APUSH vocab

14th Amendment

1) Citizenship for African Americans, 2) Repeal of 3/5 Compromise, 3) Denial of former confederate officials from holding national or state office, 4) Repudiate (reject) confederate debts

James Polk

11th President of the United States from Tennessee; committed to westward expansion; led the country during the Mexican War; U.S. annexed Texas and took over Oregon during his administration

Missouri Compromise

"Compromise of 1820" over the issue of slavery in Missouri. It was decided Missouri entered as a slave state and Maine entered as a free state and all states North of the 36th parallel were free states and all South were slave states.

Compromise of 1850

(1) California admitted as free state, (2) territorial status and popular sovereignty of Utah and New Mexico, (3) resolution of Texas-New Mexico boundaries, (4) federal assumption of Texas debt, (5) slave trade abolished in DC, and (6) new fugitive slave law; advocated by Henry Clay and Stephen A. Douglas

Great Awakening

(1730s and 1740s) Religious movement characterized by emotional preaching (Jonathan Edwards & George Whitefield). The first cultural movement to unite the Thirteen Colonies. Associated with the democratization of religion.

Phyllis Wheatley

(1753-1784); a slave girl brought to Boston at age eight and never formally educated; she was taken to England when, at twenty years of age, she published a book of verse and later wrote other polished poems that revealed the influence of Alexander Pope

French and Indian War (7 year war)

(1754-1763) War fought in the colonies between the English and the French for possession of the Ohio Valley area. The English won.

Sugar Act

(1764) British deeply in debt partl to French & Indian War. English Parliament placed a tariff on sugar, coffee, wines, and molasses. colonists avoided the tax by smuggling and by bribing tax collectors.

Quartering Act

(1765) Required colonies to provide food and quarters for British troops. Many colonists saw it as an encroachment on their rights.

Townshend Acts

(1767) A set of laws passed by Parliament after Stamp Act crisis, that stated new taxes would be applied only to imported goods, paid at the port of entry. (glass, tea, paper, lead, etc.)

John Quincy Adams

(1767-1848) Son of President John Adams and the secretary of state to James Monroe, he largely formulated the Monroe Doctrine. He was the sixth president of the United States and later became a representative in Congress.

Boston Massacre

(1770) Clash between unruly Bostonian protestors and locally stationed British redcoats, who fired on the jeering crowd, killing or wounding 11 citizens.

Robert Owen

(1771-1858) British cotton manufacturer believed that humans would reveal their true natural goodness if they lived in a cooperative environment. Tested his theories at New Lanark, Scotland and New Harmony, Indiana, but failed

Battle of Saratoga

(1777) Turning point of the American Revolution. It was very important because it convinced the French to give the U.S. military support. It lifted American spirits, ended the British threat in New England by taking control of the Hudson River, and, most importantly, showed the French that the Americans had the potential to beat their enemy, Great Britain.

Bank of the United States

(1791) chartered by Congress as part of Alexander Hamilton's financial program, the bank printed paper money and served as a depository for Treasury funds. It drew opposition from Jeffersonian Republicans, who argued that the bank was unconstitutional

John Adams

(1797-1801) He was the second president of the United States and a Federalist. He was responsible for passing the Alien and Sedition Acts. Prevented all out war with France after the XYZ Affair. His passing of the Alien and Sedition Acts severely hurt the popularity of the Federalist party and himself

Alien and Sedition Acts

(1798) Four measures passed during the undeclared war with France that limited the freedoms of speech and press and restricted the liberty of noncitizens.

Marbury v. Madison

(1803) Marbury was a midnight appointee of the Adams administration and sued Madison for commission. Chief Justice Marshall said the law that gave the courts the power to rule over this issue was unconstitutional. established judicial review

Orders in Council

(1806-1807) Edicts issues by the British Crown closing French-owned European ports to foreign shipping. The French responded by ordering the seizure of all vessels entering British ports, thereby cutting off American merchants from trade with both parties.

James Madison

(1809-1813) and (1813-1817) The War of 1812, the US declares war on Great Britain. In 1814, the British (technically the Canadians) set fire to the Capitol. The Treaty of Ghent ends the war in 1814., The fourth President of the United States (1809-1817). A member of the Continental Congress (1780-1783) and the Constitutional Convention (1787), he strongly supported ratification of the Constitution and was a contributor to The Federalist Papers (1787-1788), which argued the effectiveness of the proposed constitution. Favored strict interpretation of the Constitution.

Cyrus McCormick

(1809-1884) American inventor and industrialist, he invented the mechanical reaper and harvesting machine that quickly cut down wheat.

Harriet Beecher Stowe

(1811-1896) American author and daughter of Lyman Beecher, she was an abolitionist and author of the famous antislavery novel, Uncle Tom's Cabin.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

(1815-1902) A suffragette who, with Lucretia Mott, organized the first convention on women's rights, held in Seneca Falls, New York in 1848. Issued the Declaration of Sentiments which declared men and women to be equal and demanded the right to vote for women. Co-founded the National Women's Suffrage Association with Susan B. Anthony in 1869.

James Monroe

(1817-1821) and (1821-1825) The Missouri Compromise in 1821., the fifth President of the United States (1817-1825).His administration was marked by the acquisition of Florida (1819); the Missouri Compromise (1820), in which Missouri was declared a slave state; and the profession of the Monroe Doctrine (1823), declaring U.S. opposition to European interference in the Americas

Frederick Douglass

(1817-1895) American abolitionist and writer, he escaped slavery and became a leading African American spokesman and writer. He published his biography, The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, and founded the abolitionist newspaper, the North Star.

Susan B. Anthony

(1820-1906) An early leader of the women's suffrage (right to vote) movement, co-founded the National Women's Suffrage Association with Elizabeth Cady Stanton in 1869.

Andrew Jackson

(1829-1833) and (1833-1837), Indian removal act, nullification crisis, Old Hickory," first southern/ western president," President for the common man," pet banks, spoils system, specie circular, trail of tears, Henry Clay Flectural Process.

John C. Calhoun

(1830s-40s) Leader of the Fugitive Slave Law, which forced the cooperation of Northern states in returning escaped slaves to the south. He also argued on the floor of the senate that slavery was needed in the south. He argued on the grounds that society is supposed to have an upper ruling class that enjoys the profit of a working lower class.

Trail of Tears

(1838-39) an 800-mile forced march made by the Cherokee and other Indian Tribes from their homeland in Georgia to Indian Territory; resulted in the deaths of almost one-fourth of the Cherokee people

William Henry Harrison

(1841), was an American military leader, politician, the ninth President of the United States, and the first President to die in office. His death created a brief Constitutional crisis, but ultimately resolved many questions about presidential succession left unanswered by the Constitution until passage of the 25th Amendment. Led US forces in the Battle of Tippecanoe.

John Tyler

(1841-1845) His opinions on all the important issues had been forcefully stated, and he had only been chosen to balance the Whig ticket with no expectation he would ever have power. He was in favor of state's rights, and a strict interpretation of the constitution, he opposed protective tariffs, a national bank and internal improvements at national expense."man without a party"

Seneca Falls Convention

(1848) the first national women's rights convention at which the Declaration of Sentiments was written

Zachary Taylor

(1849-1850), Whig president who was a Southern slave holder, and war hero (Mexican-American War). Won the 1848 election. Surprisingly did not address the issue of slavery at all on his platform. He died during his term and his Vice President was Millard Fillmore.

Freeport Doctrine

(1858) a statement made by Stephen Douglas during the Lincoln-Douglas debates that pointed out how people could use popular sovereignty to determine if their state or territory should permit slavery

Battle of Antietam

(1862) a Union victory in the Civil War that marked the bloodiest single-day battle in U.S. military history

Emancipation Proclamation

(1862) an order issued by President Abraham Lincoln freeing the slaves in areas rebelling against the Union; took effect January 1, 1863

Freedman's Bureau

(1865-72), during the Reconstruction period after the American Civil War, popular name for the U.S. Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, established by Congress to provide practical aid to 4,000,000 newly freed black Americans in their transition from slavery to freedom

Ulysses S. Grant

(1869-1873) and (1873-1877) The 15th Amendment is added to the Constitution Administrative inaction and political scandal involving members of his cabinet, including the Crédit Mobilier scandal and the Whiskey Ring conspiracy. He was more successful in foreign affairs, where he was aided by his secretary of state, Hamilton Fish. He supported amnesty for Confederate leaders and protection for the civil rights of former slaves.

Schenck v. United States

(See Espionage and Sedition Acts above)

Sojourner Truth

(c.1797-1883) American evangelist and reformer, she was born an enslaved African but was later freed and became a speaker for abolition and women's suffrage

Harriet Tubman

(c.1820-1913) American abolitionist who escaped slavery and assisted other enslaved Africans to escape; she is the most famous Underground Railroad conductor and is known as the Moses of her people.

Zimmermann note

(or Zimmermann Telegram) was a 1917 diplomatic proposal from the German Empire offering a military alliance with Mexico, in the event of the United States entering World War I against Germany. The proposal was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence. Revelation of the contents outraged American public opinion, and helped generate support for the United States declaration of war on Germany in April of that year.

predestination

(theology) being determined in advance especially the doctrine (usually associated with Calvin) that God has foreordained every event throughout eternity (including the final salvation of mankind)

Rome-Berlin axis

- Term refers to the treaty signed by Germany and Italy in October 1936. Mussolini declared on November 1 that all other European countries would from then on rotate on the Rome-Berlin axis, thus creating the term "Axis".

Hawley-Smoot Tariff

- The Tariff Act of 1930 otherwise known as the Smoot-Hawley Tariff or Hawley-Smoot Tariff, was an act sponsored by Senator Reed Smoot and Representative Willis C. Hawley and signed into law on June 17, 1930, that raised U.S. tariffs on over 20,000 imported goods to record levels. The tariff level under the act was the highest in the U.S. in 100 years, Some view the Act, and the ensuing retaliatory tariffs by U.S. trading partners, as responsible for reducing American exports and imports by more than half. According to Ben Bernanke, "Economists still agree that Smoot Hawley and the ensuing tariff wars were highly counterproductive and contributed to the depth and length of the global Depression."

Tweed Ring

Boss Tweed headed corrupt Tammany Hall political machine in New York City; used patronage (city jobs) to ensure loyalty of voters; used money and favors to corrupt politicians and judges; stole millions of dollars from the City; arrested and jailed in 1977 after Thomas Nast cartoons ridiculed him. 1860s - 1870s

"virtual" representation

British governmental theory that Parliament spoke for all British subjects, including Americans, even if they did not vote for its members

impressment

British practice of taking American sailors and forcing them into military service

Calvinism

Broadly influential Protestant theology emanating from the French theologian John Calvin, who fled to Switzerland, where he reordered life in the community of Geneva according to his conception of the Bible. Calvinism emphasized the power and omnipotence of God and the importance of seeking to earn saving grace and salvation, even though God had already determined (the concept of predestination) who would be eternally saved or damned.

In 1955, the AFL merged with its longtime rival, the Congress of Industrial Organizations, to form the AFL

CIO, a federation which remains in place to this day. Together with the new union, the AFL has comprised the longest lasting and most influential labor federation in the United States.

Irish

Came to America because of potato famine and worked cheaper and harder than many Americans

15th Amendment

Citizens cannot be denied the right to vote because of race, color , or precious condition of servitude. Only applied to males

Rutherford B. Hayes

Civil War hero and Republican politician from Ohio, 19th President (1877-1881) after winning hotly contested election with Samuel Tilden - Tilden won popular vote, Hayes won electoral college vote after Congress commission gave him contested votes after the Compromise of 1877 - deal struck that gave Hayes the election in return for Hayes ending military occupation of the South and ending Reconstruction.

Rio Grande

Claimed by United States as southern boundary of Texas.

headright system

Colonial system of awarding a tract of land, usually fifty acres, to a person who paid for the passage of an indentured servant to the colonies. Some wealthy people in Virginia and other southern colonies accumulated huge tracts of land through this system.

The committee's anti

Communist investigations are often compared with those of Senator Joseph McCarthy.[2] McCarthy, as a U.S. Senator, had no direct involvement with this House committee.[3] McCarthy was the Chairman of the Government Operations Committee and its Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the U.S. Senate, not the House.

"Great" Compromise

Compromise made by Constitutional Convention in which states would have equal representation in one house of the legislature and representation based on population in the other house

Black Legend

Concept that Spanish conquerors merely tortured and murdered Indians, stole gold and infected them with smallpox, leaving nothing of benefit

slave trade Compromise

Congress could not regulate or outlaw slavery or slave trade until 1808

Jacob Riis

Danish American social reformer, "muckraking" journalist and social documentary photographer. He is known for using his photographic and journalistic talents to help the impoverished in New York City; those impoverished New Yorkers were the subject of most of his prolific writings and photography. He endorsed the implementation of "model tenements" in New York

Treaty of Ghent

December 24, 1814 - Ended the War of 1812 and restored the status quo. For the most part, territory captured in the war was returned to the original owner. It also set up a commission to determine the disputed Canada/U.S. border.

Samuel Tilden

Democratic candidate for President in 1876 against Rutherford B. Hayes, lost contested election after Compromise of 1877 gave Hayes the election in return for his ending Reconstruction.

George Whitfield

Different Style preaching than Edwards. He drew very large crowds with his impressive speaking voice, and held revival meetings. He was friends with Ben Franklin. Attempted to get people to go back to church and focus on religion again, he was successful at first, but it was short lived.

sectionalism

Different parts of the country developing unique and separate cultures (as the North, South and West). This can lead to conflict.

Henry Clay

Distinguished senator from Kentucky, who ran for president five times until his death in 1852. He was a strong supporter of the American System, a war hawk for the War of 1812, Speaker of the House of Representatives, and known as "The Great Compromiser." Outlined the Compromise of 1850 with five main points. Died before it was passed however.

"Revolution" of 1828

Election in 1828; It brought to power the 1st U.S. Pres., Andrew Jackson, who was not rooted in Eastern aristocracy. He was elected by the "common" man and acted within that mandate. It was the 1st time that individuals began to fight against corruption in politics (caucus-> conventions). There was an increased turnout of voters at the election. This proved that the common people had the vote and the will to use it for their ends. The results of the election show that the political center was shifting away from the conservative seaboard East toward the West. It was a peaceful election (ballots). Jackson's victory was the transfer of national power from rich-poor, East-West

Fugitive Slave Law

Enacted by Congress in 1793 and 1850, these laws provided for the return of escaped slaves to their owners. The North was lax about enforcing the 1793 law, with irritated the South no end. The 1850 law was tougher and was aimed at eliminating the underground railroad.

Treaty of Paris (1763)

Ended French and Indian War, France lost Canada, land east of the Mississippi, to British, New Orleans and west of Mississippi to Spain

Samuel Gompers

English-born American cigar maker who became a Georgist labor union leader and a key figure in American labor history. Gompers founded the American Federation of Labor (AFL), and served as the organization's president from 1886 to 1894 and from 1895 until his death in 1924. He promoted harmony among the different craft unions that comprised the AFL, trying to minimize jurisdictional battles. He promoted thorough organization and collective bargaining to secure shorter hours and higher wages, the first essential steps, he believed, to emancipating labor. He also encouraged the AFL to take political action to "elect their friends" and "defeat their enemies". During World War I, Gompers and the AFL openly supported the war effort, attempting to avoid strikes and boost morale while raising wage rates and expanding membership.

Border states

Five slave states-Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia-that did not secede during the Civil War. To keep the states in the Union, Abraham Lincoln insisted that the war was not about abolishing slavery but rather protecting the Union.

Free Soil Party

Formed in 1847 - 1848, dedicated to opposing slavery in newly acquired territories such as Oregon and ceded Mexican territory.

Joseph Smith

Founded Mormonism in New York in 1830 with the guidance of an angel. 1843, Smith's announcement that God sanctioned polygamy split the Mormons and let to an uprising against Mormons in 1844; translated the Book of Mormon and died a martyr.

Horace Greeley

Founder and editor of NY Tribune influential newspaper, encouraged westward expansion ("Go West, young man and grow up with the country); one of the founders of the Republican Party in 1854; supported Lincoln and urged the ending of slavery; rain against corruption of Grant administration against Grant in 1872 and was overwhelmingly defeated. Died weeks after the 1972 election.

Hessians

German soldiers hired by George III to smash Colonial rebellion, proved good in mechanical sense but they were more concerned about money than duty.

Sir Edmund Andros

Governor of the Dominion of New England from 1686 until 1692, when the colonists rebelled and forced him to return to England

McNary

Haugen Bill - The McNary-Haugen Farm Relief Act, which never became law, was a controversial plan in the 1920s to subsidize American agriculture by raising the domestic prices of farm products. The plan was for the government to buy the wheat, and either store it or export it at a loss. It was co-authored by Charles L. McNary (R-Oregon) and Gilbert N. Haugen (R-Iowa). Despite attempts in 1924, 1926, 1927, and 1928 to pass the bill — it was vetoed by President Calvin Coolidge, and never approved.

Florida Purchase Treaty

In 1819 Spain ceded Florida and other claims to Oregon in exchange for Texas. This gave land to Mexico but later caused Americans to fight against Mexicans for their old land.

second front

In World War II, it referred to the western front or the allied invasion of France in June, 1944. The "first front" was the eastern front where the Germans and Soviets armies fought. Throughout 1942 and 1943, Stalin pushed hard for the Americans and British to open up a second front in France to draw away German troops and relieve pressure on his armies. The Allies invaded Italy in 1943 which helped some in drawing German army troops away from the east, but not until 1944 did the Allies have the strength (and especially thousands of landing craft) to invade France and create a "second front."

pool

In business, an agreement to divide a given market in order to avoid competition. "The earliest form of combination was the 'pool.'..."

Fourteen Points

In this January 8, 1918, speech on War Aims and Peace Terms, President Wilson set down 14 points as a blueprint for world peace that was to be used for peace negotiations after World War I. Europeans generally welcomed Wilson's but his main Allied colleagues (Georges Clemenceau of France, David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom, and Vittorio Emanuele Orlando of Italy) were skeptical of the applicability of Wilsonian idealism. The speech made by Wilson on January 8, 1918 laid out a policy (free trade, open agreements, democracy and self - determination) that was supposed to guide the peace treaty negotiations and the structure of the post-war world.

internal improvements

Included roads, canals, railroads; essentially, an internal transportation network that would bind the country together.

deists

Influenced by the spirit of rationalism, Desists believed that God, like a celestial clockmaker, had created a perfect universe and then had stepped back to let it operate according to natural laws.

Compromise of 1877

Informal, unwritten deal in which southern Democrats in Congress agreed to let Hayes win the presidential election in return for Hayes ending REconstruction and withdrawing troops from the South.

Tariff of 1833

It called for the gradual reduction of the Tariff of 1832 by about 10% over 8 years. By 1842, the rates would be back at the level of 1816.

Christopher Columbus

Italian navigator who discovered the New World in the service of Spain while looking for a route to China (1451-1506)

United States Steel

J. P. Morgan and the attorney Elbert H. Gary founded U.S. Steel in 1901 (incorporated on February 25) by combining Andrew Carnegie's Carnegie Steel Company with Gary's Federal Steel Company and William Henry "Judge" Moore's National Steel Company, world's first billion dollar business

Harper's Ferry

John Brown's scheme to invade the South with armed slaves, backed by sponsoring, northern abolitionists; seized the federal arsenal; Brown and remnants were caught by Robert E. Lee and the US Marines; Brown was hanged

John Peter Zenger

Journalist who questioned the policies of the governor of New York in the 1700's. He was jailed; he sued, and this court case was the basis for our freedom of speech and press. He was found not guilty.

Battle of Bull Run

July 21, 1861. Va. (outside of D.C.) People watched battle. Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson: Confederate general, held his ground and stood in battle like a "stone wall." Union retreated. Confederate victory. Showed that both sides needed training and war would be long and bloody

Black Codes

Laws denying most legal rights to newly freed slaves; passed by southern states following the Civil War

Personal Liberty Laws

Laws passed by nine northern states during the 1850s to counteract the Fugitive Slave Act, forbidding the imprisonment of escaped slaves

William Jennings Bryan

Led Populist wing of the Democratic Party, ran unsuccessfully for President in 1896, 1900 and 1908. Advocated replacing Gold standard for money with Silver ("Cross of Gold" speech) to increase the money supply to help farmers and others who were poor or in debt. Great orator, known as the "Great Commoner" for his support of ordinary people against big business; very religious - opposed Darwinism, worked as prosecutor against the high school teacher defended by Clarence Darrow in the Scopes Monkey Trial; died soon afterwards.

Democratic Republicans

Led by Thomas Jefferson, believed people should have political power, favored strong STATE governments, emphasized agriculture, strict interpretation of the Constitution, pro-French, opposed National Bank

Hard/sound money

Means coins or paper money backed by a precious metal like gold which, because of its limited quantity, limits the amount of paper money that can be printed and distributed. Late 19th century Populists like William Jennings Bryan wanted silver used as the backing for paper money because the greater quantity of silver allowed more dollars to be printed and distributed.

Hartford Convention

Meeting of Federalists near the end of the War of 1812 in which the party listed it's complaints against the ruling Republican Party. These actions were largley viewed as traitorous to the country and lost the Federalist much influence

Church of the Latter Day Saints

Mormons: every man and woman should aspire to become like god and that family structure was very important (practiced polygamy).

Lincoln Steffens

New York reporter who launched a series of articles in McClure's that would later be published together in a book titled The Shame of the Cities. He is remembered for investigating corruption in municipal government in American cities and for his early support for the Soviet Union

Nagasaki

On August 9, 1945, it was largely destroyed by an atomic bomb dropped from a B-29 aircraft. An estimated 40,000 - 80,000 died as a result of the attack (immediate deaths and subsequent deaths from radiation). The shock of this second attack, and the declaration of war by the Soviet Union the day prior to the attack, is credited with shocking the Japanese into surrendering, thereby saving many American and Japanese lives.

Soft/cheap money

Paper dollars not backed by precious metal, used during Civil War to pay Union expenses, backed by government bonds; Greenback Party under James Weaver opposed law ordering withdrawal of Civil War greenbacks and replacement with gold backed dollars. Wanted to increase money supply, encourage inflation to help debtors pay debts with more available, cheaper money.

Immigration Quota Act

Passed in 1924, it was a United States federal law that limited the annual number of immigrants who could be admitted from any country to 2% of the number of people from that country who were already living in the United States in 1890, down from the 3% cap set by the Immigration Restriction Act of 1921, according to the Census of 1890. It superseded the 1921 Emergency Quota Act. The law was primarily aimed at further restricting immigration of Southern Europeans and Eastern Europeans. In addition, it severely restricted the immigration of Africans and prohibited the immigration of Arabs, East Asians, and Indians.

implied powers

Powers not specifically mentioned in the constitution

Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act

President Franklin Delano Roosevelt signed the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act (RTAA) into law in 1934. RTAA gave the president power to negotiate bilateral (country to country), reciprocal trade agreements with other countries. This law enabled Roosevelt to liberalize American trade policy around the globe. It is widely credited with ushering in the era of liberal trade policy that persists to this day.

Navigation Laws

Promoted English shipping and control colonial trade; made Americans ship all non-British items to England before going to America

social gospel

Protestant Christian intellectual movement that was most prominent in the early 20th century United States and Canada. The movement applied Christian ethics to social problems, especially issues of social justice such as economic inequality, poverty, alcoholism, crime, racial tensions, slums, unclean environment, child labor, inadequate labor unions, poor schools, and the danger of war. Its leaders were predominantly associated with the liberal wing of the Progressive Movement and most were theologically liberal, although they were typically conservative when it came to their views on social issues.[4]Important leaders include Richard T. Ely, Josiah Strong, Washington Gladden, and Walter Rauschenbusch

Lusitania

RMS Lusitania was a British ocean liner was briefly the world's largest passenger ship. She was launched by the Cunard Line in 1906, at a time of fierce competition for the North Atlantic trade. In 1915, she was torpedoed and sunk by a German U-boat, causing the deaths of 1,198 passengers and crew. In firing on a non-military ship without warning, the Germans had breached the international laws known as the Cruiser Rules. Although the Germans had reasons for treating Lusitania as a naval vessel, including the fact that the ship was carrying war munitions and the British had been breaching the Cruiser Rules, the sinking caused a storm of protest in the United States, as 128 Americans were among the dead. The ship's sinking provided Britain with a propaganda opportunity, which helped shift public opinion in the United States against Germany and influenced America's eventual declaration of war two years later, in 1917.

Soft/cheap money

Refers to paper money not backed by any precious metal like gold - it is backed by the order of the government that it is legal tender (must be accepted when selling goods and services). It is also called "Fiat" money because it is money created by "Fiat" which is an order by the government. This type of money, called "Greenbacks," was used in the Civil War to quickly expand the money supply to pay war expenses. After the war, radical populists wanted the government to continue issuing Greenbacks but they were withdrawn by law and replaced by gold backed dollars. Today's U.S. paper currency is "Fiat" money, not backed by anything but the government's order that it is legal tender.

German Forty-eighters

Refers to the large amount of German immigrants who moved to America in 1848 after the failed democratic uprising in Germany. Affected American politics and culture.

Chester Arthur

Republican 21st President (1881-1885) after Garfield assassination. Championed Civil service reform - Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act. As a product of New York machine politics he was not trusted at first but surprised everyone by his zeal for reform.

Marcus Alonzo Hanna

Republican United States Senator from Ohio and the friend and political manager of President William McKinley. Hanna had made millions as a businessman, and used his money and business skills to successfully manage McKinley's presidential campaigns in 1896 and 1900

James Weaver

Republican politician in the post Reconstruction period, pushed for increasing the currency through the issuing of paper money, lost as a third party candidate for president in 1880 as head of the Greenback Party and in 1892 as head of the new Populist Party. Later merged Populists with Democratic Party and supported William Jennings Bryan.

judicial review

Review by a court of law of actions of a government official or entity or of some other legally appointed person or body or the review by an appellate court of the decision of a trial court (Marbury v Madison)

Andrew Carnegie

Robber baron, Scottish American industrialist who led the enormous expansion of the American steel industry in the late 19th century. He is also well known as a leading philanthropist. He gave away to charities and foundations about $350 million[3] (in 2015, $4.76 billion) - almost 90 percent of his fortune. His 1889 article proclaiming "The Gospel of Wealth" called on the rich to use their wealth to improve society, and it stimulated a wave of philanthropy.

New Nationalism

Roosevelt's political policy in the election of 1912, central issue he argued was government protection of human welfare and property rights, but he also argued that human welfare was more important than property rights. He insisted that only a powerful federal government could regulate the economy and guarantee social justice,and that a President can only succeed in making his economic agenda successful if he makes the protection of human welfare his highest priority

Populist (People's) Party

SAME AS PREVIOUS ONE OR NO?

Iran Contra Affair

Scandal during the second Reagan term in which White House officials attempted to get around a Congressional prohibition against providing money or material to the Nicaraguan Contras (opposing the communist Sandanistas) by selling weapons to Iran (mostly ammo and replacement parts for American weapons we had to sold the Shah before the revolution) to raise their own little kitty of cash to give the Contras outside the lawful budget.

John Muir

Scottish-American naturalist, author, and early advocate of preservation of wilderness in the United States. His letters, essays, and books telling of his adventures in nature, especially in the Sierra Nevada mountains of California, have been read by millions. His activism helped to preserve the Yosemite Valley, Sequoia National Park and other wilderness areas

William Seward

Secretary of State who was responsible for purchasing Alaskan Territory from Russia. By purchasing Alaska, he expanded the territory of the country at a reasonable price.

House of Burgesses

1619 - The Virginia House of Burgesses formed, the first legislative body in colonial America. Later other colonies would adopt houses of burgesses.

Mayflower compact

1620 - The first agreement for self-government in America. It was signed by the 41 men on the Mayflower and set up a government for the Plymouth colony.

New England Confederation

1643 - Formed to provide for the defense of the four New England colonies, and also acted as a court in disputes between colonies.

Bacon's Rebellion

1676 - Nathaniel Bacon and other western Virginia settlers were angry at Virginia Governor Berkley for trying to appease the Doeg Indians after the Doegs attacked the western settlements. The frontiersmen formed an army, with Bacon as its leader, which defeated the Indians and then marched on Jamestown and burned the city. The rebellion ended suddenly when Bacon died of an illness.

Dominion of New England

1686 - The British government combined the colonies of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and Connecticut into a single province headed by a royal governor (Andros). The Dominion ended in 1692, when the colonists revolted and drove out Governor Andros.

George Washington

1732-1799 led America's Continental Army to victory over Britain in the Revolutionary War and was the first President of the U.S, from 1789-1797. Because of his central role in the founding of the United States, he is often call the "Father of his Country."

Congress of Albany

1754: a meeting of representatives from 7/13 colonies to discuss relations with the Indian tribes as well as colonial defense measures against the French. (First step to unity)

King George III

1760-1820 ruler of Great Britain. He was a hero in Great Britain but in the colonies he was an evil tyrant.

Stamp Act

1765, A tax that the British Pariliament placed on newspapers and official documents sold in the American Colonies

Boston Tea Party

1773 Tea Act gave the East Indies Tea Company a monopoly over tea and lowered duties- seen as a trick to make them accept the laws; Dec. 16 men dressed as indians dump tea in boston harbor- bitter and expensive; led to intolerable acts

Quebec Act

1774 Organize the Canadian's lands gained from France; Catholicism was official religion of Quebec; Gov't w/o representative assembly; extended Quebec's boundary to Ohio River; Americans viewed it as attack on American colonies, b/c it took land from them; feared would try to steal American gov't; resented recognition given to Catholicism.

Intolerable Acts

1774; laws meant to punish Boston after the Tea Party; closed the harbor, created a police state, Quebec Act, and had to quarter troops in civilian homes

Declaration of Independence

1776 statement, issued by the Second Continental Congress, explaining why the colonies wanted independence from Britain.

Common Sense

1776: a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine that claimed the colonies had a right to be an independent nation

Treaty of Paris (1783)

1783 Februrary 3; American delegates Franklin, Adams, John Jays; they were instructed to follow the lead of France; John Jay makes side treaty with England; Independence of the US End of Loyalist persecution; colonies still had to repay its debt to England

Shays' Rebellion

1786 revolt by Massachusetts farmers seeking relief from debt and foreclosure that was a factor in the calling of the Constitutional Convention.

Northwest Ordinance

1787 law that set up a government for the Northwest Territory and a plan for admitting new states to the Union

Federalist Papers

1787, A collection of 85 articles written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison under the name "Publius" to defend the Constitution in detail.

Alexander Hamilton

1789-1795; First Secretary of the Treasury. He advocated creation of a national bank, assumption of state debts by the federal government, and a tariff system to pay off the national debt.

Jay's Treaty

1794 - It was signed in the hopes of settling the growing conflicts between the U.S. and Britain. It dealt with the Northwest posts and trade on the Mississippi River. It was unpopular with most Americans because it did not punish Britain for the attacks on neutral American ships. It was particularly unpopular with France, because the U.S. also accepted the British restrictions on the rights of neutrals.

Whiskey Rebellion

1794 protest against the government's tax on whiskey by backcountry farmers.

John Locke

17th century English philosopher who opposed the Divine Right of Kings and who asserted that people have a natural right to life, liberty, and property.

William Lloyd Garrison

1805-1879. Prominent American abolitionist, journalist and social reformer. Editor of radical abolitionist newspaper "The Liberator", and one of the founders of the American Anti-Slavery Society.

Embargo Act

1807 act which ended all of America's importation and exportation. Jefferson hoped the act would pressure the French and British to recognize U.S. neutrality rights in exchange for U.S. goods. Really, however, just hurt Americans and our economy and got repealed in 1809.

Non-intercourse Act

1809 - Replaced the Embargo of 1807. Unlike the Embargo, which forbade American trade with all foreign nations, this act only forbade trade with France and Britain. It did not succeed in changing British or French policy towards neutral ships, so it was replaced by Macon's Bill No. 2.

Macon's Bill No. 2

1810 - Forbade trade with Britain and France, but offered to resume trade with whichever nation lifted its neutral trading restrictions first. France quickly changed its policies against neutral vessels, so the U.S. resumed trade with France, but not Britain.

McCulloch v. Maryland

1819, Cheif justice john marshall limits of the US constition and of the authority of the federal and state govts. one side was opposed to establishment of a national bank and challenged the authority of federal govt to establish one. supreme court ruled that power of federal govt was supreme that of the states and the states couldnt interfere

Monroe Doctrine

1823 - Declared that Europe should not interfere in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere and that any attempt at interference by a European power would be seen as a threat to the U.S. It also declared that a New World colony which has gained independence may not be recolonized by Europe. (It was written at a time when many South American nations were gaining independence). Only England, in particular George Canning, supported the Monroe Doctrine. Mostly just a show of nationalism, the doctrine had no major impact until later in the 1800s.

Tariff of Abominations (1828)

1828 - Also called Tariff of 1828, it raised the tariff on imported manufactured goods. The tariff protected the North but harmed the South; South said that the tariff was economically discriminatory and unconstitutional because it violated state's rights.

Oregon fever

1842 - Many Eastern and Midwestern farmers and city dwellers were dissatisfied with their lives and began moving up the Oregon trail to the Willamette Valley. This free land was widely publicized.

Wilmot Proviso

1846 proposal that outlawed slavery in any territory gained from the War with Mexico

Uncle Tom's Cabin

1852, harriet beecher stowe, antislavery book, widely read- hated by southerners - made northerners more skeptical of slavery

Kansas-Nebraska Act

1854 - Created Nebraska and Kansas as states and gave the people in those territories the right to chose to be a free or slave state through popular sovereignty.

Trent affair

1861- A union vessel during the Civil War that intercepted a British ship evacuating confederate soldiers; almost led to conflict

Battle of Gettysburg

1863, this three day battle was the bloodiest of the entire Civil War, ended in a Union victory, and is considered the turning point of the war

13th Amendment

1865. Amendement abolishing and continually prohibiting slavery. With limited exception, such as those guilty of comitting a crime, it also prevents indentured servitude.

Tenure of Office Act

1866 - enacted by radical congress - forbade president from removing civil officers without senatorial consent - was to prevent Johnson from removing a radical republican from his cabinet

Military Reconstruction Act

1867; divided the South into five districts and placed them under military rule; required Southern States to ratify the 14th amendment; guaranteed freedmen the right to vote in convention to write new state constitutions

Whiskey Ring

1875 Grant Administration scandal involving Grant appointees stealing millions of dollars in whiskey tax revenues.

Plessy v. Ferguson

1896 United States Supreme Court decision upholding the constitutionality of state laws requiring racial segregation in public facilities under the doctrine of "separate but equal"

Elkins Act

1903 United States federal law that amended the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. The Act authorized the Interstate Commerce Commission(ICC) to impose heavy fines on railroads that offered rebates, and upon the shippers that accepted these rebates. The railroad companies were not permitted to offer rebates. Railroad corporations, their officers, and their employees, were all made liable for discriminatory practices

Hepburn Act

1906 United States federal law that gave the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) the power to set maximum railroad rates and extend its jurisdiction. This led to the discontinuation of free passes to loyal shippers. In addition, the ICC could view the railroads' financial records, a task simplified by standardized bookkeeping systems. For any railroad that resisted, the ICC's conditions would remain in effect until the outcome of legislation said otherwise. By the Hepburn Act, the ICC's authority was extended to cover bridges, terminals, ferries, railroad sleeping cars, express companies and oil pipelines

Roe v. Wade

1972 Supreme Court decision that legalized abortions by making a woman's "right to choose" a Constitutional right which the court discovered (or invented depending upon whose side you are on) in the 4th and 5th Amendment rights to privacy. It allowed some government regulation in the second term of pregnancy (4th - 6th month) and a lot of regulation in the 7th-9th month. It made dozens of State abortion laws illegal. Many on the religious right believe life begins at conception and all abortion is murder of the innocent unborn - so-called "right to life" advocates.

moral majority

1980s organization led by Rev. Jerry Falwell that was Christian and conservative, advocating "right to life" (anti-abortion) and anti-gay marriage and anti-gays in the military. Generally supported conservative Republicans in elections.

Americans with Disabilities Act

1990 law in 1st Bush administration, The ADA is a wide-ranging civil rights law that prohibits discrimination based on disability. It affords similar protections against discrimination to Americans with disabilities as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which made discrimination based on race, religion, sex, national origin, and other characteristics illegal. In addition, unlike the Civil Rights Act, the ADA also requires covered employers to provide reasonable accommodations to employees with disabilities, and imposes accessibility requirements on public accommodations.

Articles of Confederation

1st Constitution of the U.S. 1781-1788 (weaknesses-no executive, no judicial, no power to tax, no power to regulate trade)

Rough Riders

1st United States Volunteer Cavalry led by Theodore Roosevelt, fought mostly as infantry in Cuba

John Jay

1st chief justice of the supreme court; jays treaty (made the british give up there claim to the forts in the north, promised to reimburse they for the seized cargo); wrote the federalists papers

Tariff of 1816

1st protective tariff; helped protect American industry from competition by raising the prices of British manufactured goods, which were often cheaper and of higher quality than those produced in the U.S.

James Garfield

20th President, elected in 1880, Republican Civil War hero defeated another war hero, Hancock. Moderate Republican, didn't get a chance to do much - was assassinated six months after he took office by a disappointed job seeker. Succeeded by his VP Chester A. Arthur.

Grover Cleveland

22nd and 24th President (1885-1889 and 1893-1897), actually won popular vote in 1888 election but lost electoral vote to Benjamin Harrison. Only Democratic Party president in the post Civil War era until Woodrow Wilson in 1913. Highly regarded, pro-business, anti-tariff, anti-Free Silver, opposed subsidies to farmers, fought political corruption. Unable to dig out of the great depression of 1893, it led to Republican control of Congress and Presidency, ending the "Third Party System" and start of the Fourth Party System and the Progressive Era in 1897.

Grover Cleveland

22nd and 24th president, leader of the pro-business Bourbon Democrats who opposed high tariffs, Free Silver, inflation,imperialism, and subsidies to business, farmers, or veterans. His crusade for political reform and fiscal conservatism made him an icon for American conservatives of the era.[2] Cleveland won praise for his honesty, self-reliance, integrity, and commitment to the principles of classical liberalism.[3] He relentlessly fought political corruption, patronage and bossism. Indeed, as a reformer his prestige was so strong that the like-minded wing of the Republican Party, called "Mugwumps," largely bolted the GOP presidential ticket and swung to his support in the 1884 election

Benjamin Harrison

23rd President (1889-1893) Republican defeated Cleveland in 1884, then lost to him in 1892; grandson of President William Harrison; best known for economic legislation - McKinley Tariff (protective tariff that raised the prices of foreign goods) and the Sherman Anti-Trust Act which was the first exercise of Federal government power to rein in the power of large trusts that controlled major industries.

William McKinley

25th President of the United States, serving from March 4, 1897, until his assassination in September 1901, six months into his second term. McKinley led the nation to victory in the Spanish-American War, raised protective tariffs to promote American industry, and maintained the nation on the gold standard in a rejection of inflationary proposals

William Howard Taft

27th President of the United States (1909-1913) and later the tenth Chief Justice of the United States, emphasized trust-busting, civil service reform, strengthening the Interstate Commerce Commission, improving the performance of the postal service, and passage of the Sixteenth Amendment (income tax). Abroad, Taft sought to further the economic development of nations in Latin America and Asia through "Dollar Diplomacy", and showed decisiveness and restraint in response to revolution in Mexico

Thomas Jefferson

3rd President of the United States, chief drafter of the Declaration of Independence; made the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and sent out the Lewis and Clark Expedition to explore it (1743-1826); head of the Democratic Republicans; believed in strong state government/power; believed in a strict interpretation of the Constitution

"higher law"

Senator William Seward's doctrine that slavery should be excluded from the territories as contrary to a divine moral law standing above even the Constitution

"three-fifth" Compromise

Settled the question of how slave populations would be represented in Congress. Said that each slave would be counted as 3/5 of a person. All fugitive slaves must be returned to their owners.

George Creel

Seven days after the United States entered World War I, Woodrow Wilson created the Committee on Public Information, a propaganda agency acting to release government news, to sustain morale in the US, to administer voluntary press censorship, and to develop propaganda abroad. George Creel was named the head of the committee, and he created 37 distinct divisions, most notably the Division of Pictorial Publicity, the Four Minute Men Division, the News Division, and the Censorship Board.

XYZ affair

A 1797 incident in which French officials demanded a bribe from U.S. diplomats

John Breckenridge

A Political leader who favored the extension of slavery. His opponents were Douglas and Bell. He polled fewer votes in slave states than the combined strength of his opponents. Showing that because of Uncle toms cabin American was mainly abolitionists.

half-way covenant

A Puritan church document; In 1662, the Halfway Covenant allowed partial membership rights to persons not yet converted into the Puritan church; It lessened the difference between the "elect" members of the church from the regular members; Women soon made up a larger portion of Puritan congregations.

Anne Hutchinson

A Puritan woman who was well learned that disagreed with the Puritan Church in Massachusetts Bay Colony. Her actions resulted in her banishment from the colony, and later took part in the formation of Rhode Island. She displayed the importance of questioning authority.

William Penn

A Quaker that founded Pennsylvania to establish a place where his people and others could live in peace and be free from persecution.

Thaddeus Stevens

A Radical Republican who believed in harsh punishments for the South. Leader of the Radical Republicans in Congress.

Dred Scott

A black slave, had lived with his master for 5 years in Illinois and Wisconsin Territory. Backed by interested abolitionists, he sued for freedom on the basis of his long residence on free soil. The ruling on the case was that He was a black slave and not a citizen, so he had no rights.

John Smith

A captain famous for world travel. As a young man, he took control in Jamestown. He organized the colony and saved many people from death the next winter. He also initiated attacks on Natives. He was the council president of Jamestown beginning in 1608

Union Party

A coalition party of pro-war Democrats and Republicans formed during the 1864 election to defeat anti-war Northern Democrats.

joint-stock company

A company made up of a group of shareholders. Each shareholder contributes some money to the company and receives some share of the company's profits and debts.

Convention of 1800

A conference between the U.S. and France which ended the naval hostilities.

deflation

A decrease in the general price level of goods and services (inflation below 0%); has the effect of making each dollar more valuable (buy more goods and services with each dollar); hits those in debt the hardest as they have to pay back the debt with more expensive dollars (e.g. a farmer has to sell more crops to pay back the loans he uses to operate leaving less to sell for profit or own consumption).

Roger Williams

A dissenter who clashed with the Massachusetts Puritans over separation of church and state and was banished in 1636, after which he founded the colony of Rhode Island to the south

"peculiar institution

A euphemism for slavery and the economic ramifications of it in the American South. The term aimed to explain away the seeming contradiction of legalized slavery in a country whose Declaration of Independence states that "all men are created equal". It was one of the key causes of the Civil War.

Quakers

A form of Protestantism in which the believers were pacifists and would shake at the power of the word of the Lord

George McClellan

A general for northern command of the Army of the Potomac in 1861; nicknamed "Tardy George" because of his failure to move troops to Richmond; lost battle vs. General Lee near the Chesapeake Bay; Lincoln fired him twice.

tariff

A government tax on imports or exports

Daniel Webster

A great American orator. He gave several important speeches, first as a lawyer, then as a Congressman. He was a major representative of the North in pre-Civil War Senate debates, just as Sen. John C. Calhoun was the representative of the South in that time.

copperheads

A group of northern Democrats who opposed abolition and sympathized with the South during the Civil War

Oneida Community

A group of socio-religious perfectionists who lived in New York. Practiced polygamy, communal property, and communal raising of children. By John Humphrey Noyes, called a "free love" community.

Iroquois

A group of tribes speaking related languages living in the eastern Great Lakes region.

strict construction

A judicial philosophy that looks to the "letter of the law" when interpreting the Constitution or a particular statute.

Land Ordinance of 1785

A law that divided much of the United States into a system of townships to facilitate the sale of land to settlers.

Charles Sumner

A leader of the Radical republicans along with Thaddeus Stevens. He was from Massachusetts and was in the senate. His two main goals were breaking the power of wealthy planters and ensuring that freedmen could vote

trust

A legal entity whose purpose is own companies or corporations for the purpose of reducing competition and controlling prices (establishing a monopoly). Anti-Trust laws were passed to break up trust created monopolies (e.g. Standard Oil).

War Hawks

A member of Congress who wanted war with Britain before the War of 1812

Stephen Douglas

A moderate, who introduced the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854 and popularized the idea of popular sovereignty.

carpetbaggers

A northerner who went to the South immediately after the Civil War; especially one who tried to gain political advantage or other advantages from the disorganized situation in southern states;

South Carolina Exposition

A pamphlet published by the South Carolina legislature, written by John C. Calhoun. It spoke against the "Tariff of Abominations," and proposed nullification of the tariff. Calhoun wished to use nullification to prevent secession, yet address the grievances of sectionalist Southerners. These sectionalist ideas helped lead to the Civil War.

10% Plan

A plan by Abraham Lincoln that would help restore the South by allowing a southern state to rejoin the union if at least 10% of it's voters swore loyalty to the union and if slavery were abolished. The plan also gave amnesty to some southerners.

Proclamation of 1763

A proclamation from the British government which forbade British colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains, and which required any settlers already living west of the mountains to move back east.

"visible saints"

A religious belief developed by John Calvin held that a certain number of people were predestined to go to heaven by God. This belief in the elect, or "visible saints," figured a major part in the doctrine of the Puritans who settled in New England during the 1600's.

Puritans

A religious group who wanted to purify the Church of England. They came to America for religious freedom and settled Massachusetts Bay. "city upon a hill"

Ku Klux Klan

A secret society created by white southerners in 1866 that used terror and violence to keep African Americans from obtaining their civil rights.

Underground Railroad

A secret, shifting network which aided slaves escaping to the North and Canada, mainly after 1840.

Second Great Awakening

A series of religious revivals starting in 1801, based on Methodism and Baptism. Stressed a religious philosophy of salvation through good deeds and tolerance for all Protestant sects. The revivals attracted women, Blacks, and Native Americans.

nullification

A state's refusal to recognize an act of Congress that it considers unconstitutional

spoils system

A system of public employment based on rewarding party loyalists and friends. (developed under Andrew Jackson)

Tariff of 1832

A tariff imposed by Jackson which was unpopular in the South; South Carolina nullified it, but Jackson pushed through the Force Act, which enabled him to make South Carolina comply through force; Henry Clay reworked the tariff so that South Carolina would accept it, but after accepting it, South Carolina also nullified the Force Act

protective tariff

A tax on imported goods that raises the price of imports so people will buy domestic goods from local industries

excise tax

A tax on the production or sale of a good.

Federalists

A term used to describe supporters of the Constitution during ratification debates in state legislatures.

Sussex Pledge

A torpedo from a German submarine hit a french passenger liner, called the Sussex in March, 1916. Wilson demanded the Germans refrain from attacking passenger ships. In the Sussex Pledge Germany said they would temporarily stop these attacks but might have to resume them in the future if the British continued to blockade German ports

Cahokia

A trading center which once existed near the current location of St. Louis and was inhabited by 40,000 native Americans in 1200 A.D.

middle passage

A voyage that brought enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to North America and the West Indies

Francis Scott Key

A washington lawyer who watched the all-night battle at Fort McHenry and showed his pride by writing what became the national anthem

John Brown

Abolitionist who was hanged after leading an unsuccessful raid at Harper's Ferry, Virginia (1800-1858)

Federal Reserve Act

Act of Congress that created and established the Federal Reserve System, the central banking system of the United States of America, and granted it the legal authority to issue Federal Reserve Notes (now commonly known as the U.S. Dollar) and Federal Reserve Bank Notes as legal tender. The Act was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

African-American civil rights organization in the United States, formed in 1909. Its mission is "to ensure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate racial hatred and racial discrimination"

Booker T. Washington

African-American educator, author, orator, and advisor to presidents of the United States. Between 1890 and 1915, Washington was the dominant leader in the African-American community.Washington was of the last generation of black American leaders born into slavery and became the leading voice of the former slaves and their descendants, who were newly oppressed by disfranchisement and the Jim Crow discriminatory laws enacted in the post-Reconstruction Southern states in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1895 his Atlanta compromise called for avoiding confrontation over segregation and instead putting more reliance on long-term educational and economic advancement in the black community

Bill of Rights

Although the Anti-Federalists failed to block the ratification of the Constitution, they did ensure that the Bill of Rights would be created to protect individuals from government interference and possible tyranny. The Bill of Rights, drafted by a group led by James Madison, consisted of the first ten amendments to the Constitution, which guaranteed the civil rights of American citizens.

Tenth Amendment

Amendment stating that the powers not delegated to the federal gov. are reserved to the states

Russell Conwell

American Baptist minister, orator, philanthropist, lawyer, and writer. He is best remembered as the founder and first president of Temple University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, as the Pastor of The Baptist Temple, and for his inspirational lecture, Acres of Diamonds, which said that anyone could get rich if they tried hard enough and put the effort in

Robert M. La Follette

American Republican (and later a Progressive) politician. He served as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives, was the Governor of Wisconsin, and was also a U.S. Senator from Wisconsin (1906 to 1925). He ran for President of the United States as the nominee of his own Progressive Party in 1924, carrying Wisconsin and 17% of the national popular vote

Thomas Paine

American Revolutionary leader and pamphleteer (born in England) who supported the American colonist's fight for independence and supported the French Revolution (1737-1809), "Common Sense"

Theodore Dwight Weld

American abolitionist whose pamphlet Slavery As It Is (1839) inspired Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel Uncle Tom's Cabin.

Du Bois rose to national prominence as the leader of the Niagara Movement, a group of African

American activists who wanted equal rights for blacks. Du Bois and his supporters opposed the Atlanta compromise, an agreement crafted by Booker T. Washington which provided that Southern blacks would work and submit to white political rule, while Southern whites guaranteed that blacks would receive basic educational and economic opportunities. Instead, Du Bois insisted on full civil rights and increased political representation, which he believed would be brought about by the African-American intellectual elite. He referred to this group as the Talented Tenth and believed that African Americans needed the chances for advanced education to develop its leadership

American Protective Association

American anti-Catholic secret society established in 1887 by American Protestants. It was strongest in the Midwest, and came under heavy attack from Democrats until its collapse in the mid-1890s

Upton Sinclair

American author who wrote many muckraking novels, including The Jungle, which exposed the horridness of the meat packing industry

Cornelius Vanderbilt

American business magnate and philanthropist who built his wealth in railroads and shipping. He was also the patriarch of the Vanderbilt family and one of the richest Americans in history. He provided the initial gift to found Vanderbilt University, which is named in his honor.

John D. Rockefeller

American business magnate and philanthropist. He was a co-founder of the Standard Oil Company, which dominated the oil industry and was the first great U.S. business trust. Rockefeller revolutionized the petroleum industry, and along with other key contemporary industrialists such as Andrew Carnegie, defined the structure of modern philanthropy. In 1870, he founded Standard Oil Company and actively ran it until he officially retired in 1897

Loyalists/Tories

American colonists who remained loyal to Britain and opposed the war for independence

Patriots/Whigs

American colonists who were determined to fight the British until American independence was won

J. Pierpont Morgan

American financier, banker, philanthropist and art collector who dominated corporate finance and industrial consolidation during his time. In 1892, Morgan arranged the merger of Edison General Electric and Thomson-Houston Electric Company to form General Electric. After financing the creation of the Federal Steel Company, he merged it in 1901 with the Carnegie Steel Company and several other steel and iron businesses, including Consolidated Steel and Wire Company, owned by William Edenborn, to form the United States Steel Corporation.

Frederick Jackson Turner

American historian in the early 20th century, argued that the moving western frontier shaped American democracy and the American character from the colonial era until 1890. He is also known for his theories of geographical sectionalism

Thomas Edison

American inventor and businessman. He developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and a long-lasting, practical electric light bulb. Dubbed "The Wizard of Menlo Park", he was one of the first inventors to apply the principles of mass production and large-scale teamwork to the process of invention, and because of that, he is often credited with the creation of the first industrial research laboratory

John Marshall

American jurist and politician who served as the chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1801-1835) and helped establish the practice of judicial review. Federalist.

Mary Elizabeth Lease

American lecturer, writer, and political activist. She was an advocate of the suffrage movement as well as temperance but she was best known for her work with the Populist party

Helen Hunt Jackson

American poet and writer who became an activist on behalf of improved treatment of Native Americans by the U.S. government

W. E. B. Du Bois

American sociologist, historian, civil rights activist, Pan-Africanist, author and editor. Born in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, Du Bois grew up in a relatively tolerant and integrated community. After graduating from Harvard, where he was the first African American to earn a doctorate, he became a professor of history, sociology and economics at Atlanta University. Du Bois was one of the co-founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909.

Theodore Roosevelt

American statesman, author, explorer, soldier, naturalist, and historian who served as the 26thPresident of the United States. A leader of the Republican Party, he was the spokesman for the Progressive Era, famous for leading Rough Riders in Cuba, "Square Deal" domestic policies promised the average citizen fairness, pursuit of anti-trust litigation, low railroad rates, and guaranteeing pure food and drugs

Jonathan Edwards

American theologian whose sermons and writings stimulated a period of renewed interest in religion in America (1703-1758) "Sinners in the hand of an Angry God"

Ralph Waldo Emerson

American transcendentalist who was against slavery and stressed self-reliance, optimism, self-improvement, self-confidence, and freedom. He was a prime example of a transcendentalist and helped further the movement.

Leland Stanford

American tycoon, industrialist, politician and founder of Stanford University. Migrating to California from New York at the time of the Gold Rush, he became a successful merchant and wholesaler, and continued to build his business empire. He served one two-year term as governor of California after his election in 1861, and later eight years as senator from the state. As president of Southern Pacific and, beginning in 1861, Central Pacific, he had tremendous power in the region and a lasting impact on California. Many consider him a robber baron.

Eugene V. Debs

American union leader, one of the founding members of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or the Wobblies), and five times the candidate of the Socialist Party of America for President of the United States

Stephen Austin

American who settled in Texas, one of the leaders for Texan independence from Mexico

Carrie Chapman Catt

American women's suffrage leader who campaigned for the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which gave U.S. women the right to vote in 1920. Catt served as president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association and was the founder of the League of Women Voters and the International Alliance of Women. She "led an army of voteless women in 1919 to pressure Congress to pass the constitutional amendment giving them the right to vote and convinced state legislatures to ratify it in 1920" and "was one of the best-known women in the United States in the first half of the twentieth century and was on all lists of famous American women"

Eli Whitney

An American inventor who developed the cotton gin. Also contributed to the concept of interchangeable parts that were exactly alike and easily assembled or exchanged

Whig party

An American political party formed in the 1830s to oppose President Andrew Jackson and the Democrats, stood for protective tariffs, national banking, and federal aid for internal improvements

William Sherman

An American soldier, businessman, educator, and author. He served as a general in the Union Army during the American Civil War (1861-65), for which he received recognition for his outstanding command of military strategy and criticism for the harshness of the "scorched earth" policies that he implemented in conducting total war against the Confederate States

Jefferson Davis

An American statesman and politician who served as President of the Confederate States of America for its entire history from 1861 to 1865

initiative

An Initiative is a means through which any citizen or organization may gather a predetermined number of signatures to qualify a measure to be placed on a ballot, and to be voted upon in a future election. This was intended to give the people more power in the law making process because state legislators were often bought off by big business. The initiative process provided a way to get around corrupt politicians and pass laws directly.

impeachment

An action by the House of Representatives to accuse the president, vice president, or other civil officers of the United States of committing "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors."

indentured servitude

An agreement to exchange labor for travel expenses an/or job training for a certain amount of time

nativism

An anti-foreign feeling that arose in the 1840's and 1850's in response to the influx of Irish and German Catholics.

The Liberator

An anti-slavery newspaper written by William Lloyd Garrison. It drew attention to abolition, both positive and negative, causing a war of words between supporters of slavery and those opposed.

mercantilism

An economic policy under which nations sought to increase their wealth and power by obtaining large amounts of gold and silver and by selling more goods than they bought

American System

An economic regime pioneered by Henry Clay which created a high tariff to support internal improvements such as road-building. This approach was intended to allow the United States to grow and prosper by themselves This would eventually help America industrialize and become an economic power.

Anti-federalists

Anti-Federalists rose up as the opponents of the Constitution during the period of ratification. They opposed the Constitution's powerful centralized government, arguing that the Constitution gave too much political, economic, and military control. They instead advocated a decentralized governmental structure that granted most power to the states

Santa Ana

As dictator of Mexico, he led the attack on the Alamo in 1836. He was later defeated by Sam Houston at San Jacinto.

Negotiations led to the Anti

Ballistic Missile Treaty and an interim agreement between the two countries (SALT I). Although SALT II resulted in an agreement in 1979, the United States chose not to ratify the treaty in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, which took place later that year. The agreement expired in 1985 and was not renewed.

antebellum

Belonging to a period before a war especially the American Civil War

Haymarket riot

the aftermath of a bombing that took place at a labor demonstration on Tuesday May 4, 1886, at Haymarket Square in Chicago. It began as a peaceful rally in support of workers striking for an eight-hour day and in reaction to the killing of several workers the previous day by the police. An unknown person threw a dynamite bomb at police as they acted to disperse the public meeting. The bomb blast and ensuing gunfire resulted in the deaths of seven police officers and at least four civilians; scores of others were wounded, 8 anarchists convicted of conspiracy

Knights of Labor

the largest and one of the most important American labor organizations of the 1880s. Its most important leader was Terence V. Powderly. The Knights promoted the social and cultural uplift of the workingman, rejected Socialism and radicalism, demanded the eight-hour day, and promoted the producers ethic of republicanism. In some cases it acted as a labor union, negotiating with employers, but it was never well organized, and after a rapid expansion in the mid-1880s, it suddenly lost its new members and became a small operation again

New Democracy

the term for the Jacksonian change from a system based on property qualifications to one based on manhood suffrage

safety-valve theory

theory about how to deal with unemployment which gave rise to the Homestead Act of 1862 in the United States. Given the concentration of immigrants (and population) on the Eastern coast, it was hypothesized that making free land available in the West, would relieve the pressure for employment in the East

Jay Gould

used stock manipulation to take over railroad; "robber baron," used Boss Tweed ; and corrupt politicians to become extremely wealthy, cartoons by Nast made fun of him with Tweed; 1860s - 1890s

settlement house

volunteer middle-class "settlement workers" would live, hoping to share knowledge and culture with, and alleviate the poverty of, their low-income neighbors. The "settlement houses" provided services such as day care, education, and healthcare to improve the lives of the poor in these areas

A. Mitchell Palmer

was Attorney General of the United States from 1919 to 1921. He is best known for overseeing the "Palmer Raids" during the Red Scare of 1919-20.

Cuban Missile Crisis

was a 13-day confrontation in October 1962 between the United States and the Soviet Union over secret installation of Soviet ballistic missiles deployed in Cuba. The installation was discovered by American U-2 spy aircraft. It played out on television worldwide and was the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full-scale nuclear war.

Kellogg-Briand Pact

was a 1928 international agreement in which signatory states promised not to use war to resolve "disputes or conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever origin they may be, which may arise among them".[2] Parties failing to abide by this promise "should be denied of the benefits furnished by this treaty". It was signed by Germany, France and the United States on August 27, 1928, and by most other nations soon after. Sponsored by France and the U.S., the Pact renounced the use of war and called for the peaceful settlement of disputes. Similar provisions were incorporated into the UN Charter and other treaties and it became a stepping stone to a more activist American policy.[3] It is named after its authors, United States Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg and French foreign minister Aristide Briand.

Winston Churchill

was a British politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. Widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the 20th century, Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian, a writer (as Winston S. Churchill), and an artist. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature, and was the first person to be made an honorary citizen of the United States. At the forefront of politics for fifty years, he held many political and cabinet positions. Before the First World War, he served as President of the Board of Trade, Home Secretary, and First Lord of the Admiralty as part of Asquith's Liberal government. During World War I, he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign caused his departure from government. He then briefly resumed active army service on the Western Front as commander of the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers. He returned to government as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, and Secretary of State for Air. Out of office and politically "in the wilderness" during the 1930s, Churchill took the lead in warning about Nazi Germany and in campaigning for rearmament. At the outbreak of the Second World War, he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister. His steadfast refusal to consider surrender helped inspire British resistance, especially during the difficult early days of the war when the British Commonwealth and Empire stood alone in its active opposition to Adolf Hitler

Albert Einstein

was a German-born theoretical physicist known for developing the general theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongside quantum mechanics). Einstein is best known in popular culture for his mass-energy equivalence formula E = mc2 (which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation"). He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his "services to theoretical physics", in particular his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect, a pivotal step in the evolution of modern physics. As a pacifist, in World War I, Einstein refused to help Germany develop weapons as many physicists in his research institute did . In the 1930s, as a German Jew, Einstein saw the coming catastrophe and fled Germany, accepting a research position at Princeton University. As the best known physicist in the world, his fame spread in newsreels and newspapers, in 1939 he was approached by several lesser known scientists (many were refugees from Europe) and asked to write a letter to President Roosevelt warning him of the possibility of a new type of weapon that might be possible from the conversion of mass to energy using a chain reaction and also warning that the Germans, who had some of the top physicists in the world (many of whom Einstein personally knew and, in some cases, mentored) were hard at work at creating this new weapon and were probably well ahead in the race to build it. He wrote this letter to President Roosevelt who took it seriously and authorized the start of the "Manhattan Project," the crash U.S. program to build an atomic bomb.

Victoriano Huerta

was a Mexican military officer and president of Mexico. Huerta's supporters were known as Huertistas during the Mexican Revolution. Huerta is still vilified by modern-day Mexicans. The reaction to the Huerta usurpation was Venustiano Carranza's Plan of Guadalupe, which called for the creation of a Constitutional Army to oust Huerta and restore constitutional government. Supporters of the plan included Emiliano Zapata, Francisco "Pancho" Villa and Álvaro Obregón. After repeated field defeats of Huerta's Federal Army by Obregón and Villa, climaxing in the Battle of Zacatecas, Huerta bowed to pressure and resigned the presidency on 15 July 1914

George Wallace

was a Southern, Democratic Governor who advocated segregation and state,'s rights. He famously said in a speech: "segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever." In 1963 in stood in the door at the University of Alabama attempting to block black students from registering for class per a federal court order. President Kennedy ordered federal troops and Justice Dept. officials to go to the University to ensure the court order was obeyed. The students registered and attended (integrated) the school. Wallace ran for President four times, three times losing Democratic Party primaries and once running as a third party candidate and losing. He was considered a populist who represented angry, white southerners (and some northerners) who didn't like integration or having the federal government tell them what to do. Wallace was shot in an assassination attempt in 1972 and permanently paralyzed from the waist down.

Francisco Franco

was a Spanish general and the dictator of Spain from 1939 until his death in 1975. Coming from a military background, he became the youngest general in Europe in the 1920s. A strong conservative, he was shocked when the monarchy was removed and replaced with a republic in 1931. With the 1936 elections, the conservatives lost by a narrow margin and the leftist Popular Front came to power. Looking to overthrow the republic, Franco and other generals staged a partially successful coup, which started the Spanish Civil War. With the death of the other generals, Franco quickly became his faction's only leader. Franco's ultranationalist faction received military support from several fascist groups, most notably from Nazi Germany and the Kingdom of Italy, while the Republican side was supported by Spanish communists, anarchists, and several Basques, Catalans, and Galicians. It also received help from the Soviet Union and the International Brigades. Leaving half a million dead, the war was eventually won by Franco in 1939. He established an autocratic dictatorship, which he defined as a totalitarian state. Franco proclaimed himself as both head of state and government under the title Caudillo, a term similar to duce (Italian) and Führer (German). Unlike Mussolini, he was smart enough to stay neutral during the Second World War and therefore survived as dictator until his death in 1975.

Agricultural Adjustment Act

was a United States federal law of the New Deal era which reduced agricultural production by paying farmers subsidies not to plant on part of their land and to kill off excess livestock. Its purpose was to reduce crop surplus and therefore effectively raise the value of crops. The money for these subsidies was generated through an exclusive tax on companies which processed farm products. The Act created a new agency, the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, an agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, to oversee the distribution of the subsidies. The Supreme Court decided in United States v. Butler that the act was unconstitutional for levying this tax on the processors only to have it paid back to the farmers. Regulation of agriculture was deemed a state power. As such, the federal government could not force states to adopt the Agricultural Adjustment Act due to lack of jurisdiction. However, the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 remedied these technical issues and the farm program continued.

War Industries Board

was a United States government agency established on July 28, 1917, during World War I, to coordinate the purchase of war supplies. The organization encouraged companies to use mass-production techniques to increase efficiency and urged them to eliminate waste by standardizing products.

Containment

was a United States policy to prevent the spread of communism abroad. A component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to enlarge communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, Africa, and Vietnam. It represented a middle-ground position between appeasement and rollback. The basis of the doctrine was articulated in a 1946 cable by U.S. diplomat George F. Kennan. As a description of U.S. foreign policy, the word originated in a report Kennan submitted to U.S. Defense Secretary James Forrestal in 1947, a report that was later used in a magazine article. It is a translation of the French cordon sanitaire, used to describe Western policy toward the Soviet Union in the 1920s. The word containment is associated most strongly with the policies of U.S. President Harry Truman (1945-53), including the establishment of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a mutual defense pact.

Truman Doctrine

was a United States policy to stop Soviet expansion during the Cold War.[1] United States President Harry S. Truman pledged to contain communism in Europe and elsewhere and impelled the US to support any nation with both military and economic aid if its stability was threatened by communism or the Soviet Union. The Truman Doctrine became the foundation of the president's foreign policy and placed the U.S. in the role of global policeman. President Harry S. Truman told Congress that "it must be the policy of the United States to support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures."[2] Truman reasoned, because these "totalitarian regimes" coerced "free peoples", they represented a threat to international peace and the national security of the United States. Truman made the plea amid the crisis of the Greek Civil War (1946-1949).

Spanish Civil War

was a civil war fought from 1936 to 1939 between the Republicans (supported by the Communist Soviet Union), who were loyal to the democratic Spanish Republic, and the Nationalists (supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy), a rebel group led by General Francisco Franco. The Nationalists won, and Franco ruled Spain for the next 36 years, from 1939 until his death in 1975. The war is often called the "dress rehearsal" for World War II. It was the first time there was large scale bombing of cities with mass civilian deaths. It changed the minds of many Americans and who had previously been pacifists.

Father Coughlin

was a controversial Roman Catholic priest based near Detroit. He was one of the first political leaders to use radio to reach a mass audience, as up to thirty million listeners tuned to his weekly broadcasts during the 1930s. He was forced off the air in 1939. After hinting at attacks on Jewish bankers, Coughlin began to use his radio program to issue anti semitic commentary, and in the late 1930s to support some of the policies of Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini. The broadcasts have been called "a variation of the Fascist agenda applied to American culture".[2] His chief topics were political and economic rather than religious, with his slogan being "Social Justice", initially in support of, and later opposing, the New Deal. Many American bishops as well as the Vatican wanted him silenced, but after the outbreak of World War II in Europe in 1939 it was the Roosevelt administration that finally forced the cancellation of his radio program and forbade the dissemination through the mail of his newspaper, Social Justice.

flexible response

was a defense strategy implemented by John F. Kennedy in 1961 to address the Kennedy administration's skepticism of Dwight Eisenhower's New Look and its policy of Massive Retaliation. Flexible response calls for mutual deterrence at strategic, tactical, and conventional levels, giving the United States the capability to respond to aggression across the spectrum of warfare, not limited only to nuclear arms.

Bay of Pigs

was a failed military invasion of Cuba undertaken by the CIA-sponsored paramilitary group on 17 April 1961. A counter-revolutionary military, trained and funded by the United States government's Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), intended to overthrow the Communist government of Fidel Castro. Launched from Guatemala, the invading force was defeated within three days by the Cuban armed forces, under the direct command of the Prime Minister of Cuba, Fidel Castro. Originally planned during the Eisenhower Administration, it was given the go-ahead by President Kennedy, relying on CIA and military assurances of success. Its huge and embarrassing failure at the beginning of his term, left President Kennedy skeptical of "expert" intelligence and military advice. This led him to resist military calls for air strikes and invasion of Cuba during the Cuban Missile Crisis a year and a half later, allowing him to find a moderate response of quarantine to force a negotiated settlement.

Congress of Industrial Organizations

was a federation of unions that organized workers in industrial unions in the United States and Canada from 1935 to 1955. The Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 required union leaders to swear that they were not Communists. Many CIO leaders refused to obey that requirement, later found unconstitutional. The CIO merged with the American Federation of Labor to form the AFL-CIO in 1955. The CIO supported Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal Coalition, and was open to African Americans. Both the CIO and its rival the AFL grew rapidly during the Great Depression. The rivalry for dominance was bitter and sometimes violent.

Reconstruction Finance Corporation

was a government corporation in the United States that operated between 1932 and 1957 which provided financial support to state and local governments and made loans to banks, railroads, mortgage associations and other businesses. Its aim was to boost the country's confidence and help banks return to performing daily functions after the start of the Great Depression. It continued to operate through the New Deal where it became more prominent and through World War II. It was disbanded in 1957 when the US government felt it no longer needed to stimulate lending.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

was a joint resolution that the United States Congress passed on August 7, 1964, in response to the Gulf of Tonkin incident, a purported attack on U.S. Navy ships by patrol boats from North Vietnam. It is of historical significance because it gave U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson authorization, without a formal declaration of war by Congress, for the use of "conventional'' military force in Southeast Asia. Specifically, the resolution authorized the President to do whatever necessary in order to assist "any member or protocol state of the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty". This included involving armed forces.

Brown v. Board of Education

was a landmark United States Supreme Court case in which the Court declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students to be unconstitutional. The decision overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored segregation, insofar as it applied to public education. Handed down on May 17, 1954, the Warren Court's unanimous (9-0) decision stated that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal." As a result, de jure racial segregation was ruled a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. This ruling paved the way for integration and was a major victory of the civil rights movement.

National Recovery Act

was a law passed by the United States Congress in 1933 to authorize the President to regulate industry in an attempt to raise prices after severe deflation and stimulate economic recovery. It also established a national public works program known as the Public Works Administration (PWA, not to be confused with the WPA of 1935). The National Recovery Administration (NRA) portion was widely hailed in 1933, but by 1934 business' opinion of the act had soured. By March 1934 the "NRA was engaged chiefly in drawing up these industrial codes for all industries to adopt."[4] However,

Watergate

was a major political scandal that occurred in the early1970s as a result of the June 17, 1972, break-in at the Democratic National Committee (DNC) headquarters at the Watergate office complex in Washington, D.C., and the Nixon administration's attempted cover-up of its involvement. When the conspiracy was discovered and investigated by the U.S. Congress, the Nixon administration's resistance to its probes led to a constitutional crisis. The term Watergate has come to encompass an array of clandestine and often illegal activities undertaken by members of the Nixon administration. Those activities included such "dirty tricks" as bugging the offices of political opponents. Nixon and his close aides ordered harassment of activist groups and political figures, using the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). The scandal led to the discovery of multiple abuses of power by the Nixon administration, articles of impeachment were passed, and the resignation of Richard Nixon

Clayton Act

was a part of United States antitrust law with the goal of adding further substance to the U.S. antitrust law regime; the Clayton Act sought to prevent anticompetitive practices when they start. That regime started with the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, the first Federal law outlawing practices considered harmful to consumers (monopolies, cartels, and trusts). The Clayton Act specified particular prohibited conduct, the three-level enforcement scheme, the exemptions, and the remedial measures.

Dust Bowl

was a period of severe dust storms that greatly damaged the ecology and agriculture of the US and Canadian prairies during the 1930s; The Dust Bowl forced tens of thousands of families to abandon their farms. Many of these families, who were often known as "Okies" because so many of them came from Oklahoma, migrated to California and other states to find that the Great Depression had rendered economic conditions there little better than those they had left. Author John Steinbeck, The Grapes of Wrath (1939) about migrant workers and farm families displaced by the Dust Bowl.

"cash-and-carry"

was a policy requested by US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt at a special session of the United States Congress on September 21, 1939, subsequent to the outbreak of war in Europe. It replaced the Neutrality Acts of 1939. The revision allowed the sale of supplies to belligerents, as long as the recipients arranged for the transport using their own ships and paid immediately in cash, assuming all risk in transportation. Although "belligerents" meant any warring countries, so it appeared to be even-handed, as a practical matter, only England, with its large number of merchant and Navy ships could make use of the new policy.

Viet Cong

was a political organization and army in South Vietnam and Cambodia that fought the United States and South Vietnamese governments during the Vietnam War (1959-1975), and emerged on the winning side. It had both guerrilla and regular army units, as well as a network of cadres who organized peasants in the territory it controlled. Many soldiers were recruited in South Vietnam, but others were attached to the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), the regular North Vietnamese army.

Equal Rights Amendment

was a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution designed to guarantee equal rights for women. The ERA was originally written by Alice Paul and Crystal Eastman. In 1923, it was introduced in the Congress for the first time. In 1972, it passed both houses of Congress and went to the state legislatures for ratification. The resolution in Congress that proposed the amendment set a ratification deadline of March 22, 1979. Through 1977, the amendment received 35 of the necessary 38 state ratifications. Five states later rescinded their ratifications before the 1979 deadline, though the validity of these rescissions is disputed. In 1978, a joint resolution of Congress extended the ratification deadline to June 30, 1982, but no further states ratified the amendment before the passing of the second deadline, leaving it three short of the required threshold.

Civilian Conservation Corps

was a public work relief program that operated from 1933 to 1942 in the United States for unemployed, unmarried men from relief families as part of the New Deal. Originally for young men ages 18-23. it was a major part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal that provided unskilled manual labor jobs related to the conservation and development of natural resources in rural lands owned by federal, state and local governments. The CCC was designed to provide jobs for young men, to relieve families who had difficulty finding jobs during the Great Depression in the United States while at the same time implementing a general natural resource conservation program in every state and territory.

Manhattan Project

was a research and development project that produced the first atomic bombs during World War II. It was led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom and Canada. From 1942 to 1946, the project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer was the director of the Los Alamos National Laboratory that designed the actual bombs. The first nuclear device ever detonated was an implosion-type bomb at the Trinity test, conducted at New Mexico's Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range on 16 July 1945. Little Boy, a gun-type uranium weapon, and Fat Man, an implosion-type plutonium weapon, were used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, respectively.

Stokely Carmichael

was a revolutionary active in the 1960s Civil Rights Movement, and later, the global Pan-African movement. Growing up in the United States from the age of eleven, he graduated from Howard University. He rose to prominence in the civil rights and Black Power movements, first as a leader of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), later as the "Honorary Prime Minister" of the Black Panther Party, and finally as a leader of the All-African Peoples Revolutionary Party.

New Deal

was a series of domestic programs enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1938, and a few that came later. They included both laws passed by Congress as well as presidential executive orders during the first term (1933-37) of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The programs were in response to the Great Depression, and focused on what historians call the "3 Rs": Relief, Recovery, and Reform. That is Relief for the unemployed and poor; Recovery of the economy to normal levels; and Reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression.Many historians distinguish between a "First New Deal" (1933-34) and a "Second New Deal" (1935-38), with the second one more liberal and more controversial. The "First New Deal" (1933-34) dealt with the pressing banking crises through the Emergency Banking Act and the 1933 Banking Act. The "Second New Deal" in 1935-38 included the Wagner Act to promote labor unions, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) relief program (which made the federal government by far the largest single employer in the nation), the Social Security Act, and new programs to aid tenant farmers and migrant workers. The final major items of New Deal legislation were the creation of the United States Housing Authority and Farm Security Administration, both in 1937, and the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which set maximum hours and minimum wages for most categories of workers.

Cambodian incursion

was a series of military operations conducted in eastern Cambodia during mid-1970 by the United States and the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) during the Vietnam War. These invasions were a result of the policy of President Richard Nixon who sought to destroy North Vietnamese military supply lines and bases that were using Cambodia to hide from American attacks.

Great Society

was a set of domestic programs in the United States launched by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964-65. The main goal was the elimination of poverty and racial injustice. President Johnson first used the term "Great Society" during a speech at Ohio University, then unveiled the program in greater detail at an appearance at University of Michigan. New major spending programs that addressed education, medical care, urban problems, and transportation were launched during this period. The program and its initiatives were subsequently promoted by him and fellow Democrats in Congress in the 1960s and years following. The Great Society in scope and sweep resembled the New Deal domestic agenda of Franklin D. Roosevelt.

Cold War

was a state of political and military tension after World War II between powers in the Western Bloc (the United States, its NATO allies and others) and powers in the Eastern Bloc (the Soviet Union and its allies in the Warsaw Pact). Historians have not fully agreed on the dates, but 1947-1991 is common. It was termed as "cold" because there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars in Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan that the two sides supported. The Cold War split the temporary wartime alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the USSR and the US as two superpowers with profound economic and political differences: the former being a single-party Marxist-Leninist state, and the latter being a capitalist state with generally free elections.

Teheran Conference

was a strategy meeting of Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill from 28 November to 1 December 1943. It was held in the Soviet Union's embassy in Tehran, Iran. It was the first of the World War II conferences of the "Big Three" Allied leaders (the Soviet Union, the United States, and the United Kingdom). It preceded the 1945 Yalta and Potsdam conferences. Although the three leaders arrived with differing objectives, the main outcome of the Tehran Conference was the Western Allies' commitment to open a second front against Nazi Germany. The conference also addressed the Allies' relations with Turkey and Iran, operations in Yugoslavia and against Japan, and the envisaged post-war settlement.

John T. Scopes

was a teacher in Dayton, Tennessee, who was charged on May 5, 1925 for violating Tennessee's Butler Act, which prohibited the teaching of evolution in Tennessee schools. He was tried and convicted and fined $100 in a case known as the Scopes Trial.

Plessy v. Ferguson

was an 1896 landmark United States Supreme Court decision upholding the constitutionality of state laws requiring racial segregation in public facilities under the doctrine of "separate but equal." This decision was overturned 58 years later in the case of Brown v. Board of Education.

Rosa Parks

was an African-American Civil Rights activist, whom the United States Congress called "the first lady of civil rights" and "the mother of the freedom movement".[1] Her birthday, February 4, and the day she was arrested, December 1, have both become Rosa Parks Day, commemorated in both California and Ohio. On December 1, 1955, in Montgomery, Alabama, Parks refused to obey bus driver James F. Blake's order to give up her seat in the colored section to a white passenger, after the white section was filled. Parks' act of defiance and the Montgomery Bus Boycott became important symbols of the modern Civil Rights Movement. She became an international icon of resistance to racial segregation. She organized and collaborated with civil rights leaders, including Edgar Nixon, president of the local chapter of the NAACP; and Martin Luther King, Jr., a new minister in town who gained national prominence in the civil rights movement.

Martin Luther King

was an American Baptist minister, activist, humanitarian, and leader in the African-American Civil Rights Movement. He is best known for his role in the advancement of civil rights using nonviolent civil disobedience based on his Christian beliefs. King became a civil rights activist early in his career. He led the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957, serving as its first president. With the SCLC, King led an unsuccessful 1962 struggle against segregation in Albany, Georgia, (the Albany Movement), and helped organize the 1963 nonviolent protests in Birmingham, Alabama, that attracted national attention following television news coverage of the brutal police response. King also helped to organize the 1963 March on Washington, where he delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech. There, he established his reputation as one of the greatest orators in American history. On October 14, 1964, King received the Nobel Peace Prize for combating racial inequality through nonviolence. In 1965, he helped to organize the Selma to Montgomery marches, and the following year he and SCLC took the movement north to Chicago to work on segregated housing. In the final years of his life, King expanded his focus to include poverty and speak against the Vietnam War, alienating many of his liberal allies with a 1967 speech titled "Beyond Vietnam". In 1968, King was planning a national occupation of Washington, D.C., to be called the Poor People's Campaign, when he was assassinated on April 4 in Memphis, Tennessee.

Malcolm X

was an American Muslim minister and a human rights activist. To his admirers he was a courageous advocate for the rights of blacks, a man who indicted white America in the harshest terms for its crimes against black Americans; detractors accused him of preaching racism and violence. He has been called one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history. As a contemporary of Martin Luthur King in the 1960s, his approach was considered the exact opposite - Malcolm X preached black segregation and violent defense as opposed to King's message of integration and non-violence. As a result of a split in the Black Muslim movement, he was assassinated by the followers of Elijah Mohammed, the leader of the Black Muslims.

Henry Cabot Lodge

was an American Republican Senator and historian from Massachusetts. A PhD in history from Harvard, he was a long-time friend and confidant of Theodore Roosevelt. Lodge had the role (but not the official title) of the first Senate Majority Leader. He is best known for his positions on foreign policy, especially his battle with President Woodrow Wilson in 1919 over the Treaty of Versailles. Lodge demanded Congressional control of declarations of war; Wilson refused and blocked Lodge's move to ratify the treaty with reservations. As a result the United States never joined the League of Nations.

George Kennan

was an American advisor, diplomat, and historian, known best as an advocate of a policy of containment of Soviet expansion at the end of World War II.

Ernest Hemingway

was an American author and journalist. His economical and understated style had a strong influence on 20th-century fiction, while his life of adventure and his public image influenced later generations. Hemingway produced most of his work between the mid-1920s and the mid-1950s, and won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954. He published seven novels, six short story collections, and two non-fiction works.

F. Scott Fitzgerald

was an American author of novels and short stories, whose works are the paradigmatic writings of the Jazz Age. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest American writers of the 20th century. Fitzgerald is considered a member of the "Lost Generation" of the 1920s. He finished four novels: This Side of Paradise, The Beautiful and Damned, The Great Gatsby (his most famous), and Tender Is the Night. A fifth, unfinished novel, The Love of the Last Tycoon, was published posthumously. Fitzgerald also wrote many short stories that treat themes of youth and promise along with age and despair.

Charles Lindbergh

was an American aviator, author, inventor, military officer, explorer, and social activist. As a 25-year-old U.S. Air Mail pilot, Lindbergh emerged suddenly from virtual obscurity to instantaneous world fame as the result of his Orteig Prize-winning solo nonstop flight on May 20-21, 1927, made from the Roosevelt Field[N 1] in Garden City on New York's Long Island to Le Bourget Field in Paris, France, a distance of nearly 3,600 statute miles (5,800 km), in the single-seat, single-engine, purpose-built Ryan monoplane Spirit of St. Louis. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Lindbergh used his fame to promote the development of both commercial aviation and Air Mail services in the United States and the Americas. In March 1932, his infant son, Charles, Jr., was kidnapped and murdered in what was soon dubbed the "Crime of the Century" Before the United States formally entered World War II, Lindbergh had been an outspoken advocate of keeping the U.S. out of the world conflict, as had his father, Congressman Charles August Lindbergh, during World War I. Although Lindbergh was a leader in the anti-war America First movement, he nevertheless strongly supported the war effort after Pearl Harbor and flew 50 combat missions in the Pacific Theater of World War II as a civilian consultant, though President Franklin D. Roosevelt had refused to reinstate his Army Air Corps colonel's commission from which he had resigned in April 1941

Margaret Sanger

was an American birth control activist, sex educator, and nurse. Sanger popularized the term birth control, opened the first birth control clinic in the United States, and established organizations that evolved into the Planned Parenthood Federation of America. Sanger was also a writer. She used this method to help promote her way of thinking as a way of helping other women feel safe. She was prosecuted for her book Family Limitation under the Comstock Act in 1914. She was afraid of what would happen, so she fled to Britain until she knew it was okay to come back. Sanger never stopped trying to complete her goal- to help women realize that they could have control over their body. She was a feminist, and she wanted to fight for women's rights. Sanger's efforts contributed to several judicial cases that helped legalize contraception in the United States.

Douglas MacArthur

was an American five-star general and Field Marshal of the Philippine Army. He was Chief of Staff of the United States Army during the 1930s and played a prominent role in the Pacific theater during World War II. He received the Medal of Honor for his service in the Philippines Campaign, which made him and his father Arthur MacArthur, Jr., the first father and son to be awarded the medal. He was one of only five men ever to rise to the rank of General of the Army in the US Army. He signed the Peace Treaty with Japan on the deck of the battleship Missouri and was placed in charge of the occupation of Japan. Wisely implementing liberal policies such as giving Japanese the women the right to vote and establishing free and fair elections, he helped change Japan from a country with a long history of militarism and totalitarian rule, to a modern democracy that actually prohibited them from participating in their Constitution. When North Korea invaded South Korea in June, 1950, McArthur was placed in command of the United Nations armed forces (mainly American). Salvaging a military victory from near defeat with a brilliant amphibious landing at Inchon, behind North Korean army lines, he chased the retreating North Koreans to close to the Chinese border. Without warning the newly Communist Chinese Army invaded and pushed UN forces back. McArthur publicly disagreed with President Truman, advocating bombing in China when Truman wanted to keep the war contained, Truman eventually "fired" McArthur. As McArthur was held in high esteem by ordinary Americans, it made Truman very unpopular.

Al Capone

was an American gangster who attained fame during the Prohibition era. His seven-year reign as crime boss ended when he was 33 years old. Flamboyant and violent, he was a bootlegger (distilled or imported alcohol which was illegal during Prohibition). The federal authorities became intent on jailing Capone and prosecuted him for tax evasion in 1931 Capone was convicted and sentenced to a then-record-breaking 11 years in federal prison On January 25, 1947, Capone died of cardiac arrest after suffering a stroke

Henry Ford

was an American industrialist, the founder of the Ford Motor Company, and sponsor of the development of the assembly line technique of mass production. Although Ford did not invent the automobile or the assembly line, he developed and manufactured the first automobile that many middle class Americans could afford. His introduction of the Model T automobile revolutionized transportation and American industry. Ford was also widely known for his pacifism during the first years of World War I, and also for being the publisher of antisemitic texts such as the book The International Jew.

Marshall Plan

was an American initiative to aid Europe, in which the United States gave $13 billion (approximately $120 billion in current dollar value) in economic support to help rebuild European economies, including Germany's, after the end of World War II. The plan was in operation for four years beginning in April 1948. The goals of the United States were to rebuild war-devastated regions, remove trade barriers, modernize industry, and make Europe prosperous again. It was very successful in restoring European prosperity and helped curb the spread of communism.

Earl Warren

was an American jurist and politician, who served as the 30th Governor of California (1943-1953) and later the 14th Chief Justice of the United States (1953-1969). He is best known for the decisions of the Warren Court, which ended school segregation and transformed many areas of American law, especially regarding the rights of the accused, ending public school-sponsored prayers, and requiring "one man-one vote" rules of apportionment of Congressional, state and local legislative districts. He made the Supreme Court a power center on a more even basis with Congress and the Presidency, especially through four landmark decisions: Brown v. Board of Education (1954), Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), Reynolds v. Sims (1964), and Miranda v. Arizona (1966). For some, he came to represent the overreach of courts "inventing" new rights that were not written in the Bill of Rights and the "coddling" of criminals.

John L. Lewis

was an American leader of organized labor who served as president of the United Mine Workers of America (UMW) from 1920 to 1960. A major player in the history of coal mining, he was the driving force behind the founding of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), which established The United SteelWorkers of America and helped organize millions of other industrial workers in the 1930s. After resigning as head of the CIO in 1941, he took the Mine Workers out of the CIO in 1942 and in 1944 took the union into the American Federation of Labor (AFL). A leading liberal, he played a major role in helping Franklin D. Roosevelt to win a landslide in 1936, but as an isolationist broke with Roosevelt in 1940 on FDR's anti Nazi foreign policy.

Sinclair Lewis

was an American novelist, short-story writer, and playwright. In 1930, he became the first writer from the United States to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature, which was awarded "for his vigorous and graphic art of description and his ability to create, with wit and humor, new types of characters." His works are known for their insightful and critical views of American capitalism and materialism between the wars.

Joseph McCarthy

was an American politician who served as a Republican U.S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 until his death in 1957. Beginning in 1950, McCarthy became the most visible public face of a period in which Cold War tensions fueled fears of widespread Communist subversion.[1] He was noted for making claims that there were large numbers of Communists and Soviet spies and sympathizers inside the United States federal government and elsewhere. Ultimately, his tactics and inability to substantiate his claims led him to be censured by the United States Senate. The term McCarthyism, coined in 1950 in reference to McCarthy's practices, was soon applied to similar anti-communist activities. Today the term is used more generally in reference to demagogic, reckless, and unsubstantiated accusations, as well as public attacks on the character or patriotism of political opponents.

Hubert Humphrey

was an American politician who served as the 38th Vice President of the United States under President Lyndon B. Johnson, from 1965 to 1969. Humphrey twice served in the United States Senate, representing Minnesota from 1949 to 1964 and 1971 to 1978. He was the nominee of the Democratic Party in the 1968 presidential election, losing to the Republican nominee, Richard Nixon.

Eleanor Roosevelt

was an American politician, diplomat, and activist. She was the longest-serving First Lady of the United States, holding the post from March 1933 to April 1945 during her husband President Franklin D. Roosevelt's four terms in office.[1] President Harry S. Truman later called her the "First Lady of the World" in tribute to her human rights achievements. FDR used her as his "eyes and ears," traveling and meeting people on his behalf due to his difficulty traveling, crippled by polio. Following her husband's death, Eleanor remained active in politics for the rest of her life. She pressed the United States to join and support the United Nations and became one of its first delegates. She served as the first chair of the UN Commission on Human Rights, and oversaw the drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Later she chaired the John F. Kennedy administration's Presidential Commission on the Status of Women. By the time of her death, she was regarded as "one of the most esteemed women in the world"; she was called "the object of almost universal respect" in her New York Times obituary.

Franklin D. Roosevelt

was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States. A Democrat, he won a record four elections and served from March 1933 to his death in April 1945. He was a central figure in world events during the mid-20th century, leading the United States during a time of worldwide economic depression and total war. His program for relief, recovery and reform, known as the New Deal, involved the great expansion of the role of the federal government in the economy. A dominant leader of the Democratic Party, he built the New Deal Coalition that united labor unions, big city machines, white ethnics, African Americans, and rural white Southerners. The Coalition realigned American politics after 1932, creating the Fifth Party System and defining American liberalism for the middle third of the 20th century. He died of a stroke three months into his fourth term in office and four months before World War II ended. Considered one of the greatest Presidents in history because of the great challenges of depression and world war that he overcame.

Alfred E. Smith

was an American statesman who was elected Governor of New York four times and was the Democratic U.S. presidential candidate in 1928. He was the foremost urban leader of the efficiency-oriented Progressive Movement and was noted for achieving a wide range of reforms as governor in the 1920s. He was also linked to the notorious Tammany Hall machine that controlled New York City's politics; was a strong opponent of Prohibition and was the first Catholic nominee for President. His candidacy mobilized Catholic votes—especially women who previously had not voted. It also mobilized the anti-Catholic vote, which was strongest in the South. This was a time of national prosperity under a Republican Presidency, and Smith lost in a landslide to Republican Herbert Hoover. Four years later Smith sought the 1932 nomination but was defeated by his former ally and successor as New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt. Smith entered business in New York City and became an increasingly vocal opponent of Roosevelt's New Deal. Roosevelt blocked Smith from having any major role in World War II.

Henry Stimson

was an American statesman, lawyer and Republican Party politician and spokesman on foreign policy. He served as Secretary of War (1911-1913) under Republican William Howard Taft, and as Governor-General of the Philippines (1927-1929). As Secretary of State (1929-1933) under Republican President Herbert Hoover, he articulated the Stimson Doctrine which announced American opposition to Japanese expansion in Asia. He again served as Secretary of War (1940-1945) under Democrats Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman, and was a leading hawk calling for war against Germany. During World War II he took charge of raising and training 13 million soldiers and airmen, supervised the spending of a third of the nation's GDP on the Army and the Air Forces, helped formulate military strategy, and oversaw the building and use of the atomic bomb.

William Faulkner

was an American writer and Nobel Prize laureate from Oxford, Mississippi. Faulkner wrote novels, short stories, a play, poetry, essays and screenplays. He is primarily known for his novels and short stories set in the fictional Yoknapatawpha County, based on Lafayette County, Mississippi, where he spent most of his life.

Sigmund Freud

was an Austrian neurologist, now known as the father of psychoanalysis. Freud qualified as a doctor of medicine at the University of Vienna in 1881,[3] and then carried out research into cerebral palsy, aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomy at the Vienna General Hospital In creating psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst,[7] Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association and discovered transference, establishing its central role in the analytic process.

Adolf Hitler

was an Austrian-born German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP); National Socialist German Workers Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and Führer (leader) of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As effective dictator of Nazi Germany, Hitler was at the centre of World War II in Europe, and the Holocaust. Hitler was a decorated veteran of World War I. He joined the German Workers' Party (precursor of the Nazi Party) in 1919, and became leader of the Nazi party in 1921. In 1923, he attempted a coup in Munich to seize power. The failed coup resulted in Hitler's imprisonment, during which time he wrote his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf ("My Struggle"). After his release in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting Pan Germanism, antisemitism, and anti-communism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. Hitler frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as being part of a Jewish conspiracy. Hitler's Nazi Party became the largest elected party in the German Reichstag, leading to his appointment as chancellor in 1933. Following fresh elections won by his coalition, the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act, which began the process of transforming the Weimar Republic into the Third Reich, a single party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of National Socialism. Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and establish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice of the post-World War I international order dominated by Britain and France. With England and France appeasing him by allowing him to take Austria and Czechoslovakia, Hitler attacked Poland after signing a neutrality treaty with Stalin's Soviet Union. This time Britain and France did not appease him, declaring war when Hitler refused to withdraw. Hitler attacked and crushed France. In June, 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in violation of their treaty with them. With America entering the war six months later, the fate of Hitler and Nazi Germany was sealed.

Benito Mussolini

was an Italian politician, journalist, and leader of the National Fascist Party, ruling the country as Prime Minister from 1922 until his ousting in 1943. He ruled constitutionally until 1925, when he dropped all pretense of democracy and set up a legal dictatorship. Known as Il Duce ("the leader"), Mussolini was one of the key figures in the creation of fascism.

War Production Board

was an agency of the United States government that supervised war production during World War II. The WPB directed conversion of industries from peacetime work to war needs, allocated scarce materials, established priorities in the distribution of materials and services, and prohibited nonessential production. It rationed such commodities as gasoline, heating oil, metals, rubber, paper and plastics.

League of Nations

was an intergovernmental organisation founded on 10 January 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide an army when needed. However, the Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them. The League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. Germany withdrew from the League, as did Japan, Italy, Spain, and others. The onset of the Second World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose, which was to prevent any future world war.

House Committee on Unamerican Activities

was an investigative committee of the United States House of Representatives. It was originally created in 1938 to uncover citizens with Nazi ties within the United States. However, it has become better known for its role in investigating alleged disloyalty and subversive activities on the part of private citizens, public employees, and those organizations suspected of having ties to Communism.

"Quarantine Speech"

was given by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt on October 5, 1937 in Chicago, calling for an international "quarantine of the aggressor nations" as an alternative to the political climate of American neutrality and non-intervention that was prevalent at the time. The speech intensified America's isolationist mood, causing protest by non-interventionists and foes to intervene. No countries were directly mentioned in the speech, although it was interpreted as referring to Japan, Italy, and Germany. Roosevelt suggested the use of economic pressure, a forceful response, but less direct than outright aggression.

Potsdam Conference

was held at Potsdam, occupied Germany, from 17 July to 2 August 1945. Participants were the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States. The three powers were represented by Joseph Stalin, Winston Churchill,[4] and, later, Clement Attlee, and Harry S. Truman. Stalin, Churchill, and Truman—as well as Attlee, who participated alongside Churchill while awaiting the outcome of the 1945 general election, and then replaced Churchill as Prime Minister after the Labour Party's defeat of the Conservatives—gathered to decide how to administer punishment to the defeated Nazi Germany, which had agreed to unconditional surrender nine weeks earlier, on 8 May (V-E Day). The goals of the conference also included the establishment of post-war order, peace treaty issues, and countering the effects of the war.

Harry Hopkins

was one of Franklin Delano Roosevelt's closest advisers. He was one of the architects of the New Deal, especially the relief programs of the Works Progress Administration (WPA), which he directed and built into the largest employer in the country. In World War II, he was Roosevelt's chief diplomatic adviser and troubleshooter and was a key policy maker in the $50 billion Lend-Lease program that sent aid to the Allies. Hopkins dealt with "priorities, production. political problems with allies, strategy—in short, with anything that might concern the president.

Tet offensive

was one of the largest military campaigns of the Vietnam War, launched on January 30, 1968 by forces of the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese People's Army of Vietnam against the forces of South Vietnam, the United States, and their allies. It was a campaign of surprise attacks against military and civilian commands and control centers throughout South Vietnam. The name of the offensive comes from the Tết holiday, the Vietnamese New Year, when the first major attacks took place. The initial attacks stunned the US and South Vietnamese armies and caused them to temporarily lose control of several cities, but they quickly regrouped to beat back the attacks, inflicting massive casualties on North Vietnamese forces.Although the offensive was a military defeat for the North Vietnamese, it had a profound effect on the US government and shocked the US public, which had been led to believe by its political and military leaders that the NVA were, due to previous defeats, incapable of launching such a massive effort.

March on Washington

was one of the largest political rallies for human rights in United States history[3] and called for civil and economic rights for African Americans. It took place in Washington, D.C..Thousands of Americans headed to Washington on Tuesday August 27, 1963. On Wednesday, August 28, 1963. Martin Luther King, Jr., standing in front of the Lincoln Memorial, delivered his historic "I Have a Dream" speech in which he called for an end to racism.

Venustiano Carranza

was one of the leaders of the Mexican Revolution. He ultimately became President of Mexico following the overthrow of the dictatorial Victoriano Huerta regime in the summer of 1914, and during his administration the current constitution of Mexico was drafted. He was assassinated near the end of his term of office at the behest of a cabal of army generals resentful at his insistence that his successor be a civilian.

Pancho Villa

was one of the most prominent Mexican Revolutionary generals. As commander of the División del Norte (Division of the North), he was the veritable caudillo of the northern Mexican state of Chihuahua, which, given its size, mineral wealth, and proximity to the United States of America, provided him with extensive resources. Villa's dominance in northern Mexico was broken in 1915 through a series of defeats he suffered at Celaya and Agua Prieta at the hands of Álvaro Obregón and Plutarco Elías Calles. After Villa's famous raid on Columbus, New Mexico, in 1916, U.S. Army General John J. Pershing tried unsuccessfully to capture Villa in a nine month pursuit that ended when the United States entered into World War I and Pershing was called back.

Treaty of Versailles

was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of World War I were dealt with in separate treaties. The treaty was never ratified by the United States due to the opposition of Congress to the League of nations.

Ho Chi Minh

was prime minister (1945-55) and president (1945-69) of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam). He was a key figure in the foundation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945, as well as the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the Việt Cộng (NLF or VC) during the Vietnam War. He led the Việt Minh independence movement from 1941 onward, establishing the Communist-ruled Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945 and defeating the French in 1954 at the battle of Điện Biên Phủ. He officially stepped down from power in 1965 due to health problems, but remained a highly visible figurehead and inspiration for those Vietnamese fighting for his cause—a united, communist Vietnam—until his death in 1969.

Nixon Doctrine

was put forth during a press conference in Guam in 1969 by President Nixon and later formalized in his speech on Vietnamization. Nixon stated that "the United States would assist in the defense and developments of allies and friends," but would not "undertake all the defense of the free nations of the world." This doctrine meant that each ally nation was in charge of its own security in general, but the United States would act as a nuclear umbrella when requested.

Warren G. Harding

was the 29th President of the United States (1921-23), a Republican from Ohio who served in the Ohio Senate and then in the United States Senate, where he played a minor role. With the Republican Party convention near deadlock, Harding was chosen as an inoffensive compromise candidate in the 1920 election. He promised America a "return to normalcy" after World War I, with an end to violence and radicalism, a strong economy, and independence from European intrigues. Harding represented the conservative wing of his party in opposition to progressive followers of the late Theodore Roosevelt (who died in 1919) and Senator Robert M. La Follette, Sr.. He defeated Democrat and fellow Ohio newspaper publisher James M. Cox (running with a young FDR as his VP candidate) with the largest popular vote landslide (60% to 34%) in presidential history. Multiple cases of corruption were exposed during his presidency and after his death, including the notorious Teapot Dome scandal, regarded in preWatergate times as the "greatest and most sensational scandal in the history of American politics". In August 1923, Harding suddenly collapsed and died in California. His administration's many scandals have earned Harding a bottom tier ranking from historians.

Calvin Coolidge

was the 30th President of the United States (1923-1929). A Republican lawyer from Vermont, Coolidge worked his way up the ladder of Massachusetts state politics, eventually becoming governor of that state. His response to the Boston Police Strike of 1919 thrust him into the national spotlight and gave him a reputation as a man of decisive action. Soon after, he was elected as the 29th Vice President in 1920 and succeeded to the Presidency upon the sudden death of Warren G. Harding in 1923. Elected in his own right in 1924, he gained a reputation as a small government conservative, and also as a man who said very little.

Herbert Hoover

was the 31st President of the United States (1929-1933). He was a professional mining engineer, and was raised as a Quaker. A Republican, Hoover served as head of the U.S. Food Administration during World War I, and became internationally known for humanitarian relief efforts in war-time Belgium. As the United States Secretary of Commerce in the 1920s under Presidents Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge, he promoted partnerships between government and business under the rubric "economic modernization". In the presidential election of 1928, Hoover easily won the Republican nomination, despite having no elected-office experience. Hoover, a globally experienced engineer, believed strongly in the Efficiency Movement, which held that the government and the economy were riddled with inefficiency and waste, and could be improved by experts who could identify the problems and solve them. When the Wall Street Crash of 1929 struck less than eight months after he took office, Hoover tried to combat the ensuing Great Depression with moderate government public works projects such as the Hoover Dam. The record tariffs imbedded in the Smoot Hawley Tariff and aggressive increases in the top tax bracket from 25% to 63%, coupled with increases in corporate taxes, yielded a "balanced budget" in 1933, but the economy plummeted simultaneously and unemployment rates rose to afflict one in four American workers. This downward spiral set the stage for Hoover's defeat in 1932 by Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt, who promised a New Deal.

Harry S. Truman

was the 33rd President of the United States (1945-53). As the final running mate of President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1944, Truman succeeded to the presidency on April 12, 1945, when Roosevelt died after months of declining health. Under Truman, the Allies successfully concluded World War II; in the aftermath of the conflict, tensions with the Soviet Union increased, marking the start of the Cold War. During World War II, while Nazi Germany surrendered a few weeks after Truman assumed the Presidency, the war with Imperial Japan was expected to last another year or more. Truman approved the use of atomic weapons against Japan, intending to force Japan's surrender and spare American lives in a planned invasion; the decision remains controversial. His presidency was a turning point in foreign affairs, as his government supported an internationalist foreign policy in conjunction with European allies. Following the war, Truman assisted in the founding of the United Nations, issued the Truman Doctrine to contain communism, and passed the $13 billion Marshall Plan to rebuild Europe, including the Axis Powers, whereas the wartime allied Soviet Union became the peacetime enemy, and the Cold War began. He oversaw the Berlin Airlift of 1948 and the creation of NATO in 1949. When communist North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, he immediately sent in U.S. troops and gained UN approval for the Korean War. He said civil rights was a moral priority and in 1948 submitted the first comprehensive legislation; in addition, he issued Executive Orders the same year to start racial integration in the military and federal agencies. Plain spoken and considering himself a representative of the "common man," despite his lack of formal education (he was the only President in the 20th Century to have never attended college), he was well read and a great deal of practical experience as a soldier in World War I and as a businessman and politician in Missouri.

Dwight D. Eisenhower

was the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961. He was a five-star general in the United States Army during World War II and served as Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces in Europe; he had responsibility for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942-43 and the successful invasion of France and Germany in 1944-45 from the Western Front. In 1951, he became the first supreme commander of NATO.[2] He was the last U.S. President to have been born in the 19th century. As President, among other achievements, he began the program which built the interstate highway system in the U.S., ended the Korean War, started the American space program, and presided over an expanding and very successful economy. Underestimated at the time, he is now regarded as one of the better Presidents.

My Lai massacre

was the Vietnam War mass killing of between 347 and 504 unarmed civilians in South Vietnam on March 16, 1968. It was committed by U.S. Army soldiers. Only the on-scene commander, Lt. Calley was convicted of the offense.

Yalta Conference

was the World War II meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union, represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Premier Joseph Stalin, respectively, for the purpose of discussing Europe's post-war reorganization. The conference convened in the Livadia Palace near Yalta in Crimea. The meeting was intended mainly to discuss the re-establishment of the nations of war-torn Europe. Within a few years, with the Cold War dividing the continent, Yalta became a subject of intense controversy.

Sputnik

was the first artificial Earth satellite. It was a 58 cm (23 in) diameter polished metal sphere, with four external radio antennas to broadcast radio pulses. The Soviet Union launched it into an elliptical low Earth orbit on 4 October 1957. It was visible all around the Earth and its radio pulses were detectable. The surprise success precipitated the American Sputnik crisis and triggered the Space Race, a part of the larger Cold War. The launch ushered in new political, military, technological, and scientific developments.

Good Neighbor policy

was the foreign policy of the administration of United States President Franklin Roosevelt towards Latin America. Although the policy was implemented by the Roosevelt administration, 19th-century politician Henry Clay paved the way for it and coined the term "Good Neighbor".

America First Committee

was the foremost Isolationist, Non-interventionist pressure group that lobbied against the American involvement in the European war. Peaking at 800,000 paid members in 450 chapters, it was one of the largest anti-war organizations in American history. Started on September 4, 1940, it was dissolved on December 10, 1941, three days after the attack on Pearl Harbor brought the war to America.

Works Progress Administration

was the largest and most ambitious American New Deal agency, employing millions of unemployed people (mostly unskilled men) to carry out public works projects, including the construction of public buildings and roads. In a much smaller but more famous project, the Federal Project Number One, the WPA employed musicians, artists, writers, actors and directors in large arts, drama, media, and literacy projects. Almost every community in the United States had a new park, bridge or school constructed by the agency.

Joseph Stalin

was the leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953. Among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who took part in the Russian Revolution of 1917, Stalin was appointed general secretary of the party's Central Committee in 1922. He subsequently managed to consolidate power following the 1924 death of Vladimir Lenin through suppressing Lenin's criticisms (in the postscript of his testament) and expanding the functions of his role, all the while eliminating any opposition. He remained general secretary until the post was abolished in 1952, concurrently serving as the Premier of the Soviet Union from 1941 onward. He replaced the New Economic Policy introduced by Lenin in the early 1920s with a highly centralised command economy, launching a period of industrialization and collectivization that resulted in the rapid transformation of the USSR from an agrarian society into an industrial power.[2] However, the economic changes coincided with the imprisonment of millions of people in Gulag labour camps. The initial upheaval in agriculture disrupted food production and contributed to the catastrophic Soviet famine of 1932-33, known as the Holodomor in Ukraine. Between 1934 and 1939 he organized and led a massive purge (known as "Great Purge") of the party, government, armed forces and intelligentsia, in which millions of so called "enemies of the Soviet people" were imprisoned, exiled or executed. In a period that lasted from 1936 to 1939, Stalin instituted a campaign against enemies within his regime. Major figures in the Communist Party, such as the old Bolsheviks, Leon Trotsky, and most of the Red Army generals, were killed after being convicted of plotting to overthrow the government and Stalin.

Bonus Army

was the popular name of an assemblage of some 43,000 marchers—17,000 World War I veterans, their families, and affiliated groups—who gathered in Washington, D.C., in the spring and summer of 1932 to demand cash-payment redemption of their service certificates. Many of the war veterans had been out of work since the beginning of the Great Depression. The World War Adjusted Compensation Act of 1924 had awarded them bonuses in the form of certificates they could not redeem until 1945. Each service certificate, issued to a qualified veteran soldier, bore a face value equal to the soldier's promised payment plus compound interest. The principal demand of the Bonus Army was the immediate cash payment of their certificates.

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg

were American citizens executed for conspiracy to commit espionage, relating to passing information about the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union. The other atomic spies who were caught by the FBI offered confessions and were not executed, including Ethel's brother, David Greenglass, who supplied documents to Julius from Los Alamos and served 10 years of his 15-year sentence; Harry Gold, who identified Greenglass and served 15 years in Federal prison as the courier for Greenglass; and a German scientist, Klaus Fuchs, who served nine years and four months.[2][3] In 1995, the United States government released a series of decoded Soviet cables, codenamed VENONA, which confirmed that Julius acted as a courier and recruiter for the Soviets, but did not provide definitive evidence for Ethel's involvement.

Sacco and Vanzetti case

were Italian-born anarchists who were convicted of murdering a guard and a paymaster during the armed robbery of a shoe factory in Braintree, Massachusetts, United States in 1920 and were executed. Both adhered to a version of anarchism that combated war, violence and oppressive governments. Celebrated writers, artists, and academics pleaded for their pardon or for a new trial. Harvard law professor and future Supreme Court justice Felix Frankfurter argued for their innocence in a widely read Atlantic Monthly article that was later published in book form. Sacco and Vanzetti were sentenced to death in April 1927, accelerating the outcry. Responding to a massive influx of telegrams urging their pardon, Massachusetts governor Alvan Fuller appointed a three-man commission to investigate the case. After weeks of secret deliberation, which included interviews with the judge, lawyers, and several witnesses, the commission upheld the verdict. Sacco and Vanzetti were executed via electric chair on August 23, 1927. The case stoked the fear of immigrants and the importation of radical ideas and revolutionaries from southern and eastern Europe.

Nuremberg Trials

were a series of military tribunals, held by the Allied forces after World War II, most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, and economic leadership of Nazi Germany. The trials were held in the city of Nuremberg, Germany. The first, and best known of these trials, described as "the greatest trial in history" by Norman Birkett, one of the British judges who presided over it, was the trial of the major war criminals before the International Military Tribunal (IMT). Held between 20 November 1945 and 1 October 1946, the Tribunal was given the task of trying 23 of the most important political and military leaders of the Third Reich, though one of the defendants, Martin Bormann, was tried in absentia, while another, Robert Ley, committed suicide within a week of the trial's commencement. Not included were Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler, and Joseph Goebbels, all of whom had committed suicide several months before the indictment was signed. Hermann Goering, the number two in Nazi Germany, was tried and convicted during the Nuremberg Trial but committed suicide just hours before he was supposed to be executed.

irreconcilables

were bitter opponents of the Treaty of Versailles in the United States in 1919. Specifically, the term refers to about 12 to 18 United States Senators, both Republicans and Democrats, who fought intensely to defeat the ratification of the treaty by the Senate in 1919. They succeeded, and the United States never ratified the Treaty of Versailles and never joined the League of Nations.

Allies

were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The members of the Allies or Triple Entente were the French Republic, the British Empire and the Russian Empire; Italy ended its alliance with the Central Powers and entered the war on the side of the Entente in 1915. Japan was another important member. Belgium, Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, and Romania were secondary members of the Entente. The United States declared war on Germany in 1917 on the grounds that Germany violated U.S. neutrality by attacking international shipping and because of the Zimmermann Telegram sent to Mexico. The U.S. entered the war as an "associated power", rather than a formal ally of France and the United Kingdom, in order to avoid "foreign entanglements".

D-Day

were the landing operations on 6 June 1944 (termed D-Day) of the Allied invasion of Normandy in Operation Overlord during World War II. The largest seaborne invasion in history, the operation began the invasion of German-occupied western Europe, led to the liberation of France from Nazi control, and contributed to an Allied victory in the war.

Bolsheviks

were the radical wing of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party. They became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917. They advocated the elimination of all private property, farm and factory "collectives" (all workers equal), central planning of all production and government that was to be a "Dictatorship of the Proletariat," which were to be committees of workers. In practice, the Communists created a police state in which all individual rights were lost and government was a Dictatorship of the Communist Party Bosses who "represented" the workers interests.

Jim Fisk

with Jay Gould, was stockbroker and "robber baron," took control of railroads and bribed politicians with Boss Tweed, 1860s - 1870s

Panama Canal

Ship canal cut across the isthmus of Panama by United States Army engineers; it opened in 1915 after U.S. helped Panama rebels throw off rule of Columbia and become independent. It greatly shortened the sea voyage between the east and west coasts of North America. U.S owned canal and some land on either side called the "canal zone."The United States turned the canal over to Panama on Jan 1, 2000.

James Wilkes Booth

Southern sympathizer, he assassinates president Abraham Lincoln in April of 1864 at Ford Theatre in Washington D.C.

scalawags

Southern whites who supported republican policy throught reconstruction

"Gag Resolution"

Strict rule passed by prosouthern Congressmen in 1836 to prohibit all discussion of slavery in the House of Representatives

supply side economics

Supply-side economics is a school of macroeconomics that argues that economic growth can be most effectively created by lowering barriers for people to produce (supply) goods and services as well as invest in capital. According to supply-side economics, consumers will then benefit from a greater supply of goods and services at lower prices; furthermore, the investment and expansion of businesses will increase the demand for employees. Typical policy recommendations of supply-side economists are lower tax rates and less regulation. The Laffer curve embodies a tenet of supply side economics: that government tax revenues from a specific tax are the same (nil) at 100% tax rates as at 0% tax rates respectively. The tax rate that achieves optimum, or highest government revenues is somewhere in between these two values.

Wabash case

Supreme Court decision that severely limited the rights of states to control interstate commerce. It led to the creation of the Interstate Commerce Commission, one of the first instances of the federal government assuming responsibility for economic affairs that had previously been delegated to the states

James Buchanan

The 15th President of the United States (1857-1861). He tried to maintain a balance between proslavery and antislavery factions, but his moderate views angered radicals in both North and South, and he was unable to forestall the secession of South Carolina on December 20, 1860.

"midnight judges"

The 16 judges that were added by the Judiciary Act of 1801 that were called this because Adams signed their appointments late on the last day of his administration.

Glass-Steagall Act

The Banking Act of 1933 enacted June 16, 1933 was a statute enacted by the United States Congress that established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) and imposed various other banking reforms. The entire law is often referred to as the Glass-Steagall Act, after its Congressional sponsors, Senator Carter Glass (D) of Virginia, and Representative Henry B. Steagall (D) of Alabama. The term Glass-Steagall Act, however, is most often used to refer to four provisions of the Banking Act of 1933 that limited commercial bank securities activities and affiliations between commercial banks and securities firms.

Chinese Exclusion Act

The Chinese Exclusion Act was a United States federal law signed by President Chester A. Arthur on May 6, 1882. It was one of the most significant restrictions on free immigration in US history, prohibiting all immigration of Chinese laborers. The act followed revisions made in 1880 to the US-China Burlingame Treaty of 1868, revisions that allowed the US to suspend Chinese immigration. The act was initially intended to last for 10 years, but was renewed in 1892 and made permanent in 1902. The Chinese Exclusion Act was the first law implemented to prevent a specific ethnic group from immigrating to the United States.

Dawes plan

The Dawes Plan was an attempt following World War I for the Triple Entente to compromise and collect war reparations debt from Germany. The Dawes Plan (as proposed by the Dawes Committee, chaired by Charles G. Dawes) was an attempt in 1924 to solve the reparations problem, which had bedeviled international politics following World War I and the Treaty of Versailles. The Allied occupation of the Ruhr industrial area contributed to the hyperinflation crisis in Germany, partially because of its disabling effect on the German economy.[1] The plan provided for an end to the Allied occupation, and a staggered payment plan for Germany's payment of war reparations.

Iron curtain

The Iron Curtain symbolized the ideological conflict and physical boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II in 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1991. The term symbolized efforts by the Soviet Union to block itself and its satellite states from open contact with the west and non-Soviet-controlled areas. On the east side of the Iron Curtain were the countries that were connected to or influenced by the Soviet Union. On either side of the Iron Curtain, states developed their own international economic and military alliances. Churchill's first recorded use the term "iron curtain" came in a 12 May 1945 telegram he sent to U.S. President Harry S. Truman regarding his concern about Soviet actions, stating "[a]n iron curtain is drawn down upon their front. We do not know what is going on behind."

Jim Crow laws

The Jim Crow laws were racial segregation state and local laws enacted after the Reconstruction period that continued in force until 1965 mandating de jure (by law) racial segregation in all public facilities in the South.

Kent State

The Kent State shootings occurred at Kent State University in Ohio, and involved the shooting of unarmed college students by the Ohio National Guard on May 4, 1970. The guardsmen fired 67 rounds over a period of 13 seconds, killing four students and wounding nine others, one of whom suffered permanent paralysis.Some of the students who were shot had been protesting the Cambodian Campaign, which President Richard Nixon announced during a television address on April 30. Other students who were shot had been walking nearby or observing the protest from a distance.There was a significant national response to the shootings: hundreds of universities, colleges, and high schools closed throughout the United States due to a student strike of four million students, and the event further affected public opinion—at an already socially contentious time—over the role of the United States in the Vietnam War.

lend-lease

The Lend-Lease policy was a program under which the United States supplied Free France, Great Britain, the Republic of China, and later the USSR and other Allied nations with food, oil, and war supplies between 1941 and August 1945. It was signed into law on March 11, 1941 and ended in September 1945. In general the aid was free, although some hardware (such as ships) were returned after the war. In return, the U.S. was given leases on bases in Allied territory during the war. In a clever radio address to sell the program to the American public, Roosevelt compared it to a person seeing a neighbor's house on fire and that person having a garden hose that could help his neighbor put the fire out. You wouldn't sell the hose to your neighbor; in any case the neighbor doesn't need to buy your garden hose, just "borrow" it to fight the fire. So, with lend lease, American would be "lending" equipment (ships, planes and tanks) and getting them back when the war was over. In using this analogy, he also played on the idea that like the neighbor whose house was on fire in which that fire could spread to your own house, the war could "spread" to America if the British were the Allies were defeated.

Volstead Act

The National Prohibition Act, known informally as the Volstead Act, was enacted to carry out the intent of the Eighteenth Amendment, which established prohibition in the United States. While the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibited the production, sale, and transport of "intoxicating liquors", it did not define "intoxicating liquors" or provide penalties. It granted both the federal government and the states the power to enforce the ban by "appropriate legislation." A bill, the Volstead Act, was passed to do this.. Later this act was repealed by the Twenty-first amendment.

Nazi party

The National Socialist German Workers' Party , abbreviated NSDAP), commonly referred to in English as the Nazi Party, was a political party in Germany active between 1920 and 1945. The party emerged from the German nationalist, racist and populist Freikorps paramilitary culture, which fought against the communist uprisings in post-World War I Germany. Advocacy of a form of socialism by right-wing figures and movements in Germany became common during and after World War I, influencing Nazism. Racism was central to Nazism. The Nazis propagated the idea of a "people's community" (Volksgemeinschaft) with the aim of uniting all Germans as national comrades, whilst excluding those deemed either to be community aliens or of a foreign race. The Nazis sought to improve the stock of the Germanic people through racial purity and eugenics (sterilising "inferior" races so they could not reproduce; allowing only "master" race "Aryans" to marry and have children), broad social welfare programs, and a disregard for the value of individual life, which could be sacrificed for the good of the Nazi state and the "Aryan master race". To maintain the supposed purity and strength of the Aryan race, the Nazis sought to exterminate Jews, Gypsies, homosexuals, communists, and the physically and mentally handicapped; and enslave "inferior races" such as Slavs (Poles, Russians, etc.). The persecution reached its climax when the party-controlled German state organized the systematic murder of approximately six million Jews and five million people from the other targeted groups, in what has become known as the Holocaust. The party's leader since 1921, Adolf Hitler, was appointed Chancellor of Germany by President Paul von Hindenburg in 1933. Hitler rapidly established a totalitarian regime known as the Third Reich.

Neutrality Acts

The Neutrality Acts were passed by the United States Congress in the 1930s, in response to the growing turmoil in Europe and Asia that eventually led to World War II. They were spurred by the growth in isolationism and non-interventionism in the US following its costly involvement in World War I, and sought to ensure that the US would not become entangled again in foreign conflicts. The legacy of the Neutrality Acts is widely regarded as having been generally negative: they made no distinction between aggressor and victim, treating both equally as "belligerents"; and they limited the US government's ability to aid Britain and France against Nazi Germany. The acts were largely repealed in 1941, in the face of German submarine attacks on U.S. vessels and the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

Pendleton Act

The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of United States is a federal law established in 1883 that stipulated that government jobs should be awarded on the basis of merit. The act provided selection of government employees by competitive exams, rather than ties to politicians or political affiliation. It also made it illegal to fire or demote government officials for political reasons and prohibited soliciting campaign donations on Federal government property

People's (Populist) Party

The People's Party, also known as the "Populists", was a short-lived political party in the United States that historians agree was on the left wing of American politics. It was highly critical of capitalism, especially banks and railroads, and allied itself with the labor movement. Established in 1891 during the Populist movement, the People's Party reached its zenith in the 1894 midterm election, when it took over ten percent of the popular vote. Built on a coalition of poor, white cotton farmers in the South (especially North Carolina, Alabama, and Texas) and hard-pressed wheat farmers in the plains states (especially Kansas and Nebraska), the People's Party represented a radical crusading form of agrarianism and hostility to banks, cities, railroads, gold, and elites generally. It sometimes allied with labor unions in the North and Republicans in the South. In 1896, the Populists endorsed the Democratic presidential nominee, William Jennings Bryan, adding their own vice presidential nominee. By joining with the Democrats, the People's Party lost its independent identity and rapidly withered away.

William Pitt

The Prime Minister of England during the French and Indian War. He increased the British troops and military supplies in the colonies, and this is why England won the war. "Great Commoner"

Social Security Act

The Social Security Act of 1935 was created during Franklin Delano Roosevelt's first term by the President's Committee on Economic Security, under Frances Perkins, and passed by Congress as part of the Second New Deal. The act was an attempt to limit what was seen as dangers in the modern American life, including old age, poverty, unemployment, and the burdens on widows and fatherless children. By signing this act on August 14, 1935, President Roosevelt became the first president to advocate federal assistance for the elderly. The Act provided benefits to retirees and the unemployed, and a lump sum benefit at death. Payments to current retirees are financed by a payroll tax on current workers' wages, half directly as a payroll tax and half paid by the employer.

SALT

The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) were two rounds of bilateral talks and corresponding international treaties involving the United States and the Soviet Union—the Cold War superpowers—on the issue of armament control. The two rounds of talks and agreements were SALT I and SALT II.

Teapot Dome

The Teapot Dome scandal was a bribery incident that took place in the United States from 1921 to 1924, during the administration of President Warren G. Harding. Secretary of the Interior Albert Bacon Fall had leased Navy petroleum reserves at Teapot Dome in Wyoming and two other locations in California to private oil companies at low rates without competitive bidding. In 1922 and 1923, the leases became the subject of a sensational investigation by Senator Thomas J. Walsh. Fall was later convicted of accepting bribes from the oil companies and became the first Cabinet member to go to prison. Before the Watergate scandal, Teapot Dome was regarded as the "greatest and most sensational scandal in the history of American politics.

Hitler-Stalin nonaggression pact

The Treaty of Non-aggression between Germany and the Soviet Union was a non-aggression pact signed on 23 August 1939. Nine days later, Germany invaded Poland and the Second World War began. As Communism and Nazism had been sworn enemies until that time, the treaty shocked the world. Hitler had no intention of keeping the Treaty but considered it a necessary temporary measure so he could have a free hand in attacking Poland. Stalin came to regret his naive reliance on Hitler's word when Germany launched a surprise attack on the Soviet Union in June, 1941, in direct violation of the treaty. German gains in Poland allowed them to be closer to Soviet territory when they attacked. The Pact's publicly stated intentions were a guarantee of non-belligerence by each party towards the other and a commitment that neither party would ally itself to or aid an enemy of the other party. In addition to stipulations of non-aggression, the treaty included a secret agreement that divided territories of Romania, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland into German and Soviet "spheres of influence", anticipating potential "territorial and political rearrangements" of these countries. Thereafter, Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939. Ten days later Stalin ordered his own invasion of Poland thereby completing the dismemberment of Poland. Part of Finland was annexed by the Soviet Union after the Winter War. This was followed by Soviet annexations of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and parts of Romania . It was only in 1989 that the Soviet authorities admitted the existence of the secret agreement or protocol of the Nazi-Soviet Pact.

Black Tuesday

The Wall Street Crash of 1929, also known as Black Tuesday, the Great Crash, or the Stock Market Crash of 1929, began in late October 1929 and was the most devastating stock market crash in the history of the United States, when taking into consideration the full extent and duration of its fallout. The crash signaled the beginning of the 10-year Great Depression that affected all Western industrialized countries,

Washington Conference

The Washington Conference was called by President Warren G. Harding and run by Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes. Harding demanded action in order to gain domestic political credit. Hughes—helped by the cryptographers who were reading the Japanese diplomatic secrets—brilliantly engineered a deal that everyone thought best for themselves.[6] To resolve technical disputes about the quality of warships, the conferees adopted a quantitative standard, based on tonnage displacement (a simple measure of the size of a ship.) A ten-year agreement fixed the ratio of battleships at 5:5:3—that is 525,000 tons for the USA, 525,000 tons for Britain, and 315,000 tons for Japan. Smaller limits with a ratio of 1.7 applied to France and Italy.

WAACs

The Women's Army Corps (WAC) was the women's branch of the United States Army. It was created as an auxiliary unit, the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) on 15 May 1942 and converted to full status as the WAC on 1 July 1943. Its first director was Oveta Culp Hobby, a prominent society woman in Texas.

braceros

The bracero program (named for the Spanish term bracero, meaning "manual laborer" [lit. "one who works using his arms"]) was a series of laws and diplomatic agreements, initiated by an August 1942 exchange of diplomatic notes between the United States and Mexico, for the importation of temporary contract laborers from Mexico to the United States. At the start of the program, train loads of mexican immigrants ready to work were sent over during the heart of WWII for the "emergency wartime agricultural and railroad importations". Shortages of food and other goods throughout the U.S caused chaos throughout the nation which eventually led to a desperate need for solution. The Bracero Program was the solution.

Berlin Airlift

The day after 18 June 1948 announcement of the new Deutsche Mark, Soviet guards halted all passenger trains and traffic on the autobahn to Berlin, delayed Western and German freight shipments and required that all water transport secure special Soviet permission. On 24 June, the Soviets severed land and water connections between the non-Soviet zones and Berlin. That same day, they halted all rail and barge traffic in and out of Berlin. On 25 June, the Soviets stopped supplying food to the civilian population in the non-Soviet sectors of Berlin. They also cut off the electricity relied on by Berlin, using their control over the generating plants in the Soviet zone. Surface traffic from non-Soviet zones to Berlin was blockaded, leaving open only the air corridors. The U.S. and Britain conducted an airlift of supplies to Berlin that was so successful that it embarrassed the Soviets who finally relented and lifted the blockade.

Grange

The more common name of the Patrons of Husbandry—this organization was formed in 1867 as a support system for struggling western farmers. This organization was a educational and social organization, but under the leadership of Oliver Kelley, this organization began to lobby state and federal governments for legislation that would protect farmers from the effects of big business.

Hundred Days

The special session of Congress that Roosevelt called to launch his New Deal programs. The special session lasted about three months: 100 days. Roosevelt began his presidency March 4, 1933, with a ringing speech from the inauguration platform in which he pledged a New Deal for the American people and cautioned them against giving in to fear. Immediately thereafter he began instituting a series of bold, nearly revolutionary reforms. On March 6, 1933, he closed the banks and announced a bank holiday. This gave banks relief from the threat of ruinous runs, but sent anxiety through the country as people wondered how safe their money was and what powers the government might give itself in the name of emergency. On March 9, Roosevelt called a special session of Congress to deal with the banking crisis. Congress immediately passed the Emergency Banking Relief Act that allowed the president to regulate banking transactions and foreign exchange and to reopen those banks that were still solvent. Several months later, Congress passed the Glass Steagall Banking Reform Act that created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, which initially insured deposits up to $5,000.

New Frontier

The term New Frontier was used by liberal, Democratic[1] presidential candidate John F. Kennedy in his acceptance speech in the 1960 United States presidential election to the Democratic National Convention at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum as the Democratic slogan to inspire America to support him. The phrase developed into a label for his administration's domestic and foreign programs.

Pueblo People

These Indians lived in the Southwestern United States. They built extensive irrigation systems to water their primary crop, which was corn; also lived in stone cities

Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo

Treaty that ended the Mexican War, granting the U.S. control of Texas, New Mexico, and California in exchange for $15 million

big-stick diplomacy

U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt's foreign policy: "speak softly, and carry a big stick." Roosevelt described his style of foreign policy as "the exercise of intelligent forethought and of decisive action sufficiently far in advance of any likely crisis"

Alfred Thayer Mahan

United States Navy admiral,geostrategist, and historian, who has been called "the most important American strategist of the nineteenth century."[1] His concept of "sea power" was based on the idea that countries with greater naval power will have greater worldwide impact

Foraker Act

United States federal law that established civilian (albeit limited popular) government on the island of Puerto Rico, which had recently become a possession of the United States as a result of the Spanish-American War

Vietnamization

Vietnamization was a policy of the Nixon administration during the Vietnam War to end U.S. involvement in the war and "expand, equip, and train South Vietnam's forces and assign to them an ever-increasing combat role, at the same time steadily reducing the number of U.S. combat troops".

Virginia and Kentucky resolutions

Written anonymously by Jefferson and Madison in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts, they declared that states could nullify federal laws that the states considered unconstitutional.

Interstate Commerce Act

a United States federal law that was designed to regulate the railroad industry, particularly its monopolistic practices.The Act required that railroad rates be "reasonable and just," but did not empower the government to fix specific rates. It also required that railroads publicize shipping rates and prohibited short haul or long haul fare discrimination, a form of price discrimination against smaller markets, particularly farmers. The Act created a federal regulatory agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), which it charged with monitoring railroads to ensure that they complied with the new regulations.

Act of Religious Toleration

a law enacted in Maryland in 1649 declaring that all Christian denominations have a right to practice their faith

Ghost Dance

a new religious movement incorporated into numerous Native American belief systems. According to the teachings of the Northern Paiute spiritual leader Wovoka (renamed Jack Wilson), proper practice of the dance would reunite the living with spirits of the dead and bring peace, prosperity, and unity to native peoples throughout the region, American settlers were alarmed by the sight of the many Great Basin and Plains tribes performing the Ghost Dance, worried that it might be a prelude to armed attack

Populism

a political doctrine whose policies appeal to the common, ordinary person, as opposed to those which represent the interests of the wealthy elites or big business. It has mean different things at different times - in late 1800s Populism meant cheaper money (using unbacked money like greenbacks or Silver backed money). It also meant policies to oppose big business (banks and railroads) that exercised monopoly power to squeeze out small farmers and businesses and raise prices on goods for ordinary people. William Jennings Bryan was the best known Populist politician.

referendum

a process in which legislation that has recently been passed by a legislature is placed on the ballot in the next election and voted on by the general public to approve it or repeal (reject) it.

rebate

a return of part of the original payment for some service or merchandise; partial refund. It was a way of doing price discrimination against small businesses, giving the rebate to big customers. This was a technique used by railroad trusts.

trust - busting

a term that referred to President Theodore Roosevelt's policy of prosecuting monopolies, or "trusts," that violated federal antitrust law. Roosevelt's "trust-busting" policy marked a major departure from previous administrations' policies, which had generally failed to enforce the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, and added momentum to the progressive reform movements of the early 1900s.

Roosevelt Corollary

addition to the Monroe Doctrine articulated by President Theodore Roosevelt in his State of the Union address in 1904 after the Venezuela Crisis of 1902-03. The corollary states that the United States will intervene in conflicts between European countries and Latin American countries to enforce legitimate claims of the European powers, rather than having the Europeans press their claims directly

"Declaration of Sentiments"

adopted at the Seneca Falls Convention (1848) addressing a wide range of women's concerns especially the right to vote.

Sixteenth Amendment

allows the Congress to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states or basing it on the United States Census

Miranda warning

also referred to as Miranda rights or Miranda rule, is a right to silence warning given by police in the United States to criminal suspects in police custody (or in a custodial interrogation) before they are interrogated to preserve the admissibility of their statements against them in criminal proceedings. The Miranda warning is part of a preventive criminal procedure rule that law enforcement are required to administer to protect an individual who is in custody and subject to direct questioning or its functional equivalent from a violation of his or her Fifth Amendment right against compelled self incrimination. It was established by the U.S. Supreme court in a 1966 case Miranda v. Arizona.

Platt Amendment

amended the 1901 Army Appropriations Bill.[2] It stipulated seven conditions for the withdrawal of United States troops remaining in Cuba at the end of the Spanish-American War, and an eighth condition that Cuba sign a treaty accepting these seven conditions. It defined the terms of Cuban-U.S. relations to essentially be an unequal one of U.S. dominance over Cuba.

Clement Valladingham

an Ohio Congressman, is arrested, tried for treason, and sentenced to death for giving pro-south speeches. Lincoln knows this will go to the supreme court, so he steps in and gives Valladingham a presidential pardon before it can.

inflation

an increase in the general level of prices for goods and services; each dollar can buy less and less in the way of goods and services; those hit hardest by inflation are retirees on fixed pensions (they get the same number of dollars each month but can buy less and less) and lenders of money who are being repaid in cheaper dollars than were loaned out.

Boxer Rebellion

anti-imperialist uprising which took place in China towards the end of the Qing dynasty between 1899 and 1901. It was initiated by the Militia United in Righteousness (Yihetuan), known in English as the "Boxers," and was motivated by proto-nationalist sentiments and opposition to foreign imperialism and associated Christian missionary activity. The Great Powers intervened and defeated Chinese forces.

vertical integration (trust)

arrangement in which the supply chain of a company is owned by that company. Usually each member of the supply chain produces a different product or (market-specific) service, and the products combine to satisfy a common need. The trust gets profit from each business in the chain and excludes competition since the trust can control prices at each level.

gospel of wealth

article written by Andrew Carnegie in 1889 that describes the responsibility of philanthropy by the new upper class of self-made rich. Carnegie proposed that the best way of dealing with the new phenomenon of wealth inequality was for the wealthy to redistribute their surplus means in a responsible and thoughtful manner

stock watering

artificially inflating the value of an asset, the term is most commonly used to refer to a form of securities fraud common under older corporate laws that placed a heavy emphasis upon the par value of stock

Sierra Club

associated with the progressive movement and John Muir, the club was one of the first large-scale environmental preservation organizations in the world, and currently engages in lobbying politicians to promote green policies. In recent years, the club has gravitated toward green politics and especially toward bright green environmentalism

Dawes Severalty Act

authorized the President of the United States to survey American Indian tribal land and divide it into allotments for individual Indians. Those who accepted allotments and lived separately from the tribe would be granted United States citizenship. The Dawes Act was amended in 1891, and again in 1906 by the Burke Act

destroyers-for-bases deal

between the United States and the United Kingdom on September 2, 1940, fifty mothballed, World War I vintage US Navy destroyers (the type of ship used to escort and protect merchant cargo ships from submarines) were transferred to the Royal Navy from the United States Navy in exchange for land rights to some British possessions, in particular, Bermuda, several hundred miles off the coast of North Carolina. At the time, Britain desperately needed the destroyers to protect their merchant ships which were being rapidly destroyed by German submarines in an attempt to starve the British into submission. Roosevelt wanted to help the British but strong Isolationist opinion in the U.S. prevented him from using the American Navy to protect the British ships (which he later did) or just giving ships to the British. By couching it as a "fair exchange" in which the U.S. got base rights in some British colonies, Roosevelt was able to sell the deal as beneficial to the U.S.

New Freedom

campaign speeches and promises of Woodrow Wilson in the 1912 presidential campaign; it called for limited government, Progressive programs enacted by Wilson as president during his first term (1913-1916), when the Democrats controlled Congress 1. Tariff Reform: This came through the passage of the Underwood Tariff Act of 1913, which lowered tariffs for the first time since 1857 and went against the protectionist lobby 2. Business Reform: This was established in 1914 through the passage of the Federal Trade Act, which established the Federal Trade Commission to investigate and halt unfair and illegal business practices by issuing "cease and desist" orders, and the Clayton Anti Trust Act. 3. Banking Reform: This Came in 1913, through the creation of the Federal Reserve System, and in 1916, through the passage of the Federal Farm Loan Act,which set up Farm Loan Banks to support farmers.

collective security

can be understood as a security arrangement, political, regional, or global, in which each state in the system accepts that the security of one is the concern of all, and therefore commits to a collective response to threats to, and breaches to peace. It was the central idea of the League of Nations in which all nations agreed to come to the aid of any nation attacked. It didn't work with the League of Nations and has had little success in the United Nations.

invasion of Ethiopia

colonial war that started in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war was fought between the armed forces of the Fascist (Mussolini) Italy and the armed forces of the Ethiopia (also known at the time as Abyssinia). The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia. Politically, the war is best remembered for exposing the inherent weakness of the League of Nations. Like the Mukden Incident in 1931 (the Japanese annexation of three Chinese provinces), the Abyssinia Crisis in 1935 is often seen as a clear demonstration of the ineffectiveness of the League. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations and yet the League was unable to control Italy or to protect Ethiopia when Italy clearly violated the League's own Article X.

Little Big Horn

commonly referred to as Custer's Last Stand, was an armed engagement between combined forces of the Lakota,Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes, against the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the United States Army. The battle, which occurred June 25-26, 1876, near the Little Bighorn River in eastern Montana Territory, was the most prominent action of the Great Sioux War of 1876. It was an overwhelming victory for the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho, led by several major war leaders, including Crazy Horse and Chief Gall, inspired by the visions of Sitting Bull

Central Powers

consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria - hence also known as the Quadruple Alliance was one of the two main factions during World War I (1914-18). It faced and was defeated by the Allied Powers that had formed around the Triple Entente, after which it was dissolved. The Powers' origin was the alliance of Germany and Austria Hungary in 1879. The Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria did not join until after World War I had begun.

assumption of debts

controversial part of Alexander Hamilton's financial program to build the nation's credit by creating a national debt

Muller v. Oregon

decision in United States Supreme Court history, as it justifies both sex discrimination and usage of labor laws during the time period. The case upheld Oregon state restrictions on the working hours of women as justified by the special state interest in protecting women's health

William Jennings Bryan

dominant force in the populist wing of the Democratic Party, standing three times as the Party's candidate for President of the United States (1896, 1900 and 1908). He served two terms as a member of the United States House of Representatives from Nebraska and was United States Secretary of State under President Woodrow Wilson (1913-1915), resigning because of his pacifist position on World War I. Bryan was a devout Presbyterian, a strong advocate of popular democracy, and an enemy of the banks and their gold standard. He demanded "Free Silver" because it reduced power attributed to money and put more money in the hands of the people. He was a peace advocate, a supporter of Prohibition, and an opponent of Darwinism on religious and humanitarian grounds. With his deep, commanding voice and wide travels, he was one of the best-known orators and lecturers of the era. Because of his faith in the wisdom of the common people, he was called "The Great Commoner."

Eighteenth Amendment

effectively established the prohibition of alcoholic beverages in the United States by declaring illegal the production, transport and sale of alcohol

dollar diplomacy

effort of the United States—particularly over President William Howard Taft—to further its aims in Latin America and East Asia through use of its economic power by guaranteeing loans made to foreign countries

Alexander Graham Bell

eminent Scottish-born scientist, inventor, engineer and innovator who is credited with inventing the first practical telephone

Gold Standard Act

established gold as the only standard for redeeming paper money, stopping bimetallism (which had allowed silver in exchange for gold). It was signed by President William McKinley.

Seventeenth Amendment

established the election of United States Senators by the people of the states rather than the State Legislatures.

American Federation of Labor

first federation of labor unions in the United States. It was founded in Columbus, Ohio, in May 1886 by an alliance of craft unions disaffected from the Knights of Labor, a national labor association. Samuel Gompers of the Cigar Makers' International Union was elected president of the Federation at its founding convention and was reelected every year except one until his death in 1924. The AFL was the largest union grouping in the United States for the first half of the 20th century, even after the creation of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) by unions that were expelled by the AFL in 1935 over its opposition to industrial unionism. While the Federation was founded and dominated by craft unions throughout the first fifty years of its existence, many of its craft union affiliates turned to organizing on an industrial union basis to meet the challenge from the CIO in the 1940s. In 1955, the AFL merged with its longtime rival, the Congress of Industrial Organizations, to form the AFL In 1955, the AFL merged with its longtime rival, the Congress of Industrial Organizations, to form the AFL

Bessemer process

first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron prior to the open hearth furnace

Pure Food and Drug Act

first of a series of significant consumer protection laws enacted by the Federal Government in the 20th century and led to the creation of the Food and Drug Administration. Its main purpose was to ban foreign and interstate traffic in adulterated or mislabeled food and drug products, and it directed the U.S. Bureau of Chemistry to inspect products and refer offenders to prosecutors. It required that active ingredients be placed on the label of a drug's packaging and that drugs could not fall below purity levels established by the United States Pharmacopeia or the National Formulary

guerrilla warfare

form of irregular warfare in which a small group of combatants such as armed civilians or irregulars use military tactics including ambushes, sabotage, raids, petty warfare, hit-and-run tactics, and mobility to fight a larger and less-mobile traditional military

closed shop

form of union security agreement under which the employer agrees to hire union members only, and employees must remain members of the union at all times in order to remain employed. In return, the union provides labor peace to the employer.

Cross of Gold speech

given by William Jennings Bryan supported bimetallism or "free silver", which he believed would bring the nation prosperity. He decried the gold standard, concluding the speech, "you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold".[1] Bryan's address helped catapult him to the Democratic Party's presidential nomination; it is considered one of the greatest political speeches in American history

Sitting Bull

holy man who led his people as a tribal chief during years of resistance to United States government policies. He was killed by Indian agency police on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation during an attempt to arrest him, at a time when authorities feared that he would join the Ghost Dance movement

cult of domesticity

idealized view of women & home; women, self-less caregiver for children, refuge for husbands

Gentlemen's Agreement

informal and legally non-binding agreement between two or more parties. It is typically oral, though it may be written, or simply understood as part of an unspoken agreement by convention or through mutually beneficial etiquette

The policy's main principle was that of non

intervention and non-interference in the domestic affairs of Latin America. It also reinforced the idea that the United States would be a "good neighbor" and engage in reciprocal exchanges with Latin American countries.

The Birth of a Nation

is a 1915 American silent epic drama film directed by D. W. Griffith and based on the novel and play The Clansman, both by Thomas Dixon. The film chronicles the relationship of two families in Civil War.The film was a commercial success, though it was highly controversial owing to its portrayal of black men (some played by white actors in blackface) as unintelligent and sexually aggressive towards white women, and the portrayal of the Ku Klux Klan (whose original founding is dramatized) as a heroic force. The film is also credited as one of the events that inspired the formation of the "second era" Ku Klux Klan at Stone Mountain, Georgia, in the same year. The Birth of a Nation was used as a recruiting tool for the KKK.

The Great Gatsby

is a 1925 novel written by American author F. Scott Fitzgerald that follows a cast of characters living in the fictional town of West Egg on prosperous Long Island in the summer of 1922. The story primarily concerns the young and mysterious millionaire Jay Gatsby and his quixotic passion and obsession for the beautiful former debutante Daisy Buchanan. Considered to be Fitzgerald's magnum opus, The Great Gatsby explores themes of decadence, idealism, resistance to change, social upheaval, and excess, creating a portrait of the Jazz Age or the Roaring Twenties that has been described as a cautionary tale regarding the American Dream.

Pentagon Papers

is a United States Department of Defense history of the United States' political-military involvement in Vietnam from 1945 to 1967. The papers were discovered and released by Daniel Ellsberg, and first brought to the attention of the public on the front page of The New York Times in 1971. The papers revealed that the U.S. had secretly enlarged the scale of the Vietnam War with the bombings of nearby Cambodia and Laos, coastal raids on North Vietnam, and Marine Corps attacks, none of which were reported in the mainstream media. For his disclosure of the Pentagon Papers, Ellsberg was initially charged with conspiracy, espionage and theft of government property, but the charges were later dropped after prosecutors investigating the Watergate Scandal soon discovered that the staff members in the Nixon White House had ordered the so called White House Plumbers to engage in unlawful efforts to discredit Ellsberg.[4] In June 2011, the entirety of the Pentagon Papers was declassified and publicly released.[5]

Espionage and Sedition acts

is a United States federal law passed on June 15, 1917, shortly after the U.S. entry into World War I. It has been amended numerous times over the years. It was intended to prohibit interference with military operations or recruitment, to prevent insubordination in the military, and to prevent the support of U.S. enemies during wartime. In 1919, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously ruled through Schenck v. United States that the act did not violate the freedom of speech of those convicted under its provisions. The constitutionality of the law, its relationship to free speech, and the meaning of its language have been contested in court ever since.

isolationism

is a category of foreign policies institutionalized by leaders who asserted that their nations' best interests were best served by keeping the affairs of other countries at a distance. One possible motivation for limiting international involvement is to avoid being drawn into dangerous and otherwise undesirable conflicts. In the U.S in the 1930's there was a strong Isolationist movement, represented by the "America First" organization, to avoid being drawn into a European conflict (like World War I).

appeasement

is a diplomatic policy of making political or material concessions to an enemy power in order to avoid conflict. The term is most often applied to the foreign policy of the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain towards Nazi Germany between 1937 and 1939.The Munich Pact , which dismembered Czechoslovakia (which Britain and France had a treaty obligation to defend) and gave it to the Nazis, concluded on 30 September 1938 among Germany, Britain, France, and Italy, prompted Chamberlain to announce that he had secured "peace for our time. Churchill, prophetically replied to Chamberlain's "Peace in Our Time" pronouncement by saying Chamberlain had been given a choice between War and Dishonor he had chosen Dishonor and would get War too.

War Powers Act

is a federal law intended to check the president's power to commit the United States to an armed conflict without the consent of the U.S. Congress. The resolution was adopted in the form of a United States Congress joint resolution; this provides that the U.S. President can send U.S. Armed Forces into action abroad only by declaration of war by Congress, "statutory authorization," or in case of "a national emergency created by attack upon the United States, its territories or possessions, or its armed forces." The War Powers Resolution requires the President to notify Congress within 48 hours of committing armed forces to military action and forbids armed forces from remaining for more than 60 days, with a further 30 day withdrawal period, without an authorization of the use of military force or a declaration of war. The resolution was passed by two thirds of Congress, overriding a presidential veto. Whether this law is constitutional has never been tested in the courts.

Tennessee Valley Authority

is a federally owned corporation in the United States created by congressional charter in May 1933 to provide navigation, flood control, electricity generation, fertilizer manufacturing, and economic development in the Tennessee Valley, a region particularly affected by the Great Depression. TVA's service area covers most of Tennessee, portions of Alabama, Mississippi, and Kentucky, and small slices of Georgia, North Carolina, and Virginia.

Wagner Act

is a foundational statute of US labor law which guarantees basic rights of private sector employees to organize into trade unions, engage in collective bargaining for better terms and conditions at work, and take collective action including strike if necessary. The act also created the National Labor Relations Board, which conducts elections that can require employers to engage in collective bargaining with labor unions.

Voting Rights Act

is a landmark piece of federal legislation in the United States that prohibits racial discrimination in voting. It was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson during the height of the American Civil Rights Movement in 1965, and Congress later amended the Act five times to expand its protections. Designed to enforce the voting rights guaranteed by the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution, the Act resulted in the mass enfranchisement of racial minorities throughout the country, especially in the South.

affirmative action

is a policy of favoring one race, ethnic or gender group over others in such things as employment, government contracting and college admissions as a way of "making up" for past discrimination against those groups that left them disadvantaged. It has become increasingly controversial as time elapses since the era of de jure discrimination (before 1964) and more exotic or complicated justifications are used to support it. Opponents call it "reverse discrimination." Although strict racial quotas are not allowed in things like college admissions, colleges can use race, ethnicity and gender as a "factor" in admission decisions as long as it is only one of many factors and not a rigid set aside of specific seats. The amount of "favoring" allowed is still being contested in the courts as state legislatures pass laws banning it altogether.

totalitarianism

is a political system in which the state holds total authority over the society and seeks to control all aspects of public and private life wherever possible.[

recall

is a procedure by which voters can remove an elected official from office through a direct vote before his or her term has ended

Roosevelt coalition

is an American political term that refers to the alignment of interest groups and voting blocs that supported the New Deal and voted for Democratic presidential candidates from 1932 until the late 1960s. It made the Democratic Party the majority party during that period, losing only to Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952 and 1956. Franklin D. Roosevelt forged a coalition that included banking and oil industries, the Democratic state party organizations, city machines, labor unions, blue collar workers, minorities (racial, ethnic and religious), farmers, white Southerners, people on relief, and intellectuals.

Securities and Exchange Commission

is an agency of the United States federal government. It holds primary responsibility for enforcing the federal securities laws (stocks and bonds), proposing securities rules, and regulating the securities industry, the nation's stock and options exchanges, and other activities and organizations, including the electronic securities markets in the United States.

National Labor Relations Board

is an independent agency of the United States government charged with conducting elections for labor union representation and with investigating and remedying unfair labor practices. Unfair labor practices may involve union-related situations or instances of protected concerted activity.

Ku Klux Klan

is the name of three distinct movements in the United States. The first began violence against African Americans in the South during the Reconstruction Era of the 1860s, and was disbanded by 1869.[3] The second was a very large, controversial, nationwide organization in the 1920s. The current manifestation consists of numerous small unconnected groups that use the KKK name. In 1915, the second Klan was founded in Atlanta, Georgia. Starting in 1921, it adopted a modern business system of recruiting (which paid most of the initiation fee and costume charges as commissions to the organizers) and grew rapidly nationwide at a time of prosperity. Reflecting the social tensions of urban industrialization and vastly increased immigration, its membership grew most rapidly in cities, and spread out of the South to the Midwest and West. The second KKK preached "One Hundred Percent Americanism" and demanded the purification of politics, calling for strict morality and better enforcement of prohibition. Its official rhetoric focused on the threat of the Catholic Church, using anti-Catholicism and nativism.[18] Its appeal was directed exclusively at white Protestants.[19] Some local groups took part in attacks on private houses and carried out other violent activities. The violent episodes were generally in the South.[20] The second Klan was a formal fraternal organization, with a national and state structure. At its peak in the mid-1920s, the organization claimed to include about 15% of the nation's eligible population, approximately 4-5 million men. Internal divisions, criminal behavior by leaders, and external opposition brought about a collapse in membership, which had dropped to about 30,000 by 1930.

nativist

is the political position of demanding a favored status for certain established inhabitants of a nation as compared to claims of newcomers or immigrants.[1] Nativism typically means opposition to immigration, and support of efforts to lower the political or legal status of specific ethnic or cultural groups who are considered hostile or alien to the natural culture, upon the assumption that they cannot be assimilated. In the early 1920's, fear of the continuing influx of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe (fear of anarchism and communism) led to the passage of strict quotas limiting immigration of these groups to a small percentage of their existing population.

red scare

is the promotion of fear of a potential rise of communism or radical leftism, used by anti-leftist proponents. In the United States, the First Red Scare was about worker (socialist) revolution and political radicalism. The Second Red Scare was focused on national and foreign communists influencing society, infiltrating the federal government, or both. The first Red Scare began following the Bolshevik Russian Revolution of 1917 and the intensely patriotic years of World War I as anarchist and left-wing social agitation aggravated national, social, and political tensions. Political scientist, and former member of the Communist Party, Murray B. Levin wrote that the Red Scare was "a nation-wide anti-radical hysteria provoked by a mounting fear and anxiety that a Bolshevik revolution in America was imminent—a revolution that would change Church, home, marriage, civility, and the American way of Life."[1] Newspapers exacerbated those political fears into xenophobia—because varieties of radical anarchism were becoming popular as possible solutions to poverty, often by recent European immigrants. When the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) backed several labor strikes in 1916 and 1917, the press portrayed them as "radical threats to American society" inspired by "left-wing,foreign agents provocateur." In April 1919, authorities discovered a plot for mailing 36 bombs to prominent members of the U.S. political and economic establishment: J. P. Morgan, John D. Rockefeller, Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, U.S. Attorney General Alexander Mitchell Palmer, and immigration officials. On June 2, 1919, in eight cities, eight bombs simultaneously exploded. One target was the Washington, D.C., house of U.S. Attorney General Palmer, where the explosion killed the bomber, who evidence indicated was an Italian-American radical from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Afterwards, Palmer ordered the U.S. Justice Department to launch the Palmer Raids (1919-21)

War on Poverty

is the unofficial name for legislation first introduced by United States President Lyndon B. Johnson during his State of the Union address on January 8, 1964. This legislation was proposed by Johnson in response to a national poverty rate of around nineteen percent. The speech led the United States Congress to pass the Economic Opportunity Act, which established the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) to administer the local application of federal funds targeted against poverty.As a part of the Great Society, Johnson believed in expanding the federal government's roles in education and health care as poverty reduction strategies. These policies can also be seen as a continuation of Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal, which ran from 1933 to 1935, and the Four Freedoms of 1941. The legacy of the War on Poverty policy initiative remains in the continued existence of such federal programs as Head Start, Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA), and Job Corps.

Keynesianism

is the view that in the short run, especially during recessions, economic output is strongly influenced by aggregate demand (total spending in the economy). When consumption drops during a recession or depression, the theory says government should step in and spend, even if they have to borrow the funds (deficit spending) to make up for the drop in aggregate demand. This is supposed to be a temporary measure that should last only until the economy recovers and aggregate demand by consumption is restored. However, in practice, governments have gotten addicted to deficit spending, providing programs and benefits without taxing sufficiently to pay for them.

Workingmen's Compensation Act

it established compensation to federal civil service employees for wages lost due to job-related injuries. This act became the precedent for "disability insurance" across the country and the precursor to broad-coverage health insurance. President Woodrow Wilson signed it into law on September 7, 1916.

Hiroshima

known as the first city in history to be targeted by a nuclear weapon when the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) dropped an atomic bomb on it at 8:15 a.m. on August 6, 1945. On Monday, August 6, 1945, at 8:15 a.m., the nuclear bomb "Little Boy" was dropped on Hiroshima by an American B-29 bomber, the Enola Gay, flown by Colonel Paul Tibbets,[15] directly killing an estimated 80,000 people. By the end of the year, injury and radiation brought the total number of deaths to 90,000-166,000.[16] The population before the bombing was around 340,000 to 350,000. Approximately 70% of the city's buildings were destroyed, and another 7% severely damaged. This shock of this attack, together with the destruction of Nagasaki a few days letter, is credited with convincing the Japanese to surrender, thereby saving many American and Japanese lives.

Sherman Antitrust Act

landmark federal statute in the history of United States antitrust law (or "competition law") passed by Congress in 1890. It prohibits certain business activities that federal government regulators deem to be anti-competitive, and requires the federal government to investigate and pursue trusts.It has since, more broadly, been used to oppose the combination of entities that could potentially harm competition, such as monopolies or cartels

Chief Joseph

leader of the Wal-lam-wat-kain (Wallowa) band of Nez Perce, a Native American tribe indigenous to the Wallowa Valley in northeastern Oregon, in the interior Pacific Northwest region of the United States.He led his band during the most tumultuous period in their contemporary history when they were forcibly removed from their ancestral lands in the Wallowa Valley by the United States federal government and forced to move northeast, onto the significantly reduced reservation in Lapwai, Idaho Territory. A series of events that culminated in episodes of violence led those Nez Perce who resisted removal including Joseph's band and an allied band of the Palouse tribe to take flight to attempt to reach political asylum, ultimately with the Lakota chief Sitting Bull in Canada

talented tenth

leadership class of African Americans in the early 20th century. The term was created by Northern philanthropists, then publicized by W. E. B. Du Bois

writ of "habeas corpus"

legal protection against unlawful imprisonment, a writ ordering a prisoner to be brought before a judge

James B. Weaver

member of the United States House of Representatives and two-time candidate for President of the United States, Republican, advocated for farmers and laborers

mosquito fleet

name for the navy of jefferson's presidency. Trying to avoid a overly-strong army, he had the navy dwindled down to a few tiny boats. (War of 1812)

Pullman Strike

nationwide railroad strike in the United States in the summer of 1894. It pitted the American Railway Union (ARU) against the Pullman Company, the main railroads, and the federal government of the United States under President Grover Cleveland. The strike and boycott shut down much of the nation's freight and passenger traffic west of Detroit, Michigan. The conflict began in Pullman, Chicago, on May 11 when nearly 4,000 factory employees of the Pullman Company began a wildcat strike in response to recent reductions in wages.

USS Maine

navy ship sent to Havana, Cuba to protect american interests in the Cuban independence, exploded while there, many believe the Spaniards blew it up, but no one really knows the cause of the accident, gave the Americans an excuse to go to war against spain

Huey Long

nicknamed The Kingfish, was an American politician who served as the 40th Governor of Louisiana from 1928 to 1932 and as a member of the United States Senate from 1932 until his assassination in 1935. A Democrat, he was an outspoken populist who denounced the rich and the banks and called for "Share the Wealth." As the political boss of the state he commanded wide networks of supporters and was willing to take forceful action. Long is best known for his Share Our Wealth program, created in 1934 under the motto "Every Man a King." It proposed new wealth redistribution measures in the form of a net asset tax on corporations and individuals to curb the poverty and homelessness endemic nationwide during the Great Depression. To stimulate the economy, Long advocated federal spending on public works, schools and colleges, and old age pensions. He was an ardent critic of the policies of the Federal Reserve System. A supporter of Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1932 presidential election, Long split with Roosevelt in June 1933 to plan his own presidential bid for 1936 in alliance with the influential Catholic priest and radio commentator Charles Coughlin. Long was assassinated in 1935 and his national movement soon faded.

The Jungle

novel written by the American journalist and novelist Upton Sinclair (1878-1968).Sinclair wrote the novel to portray the harsh conditions and exploited lives of immigrants in the United States in Chicago and similar industrialized cities.[2] However, most readers were more concerned with his exposure of health violations and unsanitary practices in the American meatpacking industry during the early 20th century, based on an investigation he did for a socialist newspaper

Anti-Imperialist League

organization established on June 15, 1898, to battle the American annexation of the Philippines as an insular area. The anti-imperialists opposed expansion, believing that imperialism violated the fundamental principle that just republican government must derive from "consent of the governed." Rather than opposing American territorial expansion on economic or humanitarian grounds, the League argued that such activity would necessitate the abandonment of American ideals of self-government and non-intervention

jingoism

patriotism in the form of aggressive foreign policy.[1] Jingoism also refers to a country's advocacy for the use of threats or actual force, as opposed to peaceful relations, in efforts to safeguard what it perceives as its national interests. Colloquially, it refers to excessive bias in judging one's own country as superior to others

Jane Addams

pioneer American settlement social worker, public philosopher, sociologist, author, and leader in women's suffrage and world peace. In an era when presidents such as Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson identified themselves as reformers and social activists, Addams was one of the most prominent reformers of the Progressive Era. She helped turn America to issues of concern to mothers, such as the needs of children, local public health, and world peace. She said that if women were to be responsible for cleaning up their communities and making them better places to live, they needed to be able to vote to do so effectively. Addams became a role model for middle-class women who volunteered to uplift their communities

company town

place where practically all stores and housing are owned by the one company that is the only employer who sets the prices for goods in those stores.

Teller Amendment

placed a condition on the United States military's presence in Cuba. According to the clause, the U.S. could not annex Cuba but only leave "control of the island to its people." In short, the U.S. would help Cuba gain independence and then withdraw all its troops from the country

imperialism

policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, use of military force, or other means".

anarchism

political philosophy that advocates stateless societies often defined as self-governed voluntary institutions,but that several authors have defined as more specific institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations. Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, or harmful. Early anarchists advocated violent means for overthrowing governments and commonly sought to assassinate political figures or sow terror and confusion with bomb attacks in public places.

nativism

political position of demanding a favored status for certain established inhabitants of a nation as compared to claims of newcomers or immigrants. Nativism typically means opposition to immigration, and support of efforts to lower the political or legal status of specific ethnic or cultural groups who are considered hostile or alien to the natural culture, upon the assumption that they cannot be assimilated

Great White Fleet

popular nickname for the United States Navy battle fleet that completed a circumnavigation of the globe from December 16, 1907 to February 22, 1909 by order of U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt.

John Hay

private secretary and assistant to Abraham Lincoln, Hay's highest office was United States Secretary of State under Presidents William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt. Hay was also an author and biographer, and wrote poetry and other literature throughout much of his life

Nineteenth Amendment

prohibits any United States citizen from being denied the right to vote on the basis of sex. It was ratified on August 18, 1920. The Constitution allows the states to determine the qualifications of voters, subject to limitations imposed by later amendments. Until the 1910s, most states disenfranchised women. The amendment was the culmination of the women's suffrage movement in the United States, which fought at both state and national levels to achieve the vote.

Twenty Fourth Amendment

prohibits both Congress and the states from conditioning the right to vote in federal elections on payment of a poll tax or other types of tax. The amendment was proposed by Congress to the states in 1962, and was ratified by the states in 1964. Southern states of the former Confederacy adopted poll taxes in laws of the late 19th century and new constitutions from 1890 to 1908, after the Democratic Party had generally regained control of state legislatures decades after the end of Reconstruction, as a measure to prevent African Americans and often poor whites from voting.

Geronimo

prominent leader of the Bedonkohe Apache who fought against Mexico and Texas for their expansion into Apache tribal lands for several decades during the Apache Wars

Jim Crow laws

racial segregation state and local laws enacted after the Reconstruction period in Southern United States that continued in force until 1965 mandating de jure racial segregation in all public facilities in Southern U.S. states (of the former Confederacy), starting in 1890 with a "separate but equal" status for African Americans. Conditions for African Americans were consistently inferior and underfunded compared to those provided for white Americans. This decision institutionalized a number of economic, educational and social disadvantages. De jure segregation mainly applied to the Southern United States, while Northern segregation was generally de facto — patterns of segregation in housing enforced by covenants, bank lending practices and job discrimination, including discriminatory union practices for decades

U—boat

refers specifically to military submarines operated by Germany, particularly in the First and Second world wars. Although at times they were efficient fleet weapons against enemy naval warships, they were most effectively used in an economic warfare role (commerce raiding), enforcing a naval blockade against enemy shipping. The primary targets of the U-boat campaigns in both wars were the merchant convoys bringing supplies from Canada, the British Empire, and the United States to the islands of the United Kingdom.

interlocking directorate

refers to the practice of members of a corporate board of directors (who represent the corporate owners which are the stockholders) serving on the boards of multiple corporations. A person that sits on multiple boards is known as a multiple director. Two firms have a direct interlock if a director or executive of one firm is also a director of the other, and an indirect interlock if a director of each sits on the board of a third firm. This practice, although widespread and lawful, raises questions about the quality and independence of board decisions.

Hard/Sound Money

refers to the use of a precious metal like gold or silver as coin money or as a backing for paper money (can always receive gold or silver in exchange for the paper dollars). Opposite of that is "Fiat Money," which takes its value from government "fiat" or order. Current U.S. paper money is "Fiat Money." In late 1800s, Hard Money or Sound Money usually meant dollars backed by gold.

"no taxation without representation"

reflected the colonists' belief that they should not be taxed because they had no direct representatives in Parliament

Muckrakers

reform-minded journalists who wrote largely for all popular magazines and continued a tradition of investigative journalism reporting; muckrakers often worked to expose social ills and corporate and political corruption

Credit Mobilier

scandal in 1872 while Grant running for re-election; Credit Mobilier was a construction company that used bribery of politicians to win contracts for building the eastern half of the transcontinental railroad. Involved Grant's first term VP Colfax and second term VP Wilson. One of several scandals during Grant administration that made people lose faith in their government.

Chiang's predecessor, Sun Yat

sen, was well-liked and respected by the Communists, but after Sun's death Chiang was not able to maintain good relations with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). A major split between the Nationalists and Communists occurred in 1927; and, under Chiang's leadership, the Nationalists fought a nationwide civil war against the Communists. After Japan invaded China in 1937, Chiang agreed to a temporary truce with the CCP. Despite some early cooperative military successes against Japan, by the time that the Japanese surrendered in 1945 neither the CCP nor the KMT trusted each other nor were actively cooperating.

insular cases

series of opinions by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1901 about the status of U.S. territories acquired in the Spanish-American War. The Supreme Court held that full constitutional rights do not automatically extend to all places under American control

Hull House

settlement house in the United States that was co-founded in 1889 by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr. Located in the Near West Side of Chicago, Illinois, Hull House (named for the home's first owner) opened its doors to recently arrived European immigrants. With its innovative social, educational, and artistic programs, Hull House became the standard bearer for the movement that had grown, by 1920, to almost 500 settlement houses nationally

Apache

several culturally related groups of Native Americans in the United States originally from the Southwestern United States

Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai

shek) - was a Chinese political and military leader who served as the leader of the Republic of China between 1928 and 1975. Chiang was an influential member of the Kuomintang (KMT), the Chinese Nationalist Party, and was a close ally of Sun Yat-sen. He took Sun's place as leader of the KMT when Sun died in 1925. In 1926, Chiang led the Northern Expedition to unify the country, becoming China's nominal leader. He served as Chairman of the National Military Council of the Nationalist government of the Republic of China (ROC) from 1928 to 1948. Chiang led China in the Second Sino-Japanese War (the Chinese theater of World War II), consolidating power from the party's former regional warlords. Unlike Sun Yat-sen, Chiang Kai-shek was socially conservative, promoting traditional Chinese culture in the New Life Movement and rejecting western democracy and the nationalist democratic socialism that Sun embraced in favour of an authoritarian government.

After American

sponsored attempts to negotiate a coalition government failed in 1946, the Chinese Civil War resumed. The CCP defeated the Nationalists in 1949, with Chaing Kai-Shek withdrawing to Taiwan under the protective cover of the U.S. Navy who protected Taiwan from Communist Chinese assault for decades afterwards.

Self - Determination

states that nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and fair equality of opportunity have the right to freely choose their sovereignty and international political status with no external compulsion or interference. It was one of the major points in Wilson's Fourteen Points. "National aspirations must be respected; people may now be dominated and governed only by their own consent. Self determination is not a mere phrase; it is an imperative principle of action. . . . " —Woodrow Wilson with his famous self-determination speech on 11 February 1918, after he announced his Fourteen Points on 8 January 1918.

horizontal integration (trust)

strategy where a company creates or acquires production units for outputs which are alike - either complementary or competitive. One example would be when a company acquires competitors in the same industry doing the same stage of production for the creation of a monopoly. Another example is the management of a group of products which are alike, yet at different price points, complexities, and qualities. This strategy may reduce competition and increase market share by using economies of scale. Standard Oil buying up all of the other oil refiners is a good example.