Archaeology Unit 1

3 major paradigm shifts in archaeology

(1) Culture history: first half of 20th century (2) New or procession archaeology: 1960s (3) Post-procession archaeology: 1980s (4) Processual-plus: today

Stages of research

1) Research and design—come up with a question; refine problem, hypothesis, methods 2) Get funding When you design research and decide what you want to do you have to figure out how to get the money 3) Survey—understand the place you are working 4) Excavations—targeted exposures of the ancient past based on questions 5) Analysis and interpretations—what did we find? 6) Share—publications, presentations, reports; refine and shape study, regroup

European Renaissance

14th-17th century "Rediscovery" of the ancient Greeks and Romans Antiquarians

John Frere

1797 Identified stratified layers below extinct animals. Discovered that humans must have been there before these old animals because there were human things below that. Still, they did not have a full understanding of evolution. Jacques Bouther de Perthes (1847) continued Frere's research

Christian Juergensen Thomsen

1820s 1836 Guide to Northern Antiquity 3-age system: Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age Foundational model for European prehistory Formalizes classification categories First to order artifacts chronologically, based on context of finds

Uniformitarianism

18th -19th century James Hutton and Lyell Process of the earth have been constantly changing through things like erosion and weather takes it's modern shape Geologically ancient conditions are uniform with our present time The same geological processes observed in present have been at work in the past—uniform processes "Theory of the Earth" These processes are so slow, that the formations on Earth must be very ancient

Stratification

18th and 19th centuries Layering of matrices and feature; sequence of strata from bottom to top reflects the order of deposition from earliest to latest (sequence of strata, not artifacts)

Stratigraphy

18th and 19th centuries Sub-surface layers produce ordered groups of fossils Newer --> older Interpretation: archaeological evaluation of temporal and functional meaning of the observed strata

Provenience

3D location within matrix Position of a piece or group of data in time (vertical) and space (horizontal) and its relation to other data In the grid system, earth left between dug up squares allow archaeologists to compare exact origin of found object to nearby layers of earth Where exactly are the bones located within the test pit within the site

What is the problem with studying history alone?

A lot of cultures did not have writing and a lot of times it can be subjective. The overwhelming majority of history is written by adult men with power. Slaves throughout the world do not have a voice at all in historical documents and they are often seen as lesser people. As a result, there are some things we will never be able to know

Subsurface detection

A method of surveying Tiny excavation just to see if there is stuff there Augers, cores, shovel test pits (STP) (one by one) Guide to future excavation Patterning

Site

A spatial cluster of artifacts, eco facts, and features; also: a place where human activity took place I.e. Masada, Israel, Tikal, Guatemala Just because there are remains does not mean that human activity for sure took place there

Archbishop James Ussher of Armagh

AD 1581-1656 Creationism; said that Earth was created in 4004 BC "Calculated" the age of Earth based on the bible, written genealogies, and other sources Important because he set a specific date about how old the earth is, so humans cannot be older than this old. Scientific research had not surpassed religious thought.

The Pristine Myth: The Landscape of the Americas in 1492 by Denevan

Aerial surveys of the Amazon and took incredibly detailed photos. Saw thousands of ancient agricultural fields. Indigenous societies were in actuality changing the landscape for a long time. The idea of a pristine amazon is a myth. Pristine myth is the modern day belief that the Americas were pristine prior to Europeans arriving

Types of systematic survey

Aerial, subsurface, surface

Hesiod's 5 stages of Greek Mythology

Age of gold Age of silver Age of bronze Age of epic heroes Age of iron

Analogy

An analogy notes similarities between two entities and inferring from that similarity that an additional attribute of one is also true of the other An analogy is a form of reasoning where the unknown can be identified from the known. The more characteristics that are similar you have the better, and if you have differences if you can explain them it still works The archaeological object is characterized by attributes A, B, C, and D --> the analogy is characterized by attributes A, B, C, and D and has the function of property E --> Therefore, the archaeological object also has the same function or property E The use of analogy is one way to reconstruct the past. Its utility is limited to those societies that have very close cultural and geographic counterparts, or to relatively low-level inferences

Culture

An integrated system of beliefs, traditions, and customs that govern or influence a person's behavior. Culture is learned, shared by members of a group, and based on the ability to think in terms of symbols

The Golden Marshalltown by Kent Flannery

An ironic and sarcastic article The person that deserves the award is doing it not for the prestige, but for true learning The highest scientific award you can get in Guatemala Humans tread on, interact with, and alter the environment Archaeology is based on the study of humans, their places, and their things What is it that we find and how do we interpret what we find?

Archaeological inquiry

Archaeology addresses anthropological questions Anthropological archaeology follows the scientific method; question --> hypothesis research design --> analyze results --> hypothesis true or false? --> next question Use anthropology and science

Classes of archaeological data

Artifacts, features, ecofacts

High-level theory

Asking how and why—but not necessarily just from the data Asking bigger questions about entire societies—not just one site or group of people; looking at entire regions The ultimate goal; to explain the workings of human life and how society is specifically Always starts with "why" Ex: why did these people decide which pots were more important than others? why did they use a specific type of clay?

Time descriptions in archaeology

BC is "before Christ", goes after the year AD is "anno Domini", or in the year of the Lord, goes before the year Order: 2BC, 1BC, 0BC, AD1, AD2 BCE is "before common era" and goes after (500 BCE) CE is "the common era" and goes before the year

Site formation processes (how sites form)

Behavioral and transformational

Aerial survey

Bird's eye view Used to see things like burial mounds reflects a more accurate picture of the ground Satellite imaging LiDAR

Surveying

Can be done intentionally through scientific survey (i.e. full coverage: take a specific set of geographic coordinates and walk through that entire area to see if anything can be found), can happen accidentally, or through construction projects (i.e. Layers of volcanic ash in El Salvador covered this city and preserved a site very well discovered in the 1970s through a construction project)

Principles of evolution of the 19th century

Change takes place over a long period of time An ancient Earth, plus slow change, points to great antiquity of the human species—but how old? People go back to their environment in different ways because they want to. Cultural adaptations of people in different environments living in completely different was. Humanity's adaptations are both physical and cultural

Two types of archaeology

Classical and anthropological

Transformational processes

Conditions and events that affect archaeological data from the time of deposition to the time of recovery Transformation can be human depending on what you are looking at, but it is still transformational in relationship to another layer (i.e. finding stuff from Native America and later stuff as well) Things that happen after deposition Natural (erosion, earthquake, buried sphinx example) Cultural process (human transformation-- burning monuments, building on top of sites, etc.)

Grand Challenges for Archaeology article (Kintigh)

Conducted an overall study to put together a running list of the most important challenges in archaeology in the upcoming years Conflict is almost always something that happens because someone will want to change things The Anthropocene: the geological epic of when humans start making the most changes on earth --> when did humans really start effecting the environment? Combination of environmental factors with socio-political factors

Creationism and catastrophism

Creationism: The belief that the universe and living organisms originate from specific acts of divine creation, as in the biblical account, rather than by natural processes such as evolution; God created a perfect world, exactly as we see it Catastrophists: earth changed radically since creation through major events like Noah's flood (first time interest in studying natural processes of earth) Volcanic eruptions: how do we explain these layers of the earth?

Garbology article, William Rathje

Cultural versus scientific aspect. Looking at garbage - excavate landfills to learn about what we throw away/what's happening to it in the ground What they did was very archaeological—they just went to the cite and dug The study of modern refuse and trash as well as the use of trash cans, compactors and various types of trash can liners Do you ever think about the things that you throw away? Looking at affluent versus areas of poverty Even during a shortage, people are still throwing away food. You get into the realities of what people do versus what they say

Scientific advances in archaeology

Development of excavation techniques Multidisciplinary approaches—constantly working with people in other professions Scientific methods Refinement of archaeological theory—theory is incredibly important. Has gotten more advanced

Anthropology vs. history

Differ breadth, approach, and technique History is exclusively the study of written documents Archaeology focuses on all material cultures. Archaeology adds to history.

What impacts the preservation of artifacts?

Different materials preserve differently Soil acidity can tear away metals more quickly than ceramic and stone

(1) Culture history: first half of 20th century

Each society should be studied with regard to its own history and conditions Tylor's idea of Unilineal evolution Paradigm following Darwin/ Tylor/ Franz Boaz Franz Boaz rejected Unilineal evolution and basically said all societies have the same length of history regardless of where they are --> Unilineal started disappearing after Franz Boaz Based on a description of the archaeological record and the ordering of past events in time and space Emphasis is WHAT, WHEN, and WHERE events took place in the past

Themes of post-processual archaeology

Feminist archaeology: man the hunter versus women the gatherer—we think of it that way, but there is actually not a lot of evidence that people back then organized their lives this way Marxist archaeology Objects as symbols: a Lamborghini --> why would someone buy it? It is not just a function—it represents a lifestyle

Surface survey

Field walking (can be unsystematic or systematic) Total Data Station (TDS) -- used to create maps of topography, lasers used to measure height, distance, GPS location of land (noninvasive)

(3) Post-processual archaeology: 1980s

Focuses on humanistic approaches and rejects scientific objectivity Material culture is not merely a reflection of ecological adaptation or social organization but also an active element in group relations that can be used to reflect OR disguise social relation. Rejects universal laws, emphasizes role of individual, active models of culture, ideational perspective - focus on symbols and ideas not just functions, truth is subjective, all archaeology is political Set of critiques focused answering questions like, "what is missing" Not just what what is built, but how we build it Look at all voices (not just dead white guys, kings), women too Ian Hodder Ideational perspective --> symbols and ideas, not just functions Knowledge is historically situated --> truth is subjective, archaeologists biases All archaeology is political --> plays a large part in individual agency: the person with control over the environment versus the person reacting to changes in the environment The scientific method itself can be very biased—you have to get into the mind of the person in order to fully understand

Types of analogies

Formal and relational

Patty Jo Watson

Founded archaeology at WashU Famously reconstructed ancient peoples' diets by analyzing paleo feces Used as many scientific methods possible to get answers about culture Important processual archaeologist Uses an adaptive approach

Context

Fundamental to interpretation Need to know where you found something in space and time Primary or secondary Interpretation of matrix, provenience and association

What is important to note about sites?

Geographic location Function Why does the site exist here? What is its purpose (i.e. religious)? Was it a ceremonial center, an ancient farming site, a port? Cultural affiliation Chronological affiliation Can you tell based on the site what time period it dates to?

(2) New or Processual archaeology: 1960s

Goal: to explain changes in archaeological cultures in terms of cultural processes. How cultures change over time - group agency rather than individual, seeks universal laws, views culture as a system, adaptive approach, scientific, objective, and disconnected from the present Lewis Binford's New Archaeology: said needed to be more scientific with how archaeology is conducted- looked at processes and how they can be compared across cultures. Scientific, objective, disconnected from the present. Cultural processes approach: how cultures change over time Said that we need hypothesis-driven research Culture history necessary, but only as a means to an end Understanding societies as systems with individual components, each of which could generate change; culture as a system: they make it very scientific and use cross-cultural comparisons. Makes it more rigorous. Processes can be compared across societies, but need interpreting within specific context Theories

Cyrus Thomas (1825-1910)

Government financed research Published report in 1894 Aimed to find evidence of indigenous mound-builders After colonial contact, people wanted to know the origins of Native Americans. As Westward Expansion continued, they found ancient mounds --> concluded mounds were built by Native Americans Archaeology as politics When Thomas began his investigations into the origins of the mound builders, he was under the impression that the mounds were made by a more advanced race that no longer existed. Although he did not do field work, he mapped out a plan of action for the mound excavations, and presented 12 years of work. By the end of his research into the origin of the mound builders, Thomas dismissed each argument advanced in favor of the vanished race theory. His hypothesis was that "the Cherokee constructed many earthen mounds"; the evidence being that "the stone represented characters of Cherokee syllabary

Excavation methods directions

Horizontal and vertical

Case study: Caracol Belize

How you can use stratigraphy to look at something really important and cool in archaeology Charcoal face caches: a face cache is something that is purposefully placed—a ceremonial object; found with burials; you find a lot of these in Caracol They found all of these different face caches and drew the stratigraphy profile. Then, they compared these face caches to other types of ceramics which they knew the date for (they looked at the ceramics around it to determine association). They combined the ceramics with the face caches themselves and they were able to create a chart of when each type of face cache was placed there Figuring out the temporal aspect of time and space

Behavioral processes

Human activities that produce tangible archaeological remains; things that go in the landscape as a result of human behavior When you are digging and find something that is not natural and was human created Acquisition, manufacture, use, deposition

Ideational perspective

Human behavior is shaped by ideas, symbols, and mental structures

Adaptive perspective

Human behavior is shaped by technology, ecology, demography, and economy

Marxist archaeology

Human centered, focused on class formation and hierarchies Colorado Coal Mine example fits here --> those archaeologists are marxist archaeologists because have a political agenda too

Unilinear evolution

Human societies progress through distinct stages (toward civilization) Sir Edward Burnett Tylor Change is internal brought on by changes in technology Change is consistent and similar, so as to be comparable across cultures An incorrect theory that evolution followed one distinct path - comes from Darwinian thought of evolution Humbler societies are seen as family based and more savage and is on the lower end of the spectrum Savagery -> Barbarism -> Civilization Bow and Arrow -> Domestication -> Writing Animism -> Polytheism -> Monotheism NOT CORRECT

Mid-level theory

Hypothesis that link archaeological observations with human behavior of natural processes that produced them and testing the hypothesis Where interpretation happens Moves past observable to invisible, or relevant, human behaviors or natural processes of the past Behavior from data (ethnoarchaeology, experimental archaeology) I.e. flint mapping: trying to makes stone tools in a way that people would have in the past Ex. does art on it point to culture?, what food was in it? how many pots are there? Critical to the development of middle-range theory is the principle of uniformitarianism. This principle is what allows confidence in middle-range theory's ability to infer natural processes or human behavior from archaeological remain

Secondary context

It has been disturbed after deposition by human or natural activity Have changed provenience and association

Four field approach to anthropology

Linguistics Cultural anthropology Physical anthropology Archaeology

Horizontal excavation

Looking for broad patterns across the landscape Uncovering as much as you can about the surrounding area Ppens large area of particular layer synchronic (single snapshot of a particular time) Shows differences in spatial distribution of artifacts

Vertical excavation

Looking for change through time Smaller area so you can dig really deep Stratigraphy—looking at things throughout time Focuses on sequence of layers and chronology of artifacts

(4) Processual-plus: today

Middle road between processual and post-processual Seeks patterns and generalities while setting theoretical egos aside—not trying to be too pompous and use too much jargon; current trend; recognition of value in both approaches, seeks patterns and generalities; i.e. Michelle Hegmon Unifying themes of processual-plus: •Past is engendered (and in a related note, lived in) •Agency (but best in structures) •The symbolic is everywhere •Social significance of material culture •Critical consideration of who owns the past •Scientific method •Critique: more transparency of theory needed and contribution to "general theory"

Natural versus arbitrary strata

Natural is following the natural stratigraphy, whereas arbitrary stratigraphy is when it is human-made Everyone does natural pretty much Dig until the matrix changes (natural stratum); dig until the provenience becomes too large to control reliably (arbitrary stratum)

Eco facts

Natural materials that acquire meaning through association with humans Influenced by humans, but not necessarily modified by humans Stone tools Bones Also portable objects that have some cultural significance, but they do not owe their form to humans Examples? Peach pits, hickory nutshell, wood charcoal, corn kernels Things that have cultural significance and were basically put together by humans, but it is due to biological processes (i.e. corn)

Sir Edward Burnett Tylor

One of the first people to come up with a definition for culture. Said that it is the "complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society" (1871) Culture is learned, it is not biological or genetic Had the idea of unilinear evolution

Bioturbation

Part of taphonomy Can be tree roots or things that disturb the soil Can cause stratigraphy to be unclear (i.e. around the tree roots looks different than the natural soil)

Matrix

Physical medium surrounding data The physical medium around the remains (like the soil and sediments—what is physically touching the object). For the most part, it is dirt. What is the color and texture of the soil? Can tell us where we are or what happened in the past.

Ancient Mayan origin story

Popol Vuh

Statistical sampling

Population Sample universe Random sample

Artifacts

Portable objects made/modified by humans Examples: pieces of a basket, stone tools, pieces of ceramic, paintings and murals A bone tool is still an artifact even though it is natural; its function is as an artifact

Ian Hodder

Post-processualist Cognitive archaeology (studied how people construct their world through things like religion, rituals, burials) Studying why some cultures eat a lot of pig and other do not Pig feast in Papua New Guinea because it is part of their religion, but also because they do not eat a lot of meat during the year and need to gorge themselves

Darwin

Principles of evolution Important in biology and the social sciences Book: On the Origin of Species --> beaks of the finches were a different size Evolution is the best explanation for origin and change of species Stated that descendants must have become better adjusted to their environment to survive; natural selection Biological evolution not directed (no "divine plan") but based on adaptation to environment Material culture is evaluated to understand how cultures are adapting

What are some of the major differences between processual and post-processual paradigms?

Processual is very scientific and there is a process to it—you have to follow a specific order and you have to do it correctly. Post-processual: not everything has to be done so precisely/ explained by science.

Jens Jacob Worsaae

Proved Thomsen's chronology was true, through careful excavation

Franz Boaz

Rejected Unilineal evolution and basically said all societies have the same length of history regardless of where they are --> Unilineal started disappearing after Franz Boaz Considered "Father of American Anthropology" Against social darwinism (savagery, barbarism, civilization) Each culture is unique and must be looked at differently Biology does not predetermine what level of society you are

Remote sensing

Remote sensing can detect things that the eyes can't see Methods: 1) Below surface sensing 2) Aerial remote sensing

Remote sensing versus invasive sensing

Remote sensing: systematic survey (satellites and LiDAR), magnetic survey, ground penetration radar, multispectral imagery (infrared, good for vegetation/soil) Invasive survey: Shovel testing, geochemical analysis (minimally invasive)

Lewis Binford's New Archaeology

Said needed to be more scientific with how archaeology is conducted- looked at processes and how they can be compared across cultures

What does Cobb (the once and future archaeology) say about Grand challenges?

Saying that Grand Challenges did not encompass everything that it should have and that it had a lot of biases Critiquing Grand Challenges as being too focused on the natural sciences—that they were trying to make archaeology seem more scientific to legitimize it more; glossing over the importance of studying history more

Sub-surface survey

Some remote-sensing techniques (geophysics): - magnetic survey- good for finding burned objects - ground penetrating radar- good for determining labor time and money, how deep something is - earth resistance- electrical current runs through the ground, good for finding structural features - Augers, cores, shovel test pits (STP) (one by one) - Guide to future excavation - Patterning

Features

Something that if you were to move it it would become something else completely; something that is not movable Non-portable, human-made remains that cannot be removed without destroying their original form I.e. a wall with wells I.e. two small rooms

Primary context

Something that was always there and was not moved by natural processes; undisturbed from original deposition In situ is undisturbed I.e. cemetery in Situ

What are criticisms you can imagine about each approach?

Sometimes you need to use the scientific method because there are patterns that exist. There is only so much you can do until the environment is what dictates. Processual (science doesn't prove everything), post-processual (limit to which it's true)

Association

Spatial relationship between data within matrix I.e. freshwater shell, faunal remains, kansyore ceramic

The role of archaeology in anthropology

Studies societies over time and material culture to understand similarities and differences

Shovel testing

Sub-surface Invasive testing done in a grid system (sampling strategy) when remote sensing is unavailable, portions of soil screened for artifacts

How do archaeologists find sites?

Surveying

Why does archaeology take so long?

Takes hours because they have to go through every layer of soil, which may each represent a different time period everything has to be really slow and painstaking

Body Ritual among the Nacirema by Miner (1950s)

The Nacirema are a North American group whose cultural hero is notgnihsaw. Their fundamental belief is that the human body is ugly and that its natural tendency is to debility and disease; man can avert these through ritual and ceremony. Their "shrine" is the bathroom. The medicine men are doctors and the vestal maidens are nurses. Anthropologists trying to correct misunderstandings of culture Talking about American society Shrines Holy mouth man The way you write things can depict a culture in a way that makes it seem foreign when it makes sense to them 1950s and suburban America

Anthropological anthropology

The comparative and global study of humankind Part of the four field approach in anthropology

Systems theory

The idea that culture is part of a system; culture is like a system, and if one thing changes, so do other things Multi-linear evolution in that if one thing changes, many things change

Material culture

The materials that we have—all of our stuff. Can be human created, human used, or human affected. Table: composition of the building faunal assemblage: shows whether or not slaves were treated well and if there are hierarchies within; images of materials

Low-level theory

The observations and interpretations that emerge from hands-on archaeological field and lab work Begins with archaeological objects and generates relevant facts or data about those objects Observations of objects; dating something, about quality How you collect and record materials to make date Ex: pot: colorful?, three pronged?, big?, small?

Antiquarians

The predecessors of modern archaeology Students of the past, speculators, collectors of artifacts and manuscripts --not a science Appreciation of art for the sake of collecting Art collectors and dealers Early humanists with more interest in studying humanity and human past. Corresponded with Renaissance Catastrophists: earth changed radically since creation through major events like Noah's flood (first time interest in studying natural processes of earth)

Taphonomy

The study of decay, the study of how organisms become part of the fossil record (geology), how natural processes contribute to the formation of archaeological sites (archaeology) The study of how natural processes help create the archaeological record is called taphonomy. Taphonomy helps to eliminate patterns that are the result of natural processes. Similarly, it helps define patterns that need to be interpreted in terms of human behavior. Taphonomy also helps archaeologists understand the environmental context of past human behavior. Ex: Hudsen Meng Bison bonebed - discovered how the body/skulls rot away) What happens after human activity in a certain place (post-depositional) The goal of archaeologists identifying taphonomy is to remove all patterns that are the result of natural processes and lending our understanding of what was human behavior and what was environmental context. Natural and human-made processes that affect archaeological data AFTER behavioral processes are completed (EX: Pompeii - covered in ashes, preserved the city; aridity and lack of oxygen helps to preserve bodies—extreme environments) (EX: human-made transformations: looting, construction, reuse) In archaeology, how natural processes produce patterning in archaeological data How did this get here in the first place? Is it natural? Sites are preserved in different ways depending on the environment Examples: Cahokia: does not look like that anymore because the preservation is different and plays a big impact on how a site looks today

Physical anthropology

The study of humans as biological organisms. Looks at human evolution (the study of bones and ancient DNA) and how organisms evolve. Also, the study of primatology (apes and monkeys)—our closest cousins. Primatology tries to use that information to help us with humans. Gives us insight into how early humans may have learned to use tools.

Linguistic anthropology

The study of languages and how they affect everyday life and politics. We now live in a political climate where social media is significant and we have to condense messages into few words. The shortening of a language is now how laws and things can take place

Archaeology

The study of the human past through systematic recovery and analysis of material remains

Cultural anthropology

The way of life—the way people live, their customs, traditions, and beliefs. Study cultures from all parts of the world. They do not always study native indigenous societies. As long as they use ethnography and looks at ways of life, it counts as cultural anthropology Ethnoarchaeology and ethnography

A.V. Kidder (1885-1963)

Used multidisciplinary approaches Stressed anthropological understanding Incorporated many lines of research Built a ceramic typology of the North American Southwest based on stratigraphy Also worked in Mesoamerica among ruins of the Ancient Maya Studied flood deposits in China and used relative dating

Classical archaeology

Very basic, they just describe the objects and do not try to understand ancient social systems

How does middle-level theory work?

We can understand the context of artifacts, that is the behavior that created the specific distribution of materials by using analogy --> only way to understand the past is to apply it to what we know now)

Uniformitarianism

Where middle-level theory is based on; Lyell and Hutton (18th century) It is the assumption that the same natural laws and processes that operate in the universe now have always operated in the universe in the past and apply everywhere in the uniform; the same things that happened in the past are happening today Critical to the development of middle-range theory is the principle of uniformitarianism. This principle is what allows confidence in middle-range theory's ability to infer natural processes or human behavior from archaeological remain

Scientific method

question --> hypothesis --> research design --> analyze results --> hypothesis true or false? --> next question