. In a non-military response, Ben Franklin called the Albany Congress, a meeting of all 13 British colonies to discuss a unified British response to French aggression.
Describe the power landscape (amount of land, population) of European powers in North America around 1750. What rivalries did this kickstart?
France was the dominant landowning power in North America around 1750, and Spain also has a significant amount of land; Britain owned much less land than France or Spain did, though the population of British colonies in North America was higher than the population of any other European powers' colonies. A natural rivalry between France and Britain kickstarted; their territories were in close proximity, and they were competing for land and resources in the New World. An element of Protestant-Catholic rivalry was also in play.
How did Black abolitionists spearhead a new interpretation of abolitionism?
Frederick Douglass was only one of many former slaves who published accounts of their lives in bondage; these workers convinced thousands of northerners of the evils of slavery. The most noteworthy anti-slavery work was Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin, a novel that sold over 1 million copies between 1851 and 1854. By the 1840s, black abolitionists sought an independent role within the movement, regularly holding their own conventions. At every opportunity, black abolitionists rejected the nation's pretensions as a land of liberty; free black communities in the North devised an alternative calendar of "freedom celebrations" to avoid celebrating July 4th. Black abolitionist Henry Highland Garnet proclaimed at a gathering of black abolitionists that slaves should rise in rebellion to throw off their shackles; this was so at odds with prevailing beliefs in moral suasion that the published proceedings omitted the speech. Frederick Douglass gave a notable speech entitled "What, to the Slave, Is the Fourth of July?" He denounced notions of patriotism, calling America a hypocritical nation, but acknowledged that the Revolution had left a rich inheritance of values that could be recaptured through the abolition of slavery.
Describe the emergence of a new party system around this time.
From 1829 until 1854, the 2nd Party system of the Democratic and Whig Parties existed. The Whig Party was created by Henry Clay around this time as an anti-Andrew Jackson party; they believed in a strong central government, the American System (an economic plan to make the US very wealthy and stable, with components like a national bank), and government-funded internal improvements. They were mostly urban, wealthy elites. The Democratic Party advocated for states' rights and a weak federal government, and was primarily baed in rural areas. They strongly disagreed with the American system. Neither Whigs nor Democrats were regionally based; because of that, the 2nd Party System did not especially hinder American unit. Neither party really disagreed on foreign affairs, and both agreed on the Missouri Compromise.
Describe Great Britain's performance in the early stages of the war. How does it respond?
Great Britain does poorly in the first two years of the war, and they are at risk of losing. Two years in, the British chose to mobilize all their resources and manpower; they saw it as the only way not to be defeated in the war. The British mobilize 45,000 troops and 150 million pounds, borrowing money and going into debt. This investment of time and resources helps turn the war around for the British.
Elaborate on the Louisiana Purchase.
In 1803, the Louisiana Purchase caused the US to double in size, almost reaching modern-day New Mexico from the Mississippi River. The Spanish had control over the Louisiana Territory from 1763 to 1800; in 1800, France reconquered this territory under Napoleon, which was problematic because the US benefited from how the Spanish Empire allowed American merchants free access to the port of New Orleans. Jefferson sent James Monroe on a secret mission to France in order to attempt buying New Orleans; France offered the US the entire Louisiana Territory, which Monroe took. Jefferson was extremely happy about this - it somewhat countered his small-government beliefs, but he said that the Purchase benefited agriculture and poor farmers. The Purchase created two major long-term problems: the country would have to debate again the expansion of slavery, and the US would be in constant military conflict with Native Americans in the Territory.
Describe the Nullification Crisis in South Carolina.
In 1828, the Tariff of 1828 was passed, and it was the highest protective tariff - the Northeast favored it because their industry benefitted from it. Jackson's vice president, South Carolinian and staunch opponent of the act John C. Calhoun, developed the Theory of Nullification, which theorizes that state governments voluntarily join the union, and therefore have much more power than the union. Because of that, Calhoun thought that any state government could nullify a federal law if the state government disagreed with it. Jackson did not agree with the tariffs, but staunchly opposed the Theory of Nullification. In 1832, Congress passed the Tariff of 1832, a slight reduction of the 1828 tariff. In response to this tariff, the SC State Legislature issued an ordinance of nullification, forbidding federal enforcement of the law in SC. In the 1832 Force Bill, Congress (with Jackson's support) said that military force could be used to force SC to comply with the law and that states are forbidden from nullifying laws Jackson also sent warships to Charleston Harbor. Worth noting is that every other Southern state passed a resolution expressing solidarity with Jackson. But the conflict was still brewing until Henry Clay brokered the Compromise of 1833, in which the federal government agreed to lower the tariff over the next decade for South Carolina to repeal the nullification. Though Jackson rarely favored the federal government over states' rights, he did in this instance.
What territorial changes caused the Northwest Ordinance of 1787? What major questions arose about this territorial expansion, and how are these questions settled?
In the 1783 Treaty of Paris that ended the Revolutionary War, the United States gained the Northwest Territory, which included land around the Ohio River Valley and the Great Lakes (modern-day Upper Midwest). Two major questions were over whether territories would become states or remain territories, or if slavery would be legal in these states (particularly in light of abolition in many New England states). The Ordinance says that the territory will be broken into 3-5 new states, setting a precedent followed in later years of American history, and says that the territory will not allow slavery, which becomes an important argument used by anti-slavery activists in the Civil War - the Founding Fathers chose not to expand slavery into new states.
Describe the presidency of James Monroe. When was his tenure? What policies define his presidency?
James Monroe won the presidency with little competition in both 1816 and 1820, serving from 1817 to 1825. His presidency was probably as close as the US got to Washington's advice about nonpartisanship. He issued the Monroe Doctrine during his 1823 State of the Union as a warning to Western European powers against further colonization in the Western Hemisphere. If Europe interfered in Latin America, the US would respond militarily; in turn, the US would not interfere in European affairs. This became the cornerstone of US foreign policy for the next century. Europe somewhat ignored this doctrine, since the US military was not especially strong. Monroe also established a Second National Bank, an act that his predecessor Madison supported.
Who does King George III appoint as prime minister to respond to the debt crisis? What does he implement? What does he re-emphasize, and with what consequences?
King George III appoints George Greenville to be prime minister in 1764. Greenville implements the Sugar Act, a tax on sugar products, on American colonies. This coincided with stricter enforcement of the Navigation Acts; prior to 1764, you may encounter a jury of sympathetic peers, but, by 1764, the Admiralty Courts -- established to punish people who break the Navigation Acts -- would institute a much harsher approach. Located in Canada's Nova Scotia province, the Admiralty Courts did not have a jury and operated under the assumption that a defendant was guilty until proven innocent. In addition, British troops would receive cash rewards for turning people in.
Describe the governmental structure in the Articles of Confederation. What amount of power does it afford to states and the federal government? How was it flawed?
Like the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation enshrined Locke's democratic ideas of self-government. But the form of federal government in the AoC is extraordinarily weak - its writers, carrying the memory of subordination to British power under the Intolerable Acts, were terrified of a strong national government, and the document reflects this. With no executive or judicial power structure, there is a unicameral legislature at the federal level (with equal representation for each state) that attempts to pass bills and make laws pertaining to foreign policy matters like maintaining a military and signing major trade agreements. It is constitutionally barred from taxing the states or individuals directly (though it could tax imports. This meant that the government had no ability to raise revenue, so there was no standing army or reparatory payments for Revolutionary War veterans. The only way for the federal government to raise revenue was through infrequent voluntary taxation. For anything to be passed through this legislature, there has to be 9/13 agreement of states, and unanimous agreement to amend the document itself.
Which colonists were most directly affected by the Townshend Acts? How did they respond, and what were the effects of these responses?
Like with the Sugar Acts, coastal-based merchants in New England were most directly affected by these laws; they were the ones mandated to pay the tax before selling imported products. They responded with another boycott of British products - this one began in New England and spread throughout the colonies between 1767 and 1770. Again, the colonists' primary objection to these acts was that they didn't have any say in their implementation (rather than the higher prices the acts entail). Colonists also respond with the first instance of violence in the fight for American independence, the Boston Massacre in 1770, wherein protesters hurled insults at British soldiers and tax collectors. Colonists deliberately portrayed this fighting, which injured 12 Bostonians and killed 5, as British aggression toward innocent colonists (though this was a stretch). In the immediate aftermath, Parliament had no choice but to get rid of almost all the Acts (notably excluding a tax on tea).
What Americans were critical of reform movements? How did reform movements reconcile with conceptions of freedom? How did they try to enforce these ideas on Western settlers and immigrants from abroad?
Many Americans saw the reform impulse as an attack on personal freedom. Indeed, drinking was a prominent feature of festive celebrations and events like militia gatherings. A "Liberty Loving Citizen" of Worcester, Massachusetts wondered what gave citizens the right to dictate how others conduct their personal lives. American Catholics - with growing numbers due to Irish and German immigration - were also critical of the reform impose. Catholics, unlike Protestants, viewed sin as an inescapable burden of individuals and society. The perfectionist idea that all evil could be banished from the world was, to them, an affront to genuine religion. While reformers spoke of man as a free moral agent, Catholics tended to place less emphasis on individual independence and more on the importance of communities centered on family and church. Reformers had a vision of freedom that was both liberating and controlling. Reformers insisted that their goal was enabling Americans to enjoy genuine liberty; in an increasingly material world, they spoke of liberating Americans from various forms of "slavery" - to drink, to poverty, to sin - seeing these as hindrances to material success. But reformers also insisted that self-fulfillment came from self-discipline. In some ways, reformers believed, American society suffered from an excess of liberty, an anarchic "natural liberty" instead of a more Christian liberty. Many religious groups worried that settlers in the West and immigrants from abroad lacked self-control and led lives of vice. They formed the American Tract Society, the American Bible Society, and other groups that flooded eastern cities and the western frontier with copies of the gospel and pamphlets promoting religious virtue - these amounted to more than 500 million pages between 1825 and 1835.
How did women play a role in the abolitionist movement? Other movements? How did the modern women's rights movement come of this?
Much of the abolitionist movement's grassroots strength came from northern women, who joined by the thousands and often supported their views with Christian principles. Since the public sphere was open to women in ways government and party politics were not, women were keen observers of political issues - they circulated petitions, attended mass meetings, raised money for political causes, and delivered public lectures. They became active in the temperance movement, the building of asylums, and other reform activities. Dorothea Dix, a Massachusetts schoolteacher, was the leading advocate of more humane treatment for the insane, who at the time were generally placed in jails alongside debtors and hardened criminals. It was participation in abolitionism that inspired the early movement for women's rights. Angelica and Sarah Grimke, the abolitionist daughters of a South Carolina slaveholder who had been educated in Philadelphia, forthright defended the rights of women to take part in political debate and to share men's social and educational privileges. Sarah published Letters on the Equality of the Sexes, a powerful call for equal rights for women.
Describe the election of 1828. Who won? How did the victor characterize himself to the American public? Give an example.
Now a Democrat, Andrew Jackson defeated National Republican John Quincy Adams; he ran as a common man, and, with the lifting of property restrictions on voting, gets substantial support from poor farmers and other commoners. He notably proved how he was a "man of the people" at his inauguration, during which he invited the general public to a raucous party at the White House.
What was the British government's response to the Boston Tea Party? What did this response entail? What was the colonies' response to this response?
Parliament was furious with American disobedience and with the loss in profit caused by the protest. They responded with the passage of the Intolerable Acts, which involved the blocked and closure of the Boston port until the money used in the Tea Party's protest was paid back, a change in the charter of the Massachusetts colony wherein all authority was taken away from Massachusetts' colonial government as Massachusetts was subjected to direct colonial control, and the implementation of the Quartering Act, which required any citizen of Boston to give shelter to any British soldier. Though Parliament only intended to punish Massachusetts and the Sons of Liberty, it enraged all thirteen colonies who saw it as a violation of the Enlightenment belief in rights to life, liberty, and property, and that if it happened in Boston, it could happen anywhere. This anger was what motivated the First Continental Congress, another meeting of all thirteen colonies.
How did political factions initially emerge in George Washington's Cabinet? Over what proposal was there notable controversy? Whose proposal was it?
Political factions initially emerged in George Washington's Cabinet as John Adams and Thomas Jefferson butted heads with Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton; Hamilton had strong Federalist leanings and was seen as Washington's closest ally while the other two were more anti-Federalist. (Adams and Jefferson later have an infamous separation, but they are allies during Washington's administration.) As Treasury Secretary, Alexander Hamilton proposed a Financial Plan similar to that of George Greenville that attempted to rid America of debt and help it prosper economically. Hamilton wanted to make the US a military and commercial power that would pursue business, manufacturing, and transatlantic trade rather than small-scale agriculture.
Describe two examples of how the economic and political crisis of the 1780s was handled by state governments. What reforms came because of it?
Rhode Island decided to print a lot more money to solve the debt crisis, resulting in hyperinflation - in particular, creditors and bankers who are owed debts are repaid with virtually nothing. Massachusetts increased its property taxes, which upset its heavily anti-taxation populace and most especially impacted poor people and farmers. Those unable to pay these property taxes were punished with foreclosures (violating the right to property enshrined in Locke's work). Daniel Shays leads an infuriated group of Massachusetts farmers to violent rebellion; they attempted to lose courthouses in rural Massachusetts towns. The Massachusetts government was powerless to quell this rebellion and was forced to hire a private army to end it. With stronger, more effective federal power, the crises in MA & RI could have been resolved much more efficiently. But the responses demonstrated to the country that it was almost powerless to prevent crises, compelling the new country to change its governing document.
Describe the public atmosphere in regards to the slavery debate in 1789. What stance did the Constitution take, and why? Give examples.
Slavery was being eliminated in Northern states while remaining active in Southern states, and public opinion at this time would have supported an end to the international slave trade. However, the enslaved population in the US had gone down because of how Lord Dunmore's Proclamation offered freedom for all enslaved Africans who fought for the British in the Revolution, and Southern state governments likely would not have supported a constitution that did not allow the continuation of the international slave trade and other supports for slavery. The Constitution included a clause stating that Congress cannot pass any law that would ban the international slave trade for twenty years after its ratification; the Fugitive Slave Clause, a clause that made it illegal for any American in free or slave states to aid an escaped slave; and the 3/5th Compromise, which allowed enslaved people to be counted as 3/5th of a person in state censuses, thereby giving Southern states more representation and power.
When was the Philadelphia Convention called - why? What instructions did the National Assembly give to the Convention? Were these instructions followed - why? How representative was the Convention of the US population?
The 1787 Philadelphia Convention was called in response to demonstrated issues with the Articles of Confederation as a means of governance. The National Assembly (under the AoC) instructed the Convention to offer amendments to the existing Articles of Confederation. The Convention completely flaunted the Assembly's command and wrote an entirely new Constitution, and they justified it by saying that the Articles of Confederation were not protecting the natural rights foundational to the United States. The Convention was not at all representative of the US population - all delegates were college-educated, land-owning white men, a minority among the actual US populace.
Describe the 1800 election. Who won? What events characterized his presidency?
The 1800 election was between John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, and the Alien and Sedition Acts were a central issue in the election. Jefferson won, making Adams a one-term president in a victory often called the Revolution of 1800. Jefferson, who presented himself as a man of the common people, as reduced the size of the military (especially the Navy) and abolished federal taxes. He issued pardons for everyone arrested under the Alien & Sedition Acts and passed a series of laws removing them. He encouraged states to remove property qualifications for voting - by 1840, 90% of white men were eligible to vote, thanks in part to Jefferson's efforts. Under Jefferson, the US also acquired the Louisiana Territory.
Why was a document needed to outline governance of the independent United States? What was initially outlined?
The Declaration of Independence did lay out that American government would base itself off Enlightenment principles, but it gave no specifics about how governance in the new country was going to work - a document was needed to outline this, and this was initially done by the Articles of Confederation.
When was the First Continental Congress? What happened there? What was the British government's response?
The First Continental Congress happened in Philadelphia in 1774 as Congress pondered their response to the Intolerable Acts. Delegates wrote another letter to George III; this letter, though clear in pointing out objections to British governance, is still very respectful of the King's authority and points out how, during the period of salutary neglect, the colonists were quite pleased with being under Britain - they simply want those conditions to return. Though independence was, for the first time, legitimately part of the conversation at this conference, there was still a great deal of colonist hesitancy on it - the colonies are still very reliant on Britain economically, and are therefore nervous about cutting off that reliance. The British government ignored the letter.
What was the Market Revolution?
The Market Revolution references a period between 1800 and 1840 during which economic change affected all regions of the United States. Major changes in this period spanned transportation, industrialization, and the cotton industry - it became much easier to transport people and goods across the country, industry advanced across the country, and cotton became the South's cash-crop, enhancing its wealth. These changes both enhanced America's national identity and enhanced America's more fractured, regional identities.
What tax followed the Sugar Act? How did it differ from the Sugar Act in its nature and impact? Why?
The Stamp Act, a tax on paper products in North America, followed the Sugar Act. The implementation of the Stamp Act was met with more unified anger across the colonies, since every colony used paper products to some extent. This unified hatred was caused primarily by the impacts felt by the newspaper industry, which was present in every colony.
Following the repeal of most of the Townshend Acts, what act was notably passed? Who in the colonies did it affect, and how? What were the responses to these effects?
The Tea Act was notably passed in 1773 following the repeal of most of the Townshend Acts; this act established that the British East India Company (a struggling joint-stock tea company that many MPs owned stock in) was exempt from the tax on tea, allowing the Company to offer much-lower prices and practically monopolize the tea industry. Once again, this law primarily effects coastal-based merchants (particularly in Boston), who could go out-of-business. Colonists in New England initially refuse to unload East India Company tea. Their resentment culminates in the Boston Tea Party, held in December 1773, wherein members of the revolutionary Sons of Liberty dress up like Natives and dump cargo full of East India Company tea into the Boston Harbor, causing significant financial loss to the company. This was no minor protest - this was a major act of rebellion.
Elaborate on the innovations that characterized the Transportation Revolution.
The Transportation Revolution majorly sped up travel times throughout the US because of several new innovations: Toll roads and turnpikes emerged around 1800; these are roads that required a toll to be used, and this toll would later be used to maintain the roads. These toll roads were usually not run by the government, and their routes were created strategically with business in mind. Though getting people to actually pay this toll was challenging, road quality went up substantially, and the cost of transportation went down. The steamboat, invented by Robert Fulton in 1807, was operated by a steam engine and not by hand. These boats could move much more efficiently and effectively against the current in rivers; this was especially significant in making the Mississippi River easier to travel across. The cost of doing business that required river travel decreased substantially, making goods less costly and companies more profitable. Canals - manmade waterways which connect two real bodies of water - make many travel routes shorter and cheaper. The most significant of these is the Erie Canal, a canal that connects Albany to Buffalo, New York and allows travel by sea between New York and the Great Lakes region. The rail system also experienced major growth, with 60,000 miles of railroad track across the US by 1860 - though rail service at this time was extraordinarily slow, it was used widely because it could carry bulk and was the only effective means of transit in some geographies.
Describe the economic and political state of the United States in the 1780s. How was this handled on a governmental level?
The United States is enduring economic and political crisis in the 1780s. The federal government owes significant money to foreign investors who powered its victory in the Revolutionary War, but is unable to tax its citizens - this lead the government to be in default (bankrupt) in the 1780s. And since the federal government cannot tax its citizens, state governments were tasked with resolving the crisis.
Describe the new movement for abolition. How did it differ from previous movements? Who were noteworthy advocates against slavery at this time?
The abolitionist movement that arose in the 1830s differed profoundly from its genteel, conservative predecessor. A new generation of reformers rejected the traditional approach of gradual emancipation and demanded immediate abolition, drawing on the religious conviction that slavery was an unparalleled sin and the secular conviction that it contradicted the Declaration of Independence. They also directed explosive language against slavery and slaveholders, insisting that blacks, once free, should be incorporated as equal members of the republic rather than being deported. The first indication of the new spirit of abolitionism came in 1829 with the appearance of An Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World by David Walker, a free black who had left North Carolina for Boston; a passionate indictment of slavery and racial prejudice, the Appeal warned whites that the nation faced divine punishment if it didn't mend its sinful ways. After he died in mysterious circumstances in 1830, the 1831 appearance of the Liberator (William Lloyd Garrison's weekly journal published in Boston) was a permanent voice for the new breed of abolitionism. Some of his ideas, such as his suggestion that the North abrogate the Constitution and dissolve the Union to end its complicity in slavery, were rejected by most abolitionists; nevertheless, his call for the immediate abolition of slavery echoed throughout anti-slavery circles. Young minister Theodore Weld was also noteworthy for how he trained a band of speakers to bring the abolitionist message into the heart of the rural and small-town North. Their methods were those of the revivals - fervent preaching, calls for individuals to renounce their immoral ways - and their message was simple: slavery is a sin.
How did abolitionists relate their views to broader concepts of American freedom?
The antislavery movement sought to reinvigorate the idea of freedom as a truly universal entitlement. Though abolitionists like William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass condemned the Constitution for its inadequate advocacy against slavery, abolitionists developed an alternative, rights-oriented view of constitutional law. Seeking to define the core rights to which all Americans are entitled, they invented the concept of equality before the law regardless of race. Abolitionist literature also popularized the idea of bodily integrity as a basic right that slavery violated. Abolitionists seized upon documents like the Declaration of Independence, interpreting its preamble as a condemnation of slavery. The Liberty Bell did not become a venerated symbol of freedom until abolitionists adopted it as a symbol as part of an effort to identify their principles with those of the founders.
Describe the election of 1824. Who ran? Who won? How did the winner win, and with what effects?
The election of 1824 was between John Quincy Adams, then Secretary of State who was the experienced frontrunner; Henry Clay, the Speaker of the House who brokered the Missouri Compromise; William Crawford, then the well-known Secretary of State; and Andrew Jackson, a little-known, inexperienced general in the War of 1812 who tried to appeal to the common man as a very informal speaker who painted himself as anti-elite. John Quincy Adams wins, but not without controversy. On Election Day, the electoral college is deadlocked; to be president, one must attain a majority in the Electoral College, and Jackson - who got the most votes - got ~38%. Per the Constitution, the House of Representatives had a contingent election between Jackson, Adams, or Crawford (Clay was #3 and eliminated) to determine who would win, with delegations of every state voting for one of the three. Crawford has a stroke after the election and loses much chance of winning; Jackson makes the case that supporters of democracy would vote for him. The House chooses John Quincy Adams, with significant sway from Henry Clay, who despises Andrew Jackson. Jackson is angry about this, and is even angrier when Clay is appointed Secretary of State; he firmly believes that Clay helped Adams win the election in order to become Secretary of State, which he and his followers called the Corrupt Bargain. Jackson formed today's Democratic Party at the end of this election, and the Era of Good Feelings definitively ended.
Elaborate on the Era of Good Feelings.
The end of the Federalist Party ushered in the Era of Good Feelings (1815-1824), during which the National Republican (formerly Democratic-Republican) Party was America's only major political party, and political culture was defined by an unusual amount of agreement and cooperation - low voter turnout, very noncompetitive elections, and a strong sense of nationalism throughout the country, the latter partially caused by the War of 1812.
Describe the major political parties that eventually emerged in the United States. Why was this significant when similar political factions already existed? When did this emergence happen, and for how long did these parties survive?
The first major political parties that emerged in the United States in 1790 were the Federalists (who last from 1790 to 1814) and Democratic-Republicans (who last from 1790 to 1824). This was significant because political parties comprise an organized group of people running in elections, whereas a faction is merely a group of people allied with similar beliefs. The Federalist Party had many of the same demographics and beliefs as the federalist faction - they were comprised of wealthy, urban elites who interpreted the new Constitution more loosely (thinking that the Constitution had a lot of implied power). They believed in property qualifications for voting and wanted Great Britain to be America's primary ally. Likewise, the Democratic-Republican Party shared many of its demographics and beliefs with the anti-federalist faction. Many Democratic-Republicans were rural farmers, and the party saw farming as the way forward for the American economy. They wanted to reduce the power of the federal government and interpreted the new Constitution very narrowly, seeing the only powers of the federal government as those stated explicitly. Disagreeing with property qualifications, they wanted more common people to vote, and wanted France to be America's primary ally; they supported the cause of the French Revolution.
Elaborate on the impact of religion on reform movements in America during this period. What particular viewpoints did religious movements inspire? Give examples of how these viewpoints were present and impactful in American society.
The most common reform movements were aimed at liberating people from restraints external to them (slavery or war) or from forms of internal "servitude" (drinking, illiteracy, criminality). Many of these reform movements were inspired by the religious revivalism of the Second Great Awakening. The revivals popularized the outlook known as perfectionism, which saw both individuals and society as capable of indefinite improvement. And the existing temperance movement was shifted in a more radical direction - instead of merely advocating moderation in consuming liquor, it began to advocate for eliminating all drinking. Likewise, criticism of war became outright pacifism, and critics of slavery began to demand immediate and total abolition rather than gradual emancipation. The American Temperance Society, founded in 1826, sought to redeem not only habitual drunkards but also the occasional drinker, claiming by the 1830s to have persuaded hundreds of thousands of Americans to renounce liquor. By 1840, the consumption of alcohol per person had fallen to less than half the level of a decade earlier.
Describe secular communitarianism and "worldly communities" during this time period.
The mot important secular communitarian (a person who plans or lives in a cooperative community) was Robert Owen, who created a model factory village in Scotland, where he combined strict rules of work discipline with comfortable housing and free public education. In 1824, he purchased the Harmony community in Indiana where he established New Harmony, hoping to create a "new moral world." In his scheme, children would be removed from their parents' care at an early age to be educated in schools where they would be trained to subordinate individual ambition to the common good. Owen also defended women's rights, especially access to education and right to divorce. New Harmony lasted only for a few years - there were squabbles about everything from the community's constitution to distribution of property - but it strongly influenced the labor movement, educational reformers, and women's rights advocates.
Describe the amount of power given to the federal government in the new Constitution. What branches of government did it establish, and what could these branches do?
The new Constitution gave much more power to the federal government - instead of just a unicameral legislative branch like in the AoC, it created three branches of government. The legislative branch was bicameral, comprising both the House of Representatives and the Senate; it was much easier to pass legislation in this branch, and it had the power to collect direct taxes and create a national currency. The new executive branch gave the President a significant amount of authority, notably appointing them Commander-in-Chief of the military. The Vice President could break ties in the Senate as President of the Senate or take power if the President died or became incapacitated. The new judicial branch determined the constitutionality of federal laws through the Supreme Court. They were chosen by the President and their confirmation was voted on by the Senate - their appointment was lifetime, and there were no set number of justices on the Court.
When would the new Constitution go into effect? Describe what emerged during the period in which the Constitution is being debated.
The new Constitution would go into effect after 9 of the 13 states had ratified it, after which the Articles would be defunct. When the US is debating the new Constitution between 1787 and 1788, the first political factions (not parties) emerged, Federalists and anti-Federalists.
What was the primary reason behind American resentment of these taxes? Why?
The primary reason behind American resentment of these taxes was not the taxes' financial impact on America, but rather that Americans themselves had no real say in their implementation since they had no representation in Parliament - they were taxed without being represented.
Elaborate on the main components of Hamilton's Financial Plan. How did Hamilton have to compromise in order to gain the support of Jefferson and his allies?
The three main components of the Financial Plan were: -Federal government taking over all state debts, eliminating states' financial responsibility for their debts; cited state government's power mismanagement in RI & MA; states without a lot of debt opposed this idea -Creation of very large protective tariff (tax on imported goods) that will make American consumers support local economies instead of buying foreign goods; this idea was most favored by coastal-based merchants, who would have benefitted economically from this tariff -Creation of a National Bank run by the federal government that could print money, give out loans, and tax individual states/people; this was the most polarizing part of the Plan as people like Hamilton saw stability in this idea while people like Jefferson disliked it, seeing it as the delegation of too much power to an unelected group Jefferson and allies agreed to vote for the Financial Plan if the national capital was moved to the South (it was previously in New York). The movement of the capital to Washington, D.C. (at that point, firmly part of the South) placed the seat of national power in the South, with emphasizing the South's importance to the new country and making the capital more central among the states.
How does King George III's response to the Olive Branch Petition fuel public support for independence? What else does? What are the approximate statistics for public support of independence around this time?
This harsh reprimand (in response to a polite petition) made clear Americans were not equal subjects to the British and that their objections were invalid under his rule. This helped turn the tide of public support for independence, along with the publication of Thomas Paine's Common Sense, a straightforward argument for common people in favor of independence that became a colonial bestseller. By the summer of 1776, around one-third of colonists were in favor of independence, around one-third were anti-independence loyalists, and around one-third were undecided.
What was the American reaction to Greenville's Sugar Act? How did this differ from the reaction that Greenville envisioned?
Though Greenville did not think that American colonists would take much issue with the Sugar Act and tightening of the Navigation Acts, seeing them as patriotic, compliant Britons, most Americans were upset. There was particular resentment in New England, where the tax had a particularly negative impact on merchants in coastal cities who traded sugar.
How many colonies attended? What was proposed, and how did those proposals fare? Why was the Congress significant?
Though every colony was invited to the Albany Congress, only the middle colonies attended. At the Congress, Franklin proposes a national legislature of British colonies in North America and that, in case of war with France, the English become allies with the Iroquois Confederacy. The colonies rejected the idea of a unified legislature; an attempt was made to reach out to the Iroquois, who were puzzled, as they already saw the French as their natural ally. The Congress was still significant because it was the first proposal for the 13 British colonies in North America to unify; the Congress becomes an important model that colonists follow later on.
Describe methods by which abolitionists made their voices heard. What strategies did they support and oppose? Why?
Though many Southerners feared that abolitionists intended to spark a slave insurrection (a belief strengthened by the outbreak of Nat Turner's Rebellion a few months after The Liberator made its appearance), nearly all abolitionists rejected violence as a means of ending slavery despite their militant language. Many were pacifists or "non-resistants" who believed that coercion should be eliminated from human relationships and institutions. Their strategy was moral suasion - they thought slaveholders needed to be convinced of the sinfulness of their ways, and the North of its complicity in upholding slavery. Abolitionists focused their efforts not on infiltrating existing political parties, but on awakening the nation to slavery's moral evil. Their language was deliberately provocative, meant to capture public attention.
Describe causes of the War of 1812.
Through the method of impressment in the early 1800s, British ships fired on American vessels without provocation and forced American sailors into the British Army. This practice outraged US leadership. Britain repeatedly violated the Treaty of Paris by its attempts to arm Native Americans and its military camps in the western United States. In 1807, Congress, with Jefferson's support, passed the Embargo Act, discontinuing all American trade with Europe. Jefferson supports this because he thought it would hurt Britain economically, and thereby pressure Britain to stop impressment and attacks on soldiers. This doesn't really hurt Britain economically, but it does heighten US-UK tensions. Around 1811-12, a group of politicians - Kentucky's Henry Clay and South Carolina's John C. Calhoun being notable ones - known as the War Hawks pushed strongly for war, believing that the US had been disrespected and needed to go to war.
What events characterized the presidency of George Washington? What did he warn in his Farewell Address?
Washington unanimously won the Electoral College because of widespread support for him, though he claimed to be above the political factions emerging in the country. He set the precedent of leaving office after 2 4-year terms, which was followed until 1940 and later codified in the 22nd Amendment. He also signed Jay's Treaty in 1794 on America's behalf, re-establishing an economic relationship with Britain. Washington said that if political parties formed int the United States, there would be bad effects nationwide - he worried that politicians may grow to be more loyal than party than to country, and worried particularly about partisanship associated with certain regions. Washington also opposed any permanent military alliances, advocating for isolationism - he thought that military alliance, especially with European powers, would drag the US into unnecessary wars.
Elaborate on the Cotton Boom.
With Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin, the cotton industry grew substantially, making slavery persistent throughout the American South; this contrasts Washington and Jefferson's prediction that slavery was dying around the late 1700s. Cotton displaces rice and tobacco as the South's primary cash crop at a time when global demand for cotton is incredibly high. In turn, the slave population experiences astonishing growth, passing the 1 million mark in 1810 and the 4 million mark in 1860. Because of the cotton gin, the main centers of slavery move from coastal South Carolina and Georgia to the interior of the South - states like Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, etc. Major wealth inequality persists in the South, with much of the wealth produced by the cotton gin being concentrated in the hands of the elite, and very few immigrants come there.
Describe the events of the War of 1812. How did it end? What party opposed it, and what happened because of their opposition?
With President James Madison's support, Congress declares war on Britain; the US partly banked on British resources being engaged in their war with France. The war lasts until 1814 and is disastrous for the US, partly because the British did engage resources in this war since the French began their invasion of Russia. In 1814, the British notably invaded Washington, D.C., occupying the Capitol and burning the White House (though this occupation only lasted a few days because a hurricane destroyed British supplies and ammunition). The War ended with the 1814 Treaty of Ghent, wherein both powers agreed to stop fighting and Britain promised to acknowledge the Northwest Territory as part of the US. Though this was more of a stalemate than anything, the US government spun it as a victory. A vocal minority of New England Federalists opposed the War of 1812. In 1814, the Federalist Party met at the Hartford Convention, denouncing the War and discussing the idea of secession for states who disagree with the federal government. This meeting is a bad look for the Federalist Party once the War ended, and it leads to their party mostly dissolving on a national level.
Describe movements for women's freedom in work, property, and intimacy that emerged in mid-19th century America.
Women demanded the right to participate in the market revolution. At an 1851 women's rights convention, black abolitionist Sojourner Truth insisted that the movement devote attention to the plight of poor and working-class women and repudiate the idea that women were too delicate to engage in work outside the home. Though working-class women were not well-represented at the Seneca Falls Convention, the participants rejected the identification of the home as woman's "sphere." During the 1850s, some feminists trie to popularize a new style of dress, the "bloomer" costume, consisting of a loose-fitting tunic and trousers. The costume attempted to argue that the long dresses, tight corsets, and numerous petticoats considered to be appropriate female attire were so confining that they made it almost impossible for women to claim a place in the public sphere. Through the concept of the "slavery of sex," feminists pointed out that the law of marriage made nonsense of the notion that the family was a "private institution." Marriage was not, literally speaking, equivalent to slavery; nevertheless, married women did not enjoy the fruits of there own labor. Beginning with Mississippi in 1839, numerous states enacted married women's property laws, shielding from a husband's creditors property brought into marriage by his wife. But these laws more centered on preventing families from losing their property during the depression that began in 1837. In 1860, New York enacted a more far-reaching measure, allowing married women much more expanded property rights. At this time, the law of domestic relations presupposed the husband's right of sexual access to his wife and to inflict corporal punishment on her. The demand that women should enjoy the rights to regulate their own sexual activity and to be protected by the state against domestic violence challenged the notion that claims for justice, freedom, and individual rights should stop at the household's door. But even feminists critical of the existing institution of marriage generally refrained from raising the explosive issue of women's "private" freedom in public; not until the twentieth century would the demand for freedom in intimate aspects of life inspire a mass movement. But the dramatic fall in the birthrate over the course of the nineteenth century suggests that many women were quietly exercising "personal freedom" within their families.
