ARCHST-4440-01

0.5 Ladderback chair with rush seat, eighteenth century.

In this example of an American ladderback chair round uprights are connected by five arched back slats. The turned round front legs are connected by a "bobbin-turned" stretcher, while two plain stretchers connect front legs on both sides. The seat is of woven rush.

9.20 (far left) John Vanbrugh, the saloon, Blenheim Palace, Oxford, England, 1705-24.

In this room, the stone detail of doorways merges into the simulated architecture of wall painting that is filled with columns, pilasters, views of an imagined outdoors, and sculptural figures. The elegant furniture seems overwhelmed by the space and its decoration.

9.14 Christopher Wren, St. Stephen Walbrook, London, 1672-9.

In this small London church, Wren developed a scheme based on a geometric progression from rectangle, to square, to Greek cross, to octagon, to circle, with a dome divided into sixteen, eight, and again sixteen coffers. The resultant space has been called one of the most beautiful interiors in existence.

Windsor chair

The Windsor chair with its back of slim turnings held by a bent hoop, a wooden saddle carved seat, and legs that were usually turnings with turned stretchers came into wide use. An ash-construction with an elm seat has been used in this very fi ne example of a Windsor armchair. Notice how the legs and stretchers are thicker at those points where they receive the connecting parts, while those parts are narrowed to insert into the drilled holes

James and Robert Adam, Syon House, Middlesex, 1760-9.

The anteroom is a scene of colorful grandeur. Twelve green marble columns brought from Rome support gilded statues. Joseph Rose, Jr. (1745-99), an English plaster worker, was responsible for the wall and ceiling decoration. The colors of the marble floor pattern mirror the design of the ceiling.

9.1 John Webb, double cube room, Wilton House, Wiltshire, England, 1648-50.

Webb had been an assistant to Inigo Jones, who was the original architect of the house, which was damaged by a fi re in 1647. The term "double cube" refers to the geometry of the space. The basically simple form is fi lled with white and gold paneling, Van Dyck portraits, and a fabulously decorated, coved ceiling, with lush paintings by Edward Pierce (c. 1635-95). The central oval provides a view into a fantastic dome. The gilded and ornamented furniture by William Kent (c. 1685-1748) suggests an awareness of French Rococo themes.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- American Classicism

•During the colonial period Americans generally relied on vernacular builders without the assistance of trained architects, but around 1800 professionals began to work regularly in Boston and Philadelphia. •The new nation realized some of the most striking of Neoclassical landscapes of the age. •No one cared more about developing a national architecture than Thomas Jefferson. •He taught himself about architecture through the treatises of Palladio and Gibbs. •Jefferson's final project, the "academical village" of the University of Virginia demonstrated his progress as an architect.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- The Forth Bridge

•Eiffel's diagrammatic type of structure prepared the way for the consummate work of web construction, the Forth Bridge near Edinburgh, designed by Benjamin Baker. •Using structural steel, he raised three tapering towers of hollow steel tubes and then cantilevered the arches from these pyramidal piers.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- The 1864 Gare du Nord in Paris

•Ferro-vitreous buildings accompanied the advent of new infrastructures for the railways. •The lunette on the front of the Gare du Nord revealed the functional vault of the train shed behind it, but the architect animated the façade with the full repertoire of classical cornices, columns, and statues.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- The Maria Pia Viaduct

•Gustave Eiffel perfected a system of delicate iron webs, used on such structures as the Maria Pia Viaduct over the Duoro River in Porto.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- European Revival Styles in India

•In 1857, the British parliament took formal control of the colony. •Bombay became the most important city as India's gateway to the rest of the world. •George Gilbert Scott, designed three buildings for the university. Right, His Rajabai Tower.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- The Gothic Revival

•In 19th-century Europe, political revolutions and industrial transformations abruptly cut people off from their architectural traditions. •In response, architects produced quotations of earlier styles, conceived as revivals rather than continuations.

MODULE 1- 1750 to 1800- Industry and Punishment

•In England, during the same period as the revolutionary awakening of the middle class in France and the colonists in America, an equally convulsive change occurred in the realm of production. •This Industrial Revolution found its epicenter in Manchester and the Lancashire region of northern England. •The steam engine or mass-produced iron contributed to the Industrial Revolution. •In 1779, Abraham Darby III produced the first monument to the structural capacity of iron, the Iron Bridge of Coalbrookdale.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- The French Invention of Architectural Heritage

•In France during the 1830s the battle for the conservation of historic buildings, especially those of the medieval past, came to public attention through the polemics of the novelist Victor Hugo. •Eugène-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc made aggressive restorations of medieval monuments. Right, Carcasonne.

MODULE 1- 1750 to 1800- Seville Tobacco Factory

•Industrialization exploited the new materials of advanced engineering and yielded a new building type, the factory, a multistory rectangular box with abundant fenestration.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- Parliament in Athens

•Ludwig I's eighteen-year-old son ascended to the throne of post-Ottoman Greece as that country's first elected monarch, Otto I. •The image of Athens did not correspond to the German Neoclassicist ideal of the classical city. •Between 1840 and 1880 Athens acquired a dozen Neoclassical buildings.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- The Law Courts

•Many of the most important public buildings of the Victorian age, were produced in neomedieval styles.

MODULE 1- 1750 to 1800- Rue Rivoli

•Napoleon swept to power using the rhetoric of the French Revolution to become the dictator of an empire. •By the first years of the 19th century he began to commission large public projects.

MODULE 1- 1750 to 1800- Arc de Triomphe

•Napoleon's dictum that "what is big is always beautiful" characterized his attitude to architecture.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- All Saints

•Neogothic architecture became associated with the idea of reforming society through religion. •The Camden Society commissioned William Butterfield (1814-1900) to design All Saints, Margaret Street, in 1849 as a manifesto of their religious ideals.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- The Albert Hall Museum

•One of the semi-autonomous rajputs, Ram Singh, the Maharaja of Jaipur, engaged Colonel Samuel Swinton Jacob (1841-1917) as his engineer for a series of public works.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- Neue Wache

•Replicas and variations of the Parthenon, the Propylaia, the Maison Carrée, and the Pantheon proliferated in the growing cities of France, England, Germany, Russia, and the United States. •Top, the Neue Wache I Berlin •Bottom, Gilly's proposal for a monument to Frederick the Great

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- St. Pancras

•St. Pancras Station in London exhibited the most extreme disjuncture between its components.

MODULE 1- 1750 to 1800- Place de la Concorde

•The Encyclopedia represented the central intellectual project of the European Enlightenment. •Jacques-Francois Blondel wrote most of the Encyclopedia's entries on architecture. •Ange-Jacques Gabriel's work, like the Place de la Concorde, corresponded closely to Blondel's pitch for a return to classic purity. •Gabriel built his most renowned work, the Petit Trianon, in the 1760s in the park of Versailles for Louis XV's official mistress, Madame de Pompadour. •The plan of the Parisian Panthéon resembles St. Mark's in Venice, a quincunx arrangement with a high central dome and side domes over the four arms of a Greek cross.

9.30 Georgian clock. c. 1750.

This clock, intended to be hung high up on a wall, ococcupies a wooden case that suggests the architectural design of a small temple-style building with corner columns and a handsome pediment. The weights hang below on pulleys to be pulled up at a weekly winding.

10.2 Mission, San José, Laguna Pueblo, New Mexico, c. 1700.

This interior is a simple, rectangular room with a wooden beamed ceiling made rich through elaborate decorative ornamentation and painting around the altar and chancel area.

Sitting room, Plas Mawr, Conwy, Wales, c. 1577.

This modest, low- ceilinged room has been carefully preserved because it was once used by Queen Elizabeth I when she visited Wales. The leaded glass windows, stone fi replace, elaborate plasterwork, and simple furniture are all typical of the Elizabethan interior.

Split lath

Wall surfaces might be of wood, or, between the frame members, plaster on Split lath, that is, Lath made by partly splitting thin boards so that plaster can be forced through the splits to form "keys" holding the plaster in place.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- Somerset House

•The United Kingdom's increasing imperial status meant commissions for orderly classical envelopes for institutional settings. •William Chambers defined the use of classical architecture for public buildings in later 18th-century England. •The generation that followed pursued a more orthodox classicism. •Top, the Royal High School by Thomas Hamilton in Edinburgh •Bottom, the Soane House •London's major public buildings, such as William Wilkins' National Gallery, went to the next generation of architects trained by Soane.

MODULE 1- 1750 to 1800- The Birth of the Penitentiary

•The Venetian republic sponsored the first structure designed specifically as a prison, the Prigioni Nuove. •The ornate Bridge of Sighs connected the upper story of the new prison to the judicial chambers in the Ducal Palace. •Its capricious crest of reverse curve scrolls offered a profound contrast to the austere style of the prison.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- University Museum in Oxford

•The influential art critic John Ruskin shared the conviction that the votive nature of Gothic ornament strengthened community. •His program for the return to medieval craft and his stunning sketches inspired numerous architects, in particular the designers of the University Museum in Oxford.

MODULE 1- 1750 to 1800- Enlightenment Europe

•The philosophers of the European Enlightenment, in their pursuit of epistemology and the search for ultimate causes, kindled new theoretical debates about architecture. •The major dispute arose between those who favored a Greek origin of architectural knowledge and those who sustained an Etruscan-Roman line. •Those who championed the Greeks became known as Rigorists. The most extreme among them was Carlo Lodoli. •He accepted the use of classical orders, preferring the Doric and Tuscan, the more elementary columns used for working structures. •The theoretical appeals to reason and first principles of Lodoli and Laugier, both of whom had little working knowledge of architecture, inspired a generation of scholars to undertake archaeological expeditions to ancient ruins to document origins.

MODULE 1- 1750 to 1800- The Grand Theatre

•The proliferation of grand public theaters indicated societal changes before the Revolution.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- Cologne Cathedral

•The variety of Medieval revival styles that took hold in mid-19th-century Europe corresponded to a desire to recuperate the lost crafts and values of a simpler and more humane premodern society. •Cologne Cathedral's completion in 1880 coincided with the formation of the modern state of Germany.

MODULE 1- 1750 to 1800- The Salines de Chaux

•The work of Claude-Nicolas Ledoux embodied the Enlightenment ideals of reform and justice advocated by Diderot and Voltaire. •During the chaotic first years of the French Revolution the building industry languished. •Events such as the Festival of Federation, held on July 14, 1790, to celebrate the first year of the Revolution, brought a new kind of mass participation to urban space.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION

•To call the 19th-century return to the style of the ancient Greeks and Romans Neoclassicism or Romantic Classicism seems at first contrived. •The only significant difference between the 15th-century Florentine interest in all'antica classical architecture and that of Neoclassical European theorists of the late 18th and early 19th centuries was the archaeological awareness of the later revival.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- THE NEW IRON AGE

•Until the 19th century, architects chose from a limited palette of building materials, ranging from locally obtained wood, mud, and stone. •The increasing use of iron and glass revolutionized traditional construction methods, inspiring great feats of enclosing or traversing space.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- Brandenburg Gate

•Both the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution gave classical architecture new motivations. •The Brandenburg Gate shows how much German architects had absorbed the lessons of French architecture during the time of the Encyclopedia.

Georgian

In the design of residential interiors and related furniture, the Queen Anne period merges with the beginnings of the Georgian era, the dominant style of eighteenth- century England. The reigns of George I (1714-27) and George II (1727-60) cover the early Georgian period, usually defi ned as ending around 1750.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- Palm House

•Completely transparent iron and glass structures originated in England, where the landscape architect John Claudius Loudon popularized the design of glass-covered iron vaults. •Palm House at Kew Gardens, by Decimus Burton, testifies to durability and beauty of the new ferro-vitreous structures.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- Washington

•Despite differences in terrain, most of America became part of a grand orthogonal design. •The plan of Washington, D.C., appeared as the stunning exception.

MODULE 1- 1750 to 1800- BOMARZO

-The English Garden developed as a technically sophisticated artifact. -Designed to look like a product of nature. -Italy produced some notable precedents to the Picturesque English Garden. -Picturesque taste delighted in exotic cultures, distant in either time or space. -Landscape designers inserted pavilions as Greek, Roman, Gothic, and Persian "follies." (Orvieto, Italy, Bomarzo, Garden of the Monsters, 1560s)

MODULE 1- 1750 to 1800- Bath

-The Picturesque design method influenced architecture by blending buildings into the landscape as subordinate parts of a greater whole. -At the resort town of Bath this concept began to influence urbanism.

MODULE 1- 1750 to 1800- Stowe House

-The contrived informality of the English Garden accompanied the ideological turn to the basic formality of Palladian architecture. -The gardens at StoweHouse became a laboratory for Picturesque experimentation. -The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau visited during his exile in 1766 and enshrined the English Garden in his theory of the liberty of natural man. -He inspired Queen Marie-Antoinette to transform a remote corner of the park of Versailles into a peasant village, or Hameau.

MODULE 1- 1750 to 1800- Strawberry Hill

-The theory of the Picturesque pertained initially to landscape design, but by the mid-18th century it infiltrated the practice of architecture and urbanism.

9.26 James and Robert Adam, Luton Hoo, Bedfordshire, England, 1767.

1 Corridor 2 Bedroom of the 3rd Earl of Bute 3 Main staircase 4 Secondary stairs 5 Powder room 6 Water closet Rooms are accessed from a corridor, although the Earl's bedroom is screened by adjacent rooms. Secondary stairs connect to the basement kitchens and servants' quarters on an upper floor. The powder room is to provide for the powdering of the wigs worn by gentlemen at the time. All of this is within a classically symmetrical overall conception.

9.11 Inigo Jones, Banqueting House, Whitehall, London, 1619-22.

9.11 Inigo Jones, Banqueting House, Whitehall, London, 1619-22. The High Renaissance, with its acceptance of Italian practice, came to England in the work of Inigo Jones. His plans for a vast palace were put aside and only the Banqueting House was built. Its galleried, symmetrical interior, with Ionic half- columns below and Corinthian pilasters above, demonstrates his expert handling of Italian- inspired Palladian detail. The elaborate ceiling, also Italianate in style, frames paintings by Rubens.

9.4 Cornelis de Man, The Gold Weigher, c. 1670-75.

A Dutch merchant is shown conducting his business in a room of his comfortable home. Wooden beams form the ceiling, and the floor is tiled in gray and brownstone squares. The wall at the rear and the mantel shelf are of carefully crafted wood and painted tiles edge the fireplace. The table legs display the bulbous forms of the Dutch Baroque. The curtained arch gives access to the alcove bed.

II. INDUSTRY AND PUNISHMENT: FACTORIES AND WAREHOUSES; PRISONS AND WORKHOUSES (During the rapid social transformations of industrialized England, two new building types took hold: the factory and the prison.)

A. Manchester, Machines, and the Factory System 1. The effects of the factory system of production accompanied by the development of monopoly capitalism instilled profound and irreversible changes to the social, urban, and environmental order in the rest of the world. 2. Manchester welcomed the extremes of the new industrialized society: at one end a growing class of clever entrepreneurs and inventors, and at the other the unlettered mass of workers. a. Burgeoned into a major trading center with factories and warehouses. b. Workers left to fend for themselves, leading to the first industrial slums. 3. None of the constituent ingredients of the Industrial Revolution originated in Manchester. a. James Watt patented the steam engine with pistons, in Glasgow in 1765. b. Abraham Darby perfected mass-produced cast iron in Coalbrookdale. 4. Thomas Telford emerged as the first great bridge builder of the age. a. The Menai Suspension Bridge of 1819 connected Angelsy Island to the Welsh mainland. b. Telford combined pragmatism and grace to reveal the superb tensile capacity of iron. 5. Industrialization exploited the new materials of advanced engineering and yielded a new building type: the factory, a multistory rectangular box with abundant fenestration. a. Outside of England, the patronage for industry usually remained the exclusive right of a sovereign, which partly explains why their factories resembled palaces. b. In England, a new class of industrial entrepreneurs built the factories, often resulting in severe, utilitarian buildings. i. Boulton & Watt's Soho Manufactury in Birmingham. ii. John Lombes introduced the first box-type factory in 1721 in Derby. c. Based on Lombes's model, Richard Arkwright, inventor of the "water frame" technique for driving cotton looms, built several large mills in the

MODULE 1- ENLIGHTENMENT EUROPE: THEORY, REVOLUTION, AND ARCHITECTURE (In mid-18th century Europe, the role of theory began to diverge from practice. Throughout the cities of prerevolutionary Europe, the practical ideas of Diderot and d'Alembert's Encyclopedia stimulated proposals for social reform.)

A. Meta-Architecture: Theory before Practice. 1. A debate emerged in European architecture in reaction to the flamboyant curves and loaded decoration of Baroque and rococo design, focusing on a return to the first principles of classical architecture. a. Those who championed the Greeks became known as rigorists. i. Carlo Lodoli i. Insisted on the duty of form to function, applying the same sort of scientific principles used by Galileo in his study of physics. ii. Nothing should be visible that is not a working part of a building. iii. Pioneered the use of the adjective "organic" in architecture to describe the sympathy between form and function. ii. Abbé Marc-Antoine Laugier i. "Never lose sight of the primitive hut." 2. Lodoli and Laugier inspired a generation of scholars to undertake archaeological expeditions of ancient ruins to document origins. Two camps emerged from this endeavor: pro-Greek and pro-Roman supporters. a. Johann Joachim Wincklemann, who became chief curator of the Papal collection of antiquities in the 1760s, prevailed as the champion of the Greek way. b. Giovanni Battista Piranesi, a Venetian-born architect, fervently advocated the superiority of Roman culture. i. Represented a new category of professional, the meta architect, whose production remained primarily in the imaginary world of printed media. ii. Piranesi demonstrated with maniacal detail a propulsive kind of architecture that seemed to have grown from its site. iii. Collaborated with Giambattista Nolli on the Nolli Map. B. The Encyclopedia, a Mandate for Progress 1. Compiled in Paris between 1751 and 1765, it represented the central intellectual project of the European Enlightenment. 2. It brought together a comprehensive, up-to-date knowledge base for the sciences and arts that grounded Europe's emerging modern

MODULE 1- THE PICTURESQUE: LANDSCAPES OF THE INFORMAL, THE EXOTIC, AND THE SUBLIME (The European transition to modernity exhibited contradictory attitudes toward nature, made tangible in the English gardens of the 18th century. The English garden developed as a technically sophisticated artifact designed to look like a product of nature.)

A. The English Garden and Empirical Thinking 1. By the end of the 18th century, the picturesque acquired a precise meaning related to the attitudes found in the English garden. a. Pastoral landscapes that exalted irregularity, asymmetry, surprise, rare species of plants, artificial ruins, and references to exotic cultures. 2. Italy produced some notable precedents. a. Bomarzo near Orvieto b. Medici villa of Pratolino outside of Florence 3. English theorists of the picturesque looked to the paintings of Claude Lorraine (1604-1682). a. He depicted dramatic landscapes with stark contrasts, composed on sinuous lines, using evocative ruins as points of interest. 4. Picturesque taste delighted in exotic cultures. a. Pavilions as Greek, Roman, Gothic, and Persian "follies" b. Chinese follies began to appear in the English gardens during the mid-18th century. 5. Picturesque aspired to the sublime, a concept that the philosopher George "Bishop" Berkeley called "an agreeable kind of horror." 6. The contrived informality of the English garden accompanied the ideological turn to the basic formality of Palladian architecture. The gardens at Stowe House in Buckingham became a laboratory for picturesque experimentation. a. Begun in 1718 under Vanbrugh, the gardens received additions from many famous architects, including William Kent and James Gibbs. b. The gardener of Blenheim, Charles Bridgeman, introduced the ha-ha. c. Kent developed a method of borrowing landscapes from the surroundings and incorporating them into the views (shakkei). d. The final gardener at Stowe, Lancelot "Capability" Brown, arrived in 1741. 7. Stowe appealed to exponents of the French Enlightenment. The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau enshrined the English garden in his theory of the liberty of natural man. a. The German

9.35 Thomas Sheraton, a library table, 1793.

An illustration from Sheraton's The Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's Drawing Book (1791-4) shows an oval table with inlaid veneer surfaces. Slides can be pulled out from each end to open up easel stands to support the large and heavy books of illustrations that were favored by wealthy book collectors. The doors that open from the kneehole to give access to spaces in the base pedestals are an amusing detail. Sheraton was an in-genius inventor of furniture gadgetry and illustrates many complex designs, such as dressing tables with pull- out compartments and swinging mirrors, tables with lift- up storage compartments, and a library table that opens into a ladder (9.35). He appears to be the inventor of twin beds. He also illustrates richly draped windows, alcoves, and whole rooms decorated according to his own tastes. The writing table usually called a Carlton House desk is a Sheraton development.

Wing- back chair

An increasing emphasis on luxury, comfort, and practical convenience can be traced in the use of more upholstery and the appearance of such types as the Wing- back chair, various types of desks, and the development of drawer chests, previously almost unknown.

DUTCH BED

Beds were often enclosed in built- in, box- like Dutch bed spaces or, when free- standing, were canopied and draped.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- The Bibliothèque Sainte-Genviève

By combining traditional masonry and modern materials without concealing the structure, Henri Labrouste fulfilled Viollet-le-Duc's goal of structural rationalism

Ball and claw feet

Cabriole legs, Ball and claw feet, carved lions' heads, and other fanciful decorative elements came into general use. The influence of French Rococo can be traced in the freer and more florid use of decoration. Some new furniture types appeared, such as double chairs (small settees that appear to be two chairs joined together) and reading chairs with a book stand and candle holders.

9.12 Jacobean furniture, Knole, Kent, England; shown in a 1907 engraving.

Crimson silk velvet cushions and gold fringes enrich this furniture, which dates from the time of James I (r. 1603-25). It is of basically simple form with small- scale carved detail. This Jacobean chair shows examples of the increasingly sophisticated lathe work that was developing in England. The woods used are elm and oak

Casement windows

Double- hung window sash gradually took the place of Casement windows (off erring better control of ventilation with improved weather protection), and larger panes of better glass improved light and view.

ADOBE

In Mexico these were Mayan and Aztec, based on the use of sun- baked Adobe bricks with wooden pole roof support for simple forms suggestive of the ancient Pueblos in the North American southwest.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- The Glyptothek

In Munich, the capital of the new state of Bavaria, Leo von Klenze (1784-1864) played a similar role to Schinkel

Modernism

In studying the beginnings of Modernism in the twentieth century, it is frequently suggested that a return to the consistency of style (but not the specific of detail) of the eighteenth century is the logical starting point.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- Schauspielhaus

Karl Friedrich Schinkel

Jacobean period

The Jacobean period (1603-49) takes its name from James I, but also includes the reign of Charles I. Hatfi eld House (from 1608) is an irregular although symmetrical block, U- shape in plan. It is really two houses (intended as guest accommodation for the king and queen) linked by a connecting block containing a "hall" in the style of a castle (9.10), a long gallery, and many other rooms. Most of the exterior is quite plain red brick with large windows.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- Karl Friedrich Schinkel

•After the end of the Napoleonic wars, Karl Friedrich Schinkel served for two decades as the city architect of Berlin, adding key public buildings that defined the city's character as both orderly and civil. •Top, the Altes Museum •Bottom, the Schauspielhaus

Clapboards

Planks could be nailed to the framing and then covered with an outer surface of overlapping Shingles or Clapboards made by splitting logs rather than by sawing.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- Houses of Parliament

•An even stronger movement for the Gothic revival emerged in England, with similar nationalist undertones. •This came partly through the tireless propaganda efforts of Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin.

Box (finger) joints

Solid wood, often in very wide boards for tables and chests, was put together with hand-cut joints, Box (finger) joints, dovetails, or mortise and tenons.

9.18 William Winde, Belton House, Lincolnshire, England, 1685-8.

The "saloon" or dining room is one of the principal rooms of this house said by some to have been designed by Wren but more probably designed by William Winde (d. 1722). The carved wooden paneling may have been the work of the renowned wood-carver Grinling Gibbons, although there are records of payments to Edmund Carpenter. The ornate plaster ceiling is typical of the aristocratic interiors of the seventeenth century

9.10 Great Hall, Hatfi eld House, Hertfordshire, England, from 1608.

The Marble Hall is a Jacobean English interior of exceptional richness. There was an underlying intention to recall the hall of medieval castles, but in this "great house" the theme has been transformed by richly carved woodwork and an ornate painted plaster ceiling. The woodwork, hanging tapestries, and elaborately carved furniture contrast with the simple tiled floor

9.6 Long Gallery, Haddon Hall, Derbyshire, England, c. 1530.

The Renaissance interior includes detailed paneling incorporating motifs borrowed from Italian Renaissance practice. Such design elements, along with the plaster strapwork of the ceiling, reached England by way of the Low Countries. The sparse pieces of furniture present are of typical Jacobean character

10.6 (above) Chair-table, New England, United States, 1775-99.

The back of this early American piece of furniture is pivoted to the chair frame so that, when tilted down, the chair converts into a well-balanced table. Such chair-tables were often used in taverns

9.21 (near left) Nicholas Hawksmoor, Christ Church, Spital fields, London, 1714-29.

The daring spatial composition includes columns supporting an arcade, which opens to side aisles. At the chancel end, columns support a high bar of the entablature, introducing a sense of Baroque complexity into the otherwise simple, flat-ceilinged space

Spool and knob Glastonbury chair Turkey- work

The ease with which a turner can make Spool and knob forms led to designs of curious complexity. A massive folding chair known as a Glastonbury chair also appeared (9.9), often with a carved back suggesting a two-arch arcade. Oak remained the usual wood, although ash, yew, chestnut, and other woods were sometimes used. The upholstery was limited to an occasional cushion or a covering of cloth, sometimes embroidered with Turkey- work. Colors were usually the natural tones of wood, stone, and plaster, with details sometimes painted in rich reds and dark greens.

10.3 Interior of Hoxie House.

The interior of the typical early American house was very dark because there were only a few tiny windows. This view shows a half-attic loft, providing space for a simple rope bed. The spinning wheel in the corner of the space below and the two wool-wirders in the loft reflect the home production of woolen textiles. Corn and other provisions are hung up for drying

9.8 (above) Robert Smythson, Long Gallery, Hardwick Hall, Derbyshire, England, 1591-7.

The gallery is on the uppermost floor of one of the most magnificent English Elizabethan "great houses." Huge windows in bays on the right flood the space with light. The walls are covered with tapestries, and the fireplaces and chimney breasts above are of ornately carved stonework in an Italianate style. The paintings and most of the furniture are of a later date, but the plaster strapwork ceiling is original.

10.4 Bedroom, Stanley Whitman House, Farmington, Connecticut, from 1664.

The heavy timber corner post and timber ceiling are evidence of the braced-frame structure. Plastered walls fill the spaces between wood members. The bed is a wooden frame with a laced rope support for the mattress. A trundle bed (on rollers) is stored beneath the bed, and it can be pulled out at night to provide extra sleeping space. The cradle accommodates the newest baby. There are woven coverlets on each bed. The windows are small and shuttered.

10.7 (above right) Highboy, Boston, Massachusetts, United States, 1734-40.

The highboy was a popular storage piece in both England and America. It offered an impressive display along with storage space conveniently arranged. As in this example, the upper unit can be lifted off the lower element for easy movement and shipping. Matched veneers, cabriole legs, carved pendants, and fine brass pulls and escutcheons all suggest elegance and affluence

9.15 Christopher Wren, St. Paul's Cathedral, London, 1675-1710.

The interior of the cathedral, with its great dome at the crossing and saucer domes covering the bays of the nave, transepts, and choir, is a spectacular display of Baroque grandeur. The vaulting is buttressed above the aisles by half- arches, which are invisible inside and hidden externally by screen walls.

9.28 James and Robert Adam, Osterley Park, Middlesex, 1762-9.

The library, with its richly carved architectural detail, reflects the enthusiasm for the designs recently discovered in the ancient Roman ruins at Pompeii. At Osterley Park (1762-9) nearby, there is another sequence of rooms, including a small parlor in Etruscan style, that is, with wall decoration derived from Greek vase painting (then thought to be Etruscan) and a wonderfully colorful library with Pompeian detail (9.28).

9.22 (near right) Queen Anne chair, c. 1710.

The more compact and lighter forms of Queen Anne chairs offered greater comfort than earlier chair types. This example uses a vase-shaped splat, a bowed and bent scroll-top rail, and cabriole legs. The seat is a drop-in cushion.

Queen Anne (1702-14)

The reign of Queen Anne (1702-14) corresponds to Late Baroque design in English architecture. Furniture and interiors display a new sense of practicality, modesty, and comfort. Architecture, in contrast, continued to reflect Baroque grandeur.

9.33 (left) Hepplewhite-style shield-back chair, manufactured by Seddon and Shackleton, c. 1790.

The shield-shaped back was one of the most characteristic of Hepplewhite chair designs, but oval, heart and wheel shape were also part of his vocabulary. Hepplewhite forms became popular in the American Federal period, 1790-1820, along with those of Thomas Sheraton, whose designs were also classical in feeling, but generally more delicate, with more surface detailing.

9.5 Jan Vermeer, A Young Woman Standing at a Virginal, Delft, Netherlands, c. 1670. National Gallery, London.

The subject has been playing the small keyboard instrument, a box- like case with a simple exterior but rich painting within. The room in which it stands is of elegant simplicity, with a black and white tiled fl oor, a wall base of painted tiles, and a window of leaded glass. Only the fi ne paintings suggest the higher status that the house represents

Tudor

The term Tudor is often associated with the appearance of half- timber wood building which remained the usual vernacular style until well into the seventeenth century, but it also defi nes the period when Italianate detail fi rst began to appear in ornamentation, in trim around doors and fi replaces, in paneling, and in details of furniture.

9.32 (above) Thomas Chippendale, drawing of a side chair, 1754.

This plate from The Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's Director shows a typical design for an eighteenth-century chair, with straight sides, pierced center splat, and yoke-shaped crest rail that identify Chippendale-style seating. Cabriole's legs show the French influence seen in early iterations of the form. Chippendale's Director served as a catalog from which a client could select designs for legs, backs, stretchers, and arms. Options included elements reflecting the influence of Chinese, Gothic, and Neoclassical as well as Rococo style.

9.24 Room from Kirtlington Park, near Oxford, England, 1748.

This room, referred to in contemporary terms as an "eating room," is now installed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. It offers a view of a more restrained, yet rich and spacious interior, with Rococo plasterwork detailing by Thomas Roberts (1711-71), a local Oxford craftsman. The painting, furniture, oriental rug, and chandelier are suitable to the period, although they suggest a study or library of the era

9.16 (left) Section of St. Paul's Cathedral, London, 1675-1710.

This vast cathedral was designed to rival St. Peter's, Rome. The great dome, ringed with windows at the lower drum, is made of three layers: the lower dome covering the interior space of the crossing, the structural cone above, and the wood-supported upper dome, which forms the visible exterior, a lasting London landmark.

Cape Cod cottage

With the lean-to on the north, bringing the roof down close to the ground helped to protect against winter wind and storms and generated the typical Salt-box shape. The much admired and imitated Cape Cod cottage was a house of this type, often built by ships' carpenters entirely without foundations so that it "floated" on the sand dunes of the cape.

Adze

Wood was the most available of materials, since clearing forest land produced timber in quantity as a by-product. Sawing was, however, a laborious process so the production of the neatly cut lumber of later times was not yet possible. Whole logs were cut, roughly squared up with such tools as the ax and Adze, and then assembled into house frames with wood joints such as Mortise and tenon or Pegged lap joints that could be produced with simple hand tools.

MODULE 1- 1750 to 1800- Regent Street

•Bath influenced the greatest urban project of early 19th century London: Regent Street. •While the subtle bends kept the new thoroughfare from disturbing the fancy squares of the West End, the shifting viewpoints appeared like the sinuous paths in a picturesque garden.

MODULE 2- AFTER THE REVOLUTION- Galleria Vittorio Emanuelle II in Milan

•A building type that relied on iron and glass coverings—the passages, or arcades—became widespread in Paris. •The arcades built in newly unified Italy during the 1870s introduced a greater scale, becoming triumphant symbols of a new secular society.