Art history
Parts of a megaron
(1) enclosing a circular hearth (2) in the center. Access to the throne room was through an ante[1]chamber (3) and a front porch (4) with two columns
5.19: Opening of the Mouth Ceremony, Book of the Dead of Hunefer, New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty, c. 1307 - 1196 B.C.
(Above) Opening of the Mouth ceremony, from the Book of the Dead of Hunefer, New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty, c. 1295-1186 b.c. Pigment on papyrus. British Museum, London, England.
Minoan Fresco (buon fresco)
) Minoan wall paintings were buon (true) fresco—pigments were mixed with lime water and applied to damp lime (calcium-based) plaster. As the plaster dried, the coloring bonded to the fabric of the wall. Minoan artists painted additional details over the true fresco after it was dry. This tech[1]nique was used for all Aegean wall painting
6.12 & 13: Reconstruction drawing of the megaron, 1300-1200 BC
. One entered the megaron through a front porch supported by two columns and continued through an antechamber into the throne room, in which four columns surrounded a circular hearth (fig. 6.12). The king presided in the megaron, his throne centered and facing the hearth. This arrangement had pre-Mycenaean antecedents on the Greek mainland, and it would be elaborated in later Greek temple architecture. Figure 6.13 shows a reconstruction of the megaron at Mycenae. The walls and floors were covered with paintings. Like the Minoans, the Mycenaeans apparently had no temples separate from their palaces. Shrines have been found within the palaces, which were lavishly decorated and furnished with precious objects and painted pottery
What else surrounds the pyramids? These things make up what is called the funerary complex
. The location of the sphinx suggests that it represented Khafre himself. Surrounding the sphinx's head is the trapezoidal pharaonic headcloth (the Nemes headdress), which fills up the open space above the shoulders and enhances the sculpture's monumentality
Book of the Dead
. Their lighter skin tones, in comparison with the men's, had been a convention of Egyptian art since the Old Kingdom. Behind the mummy is Anubis, the jackal-headed mortuary god. The two forms behind him are a stele, covered with hieroglyphs and surmounted by a representation of Hunefer appearing before a god, and a stylized tomb façade with a pyramid on top. Note the similarity between the iconography of the power-revealing scene at the top of the stele and that on the law code of Hammurabi (see fig. 4.16). In both, the seated god combines a frontal and profile pose, while the smaller mortal—as if commanding less space—is more nearly in profile.
Ka & Ka Statue: both 5.8 & 10 are examples of Ka statues see pages 53 & 55 for this definition
5.10 Menkaure and Queen Khamerernebty, from Giza, 2490- 2472 b.c. Slate, 4 ft. 6½ in. (1.39 m) high. Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts, Boston The statues of Khafre and of Menkaure and Khamerernebty were originally found in their valley temples. Their function was to embody the ka of the royal personages they depicted and to receive food and drink brought by worshipers. Priests were believed to have the magic power to transform the images into real people who could eat the offerings
5.16 & 17: Hatshepsut & her Mortuary Temple at Deir el-Bahri, Egypt, Dynasty XVIII, ca. 1472-1458 BC.
6 Statue of Hatshepsut as pharaoh, 18th Dynasty, c. 1473- 1458 b.c. Granite, 7 ft. 11 in. (2.41 m) high. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Hatshepsut was the second known queen to rule Egypt as pharaoh. The earlier queen, Sobekneferu, ruled in the 12th Dynasty but, unlike Hatshepsut, did not preside over an artistic revival. 5.17 Funerary temple of Queen Hatshepsut, Deir el-Bahri, Egypt, 18th Dynasty. Sandstone and rock. Construction of this temple began in the reign of Thutmose I (1504-1496 b.c.) and continued during the reign of his daughter Hatshepsut (reigned1473-1458 b.c.). Most of the projecting colonnades have been restored after being vandalized during the reign of Thutmose III. They adorn the three large terraces, which are connected to each other by ramps. The inner sanctuary is located inside the cliff.
King Minos
: In Greek mythology, Crete was the home of the tyrant King Minos, son of Zeus, and the mortal woman Europa. Minos broke an oath to Poseidon, god of the sea, who had guaranteed his kingship.
Corbeling
: brick or masonry courses, each pro[1]jecting beyond, and supported by, the one below it; the meeting of two corbels would create an arch or a vault.
Sunken Relief:
: this is an excellent example of sunken relief which is the reverse of the relief sculpture you have seen so far. Instead of the figures projecting away from the background they are carved into the stone.
6.7: Spouted jar, c. 1800 BC
A Kamares ware spouted jar, dating to c. 1800 b.c. (fig. 6.7), from the older palace at Knossos, is covered with lively geometric patterns that suggest organic forms. (The term Kamares is from the Kamares Cave, in the mountain above Phaistos, where examples of this type of pottery were first discovered.)
Gypsum Plaster
A New Kingdom painting on gypsum plaster from the tomb of Nebamun, a Theban official (fig. 5.18), shows him hunting birds. He is accompanied by his wife and daughter and is surrounded by animals and a landscape—note the abundant use of pale blue, the pig[1]ment made from lapis lazuli. Following the conventional Egyptian pose, Nebamun's head and legs are in profile, and his torso and eye are frontal
Papyrus
A New Kingdom painting on papyrus from the Book of the Dead (fig. 5.19) illustrates the Opening of the Mouth ceremony, which ritually "opened the mouth" of the deceased and restored the ability to breathe, feel, hear, see, and speak. In this scene, described in the rows of hieroglyphics at the top, the ritual is performed on the Nineteenth Dynasty mummy of the scribe Hunefer.
Senenmut
Above all, she selected her officials wisely, particularly Senenmut, who was her daughter's guardian, her first minister, and her chief architect
What happened cultures conquered Egypt beginning in c. 673 BC?
After the first century of the Christian era, Nubian civilization declined. Egypt itself under[1]went a series of conquests—by the Assyrians (c. 673-657 b.c.), by the Persians in 525 b.c., and by Alexander the Great in 332 b.c. The Romans invaded Egypt in 58 b.c. and annexed it in 30 b.c. Since the early seventh century, Egypt has been part of the Islamic world.
Helen of Troy (Sparta)
Agamemnon's brother, King Menelaus of Sparta, had married Helen, known to history as the beautiful and notori[1]ous Helen of Troy
5.23: Akhenaton and His Family 1348-1336 BC from Tell el-Armarna
Akhenaten and Nefertiti and their daughters, Amarna period, 1349-1336 b.c. Limestone relief, 13 × 15 in. (33.0 × 38.1 cm). Staatliche Museen, Berlin, Germany A small relief in which Akhenaten and Nefertiti play with their daughters illustrates some of the stylistic and iconographic changes under Akhenaten (fig. 5.23). The king and queen are rendered with a naturalism unprecedented for Egyptian royal figures. Their fluid, curved outlines— repeated in their drapery patterns—add a new sense of individual motion within three-dimensional space, which is enhanced by the flowing bands of material behind their heads
5.21: Akhenaten, from Karnak, 1353-1350 BC
Akhenaten, from Karnak, Egypt, 1353-1350 b . c. Sandstone, approx. 13 ft. (3.96 m) high. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. Akhenaten was the son of Amenhotep III and his principal wife, Tiy. Amen - hotep III ruled Egypt for thirty-eight years. During Tiy's lifetime, he married a Mittani (from Mesopotamia) and two Babylonian princesses, and then made one of his daughters his principal wife.
Mycenae and Mycenaean (Helladic) Art:
Also called Late Helladic after "Hellas," the histori[1]cal Greek name for Greece (Graecia was the name used by the Romans), Mycenaean culture takes its name from its foremost site at Mycenae. Here, as elsewhere, the cita[1]del was built on a hilltop and fortified with massive stone walls. The major feature of the palace was a rectangular structure called the megaron ("large room" in Greek). One entered the megaron through a front porch supported by two columns and continued through an antechamber into the throne room, in which four columns surrounded a cir[1]cular hearth (fig
marine style
Although images of an octopus and other forms of sea life are discernible on the vase, the artist obviously delighted in the ornamental character of the swirling tentacles with little round suction cups. These, in turn, are repeated formally in the large oval eyes of the octopus, which echo the holes made by the handles and seem to stare directly at the viewer. The iconography of this object reflects the Minoans' love of the sea. Later history suggests that, in their heyday, they controlled t
6.20: Dagger with lion hunt, 16th century B.C.
Another object from a Mycenaean tomb that reflects the wealth of the royal burials is the bronze dagger in figure 6.20. It is inlaid with gold and silver with details added in niello (an alloy of sulfur and silver) and depicts a lion hunt. Four hunters armed with spears, shields, and a bow confront a charging lion, which appears to have killed a fifth hunter lying below him. At the right, two more lions run from the hunters in a flying gallop pose. The dynamic energy of the scene, like the Lion Gate column, indicates Minoan influence.
types of collums
At the end of the row were two obelisks (tall, tapering, four-sided pillars ending in a pointed tip, or pyramidion) and two colossal statues of pharaohs (fig. 5.14).
Anubis
Behind the mummy is Anubis, the jackal-headed mortuary god
Egyptian Canon of Proportions (see 5.9): This is also known as the 18 square grid:
Canons of proportion are commonly accepted guidelines for depicting the ideal human figure by specifying the relationships of the parts of the body to one another and to the whole. They vary from culture to culture and have evolved over time. The canons followed by Egyptian artists changed only slightly from the Old to the New Kingdom, a reflection of the unusual stability of ancient Egypt. The illustration here (fig. 5.9) is based on the Old Kingdom canon as it was used at Saqqara during the reign of Zoser. The surface of a relief or a painting is divided into a grid of squares, each equivalent to the width of the figure's fist. The distance from the hairline to the ground is 18 fists, from the base of the nose to the shoulder 1 fist, and from the fingers of a clenched fist to the elbow 4½ fists. The length of a foot (heel to toe) is 3½ fists. Note the characteristic way of depicting the human body: the shoulders and the one visible eye are frontal; the head, arms, and legs are in profile; the waist is nearly in profile but is turned to show the navel. One purpose of this system was to arrive at a conventional, instantly recognizable image. The persistence of such canons contributed to the continuity of Egyptian style over a two-thousand-year period.
Imhotep
Chief minister of Zoser and architect of his step pyramid; deified and worshiped in the Late Dynastic period as god of learning and medicine.
Ptah
Creator god of Memphis, patron god of craftsmen; depicted as a mummy-shaped man.
Three Cultures
Cycladic, Minoan & Mycenaean (Mycenae is both a site and the name of the Bronze Age culture on mainland Greece. This culture is also known as the Helladic culture.)
Cyclades and Cycladic Art
Cyclopean masonry: stone construction using large, irregular blocks without mortar
Isis
Divine mother, wife of Osiris and mother of Horus; one of four protector goddesses, guarding coffins and canopic jars.
Upper and Lower Egypt
Egypt had been divided into Upper Egypt in the south and Lower Egypt in the north. Egypt was defined by its most important geographical feature, the Nile, the world's longest river. Because annual floods kept the land fertile, Egypt was called "the gift of the Nile." Narmer wears the tall white conical crown of Upper Egypt (the hedjet) and threatens a kneeling enemy with a mace. He holds this enemy by the hair, symbolizing conquest and domination. Two additional enemies who are already dead occupy the lowest register of the palette. Behind Narmer on a suspended horizontal strip is a servant whose small size identifies him as much less important than the king. The servant holds Narmer's sandals indicating that the king is on holy ground. In front of Narmer, at the level of his head, is Horus, the falcon god of the sky and kingship, who holds a captive human-headed creature at the end of a rope. From the back of this figure rise six papyrus plants, which represent Lower Egypt. The image of Horus dominating symbols of Lower Egypt parallels Narmer, crowned as the king of Upper Egypt and subduing an enemy
Horus
Falcon god, originally the sky god; identified with the king during his lifetime; the son of Osiris and Isis.
Ra (Re)
Falcon-headed sun god of Heliopolis, supreme judge; often linked with other gods whose cults aspire to universality (e.g., Amon-Ra)
Faïence
Faïence is a technique for glaz[1]ing earthenware and other ceramic vessels by using a glass paste, which, after firing, produces bright colors and a lustrous sheen
5.27: Temple of Ramses II, Abu Simbel (now relocted), Egypt, Dynasty XIX, ca. 1290-1224 BC. 65'
Figure 5.27 shows the façade of Ramses II's rock-cut temple at Abu Simbel, one of a series of six colossal structures south of Aswan. Four huge seated statues of Ramses II represent him in a traditional royal pose, wearing the ceremonial beard and headdress
What type of sculpture are the lions? Relief or Sculpture in the Round?
Filling in the triangle is a relief of different stone showing two lions with their paws on a concave Minoan altar. They flank a Minoan-style col[1]umn, which symbolized the nature goddess. Thus the relief image depicts the lions as obedient to the goddess, the "Mistress of Beasts." The heads of the lions are missing. Originally they were carved separately to project frontally and display their power as guardians of the entrance.
Pharaoh
From approximately 3100 b.c., Egypt was ruled by pha[1]raohs, or kings, whose control of the land and its people was virtually absolute. Egyptian monumental art on a vast scale begins with pharaonic rule, originating when King Menes united Upper and Lower Egypt. Modern scholars have divided Egyptian history into the Predynastic and Early Dynastic periods, followed by the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms and the Late Dynastic period. These were punctuated by so-called Intermediate periods of anarchy or central political decline, as well as by periods of foreign domination (see Box).
Thoth
God of of writing and wisdom; often shown with the head of an ibis; Egyptian scribes prayed to him when preparing a text
Seth
God of storms and violence; brother and murderer of Osiris; rival of Horus; depicted as pig, ass, hippopotamus, or other animal.
Hapy
God of the Nile in flood; depicted as a man with pendulous breasts, a clump of papyrus (or a lotus) on his head, and bearing tables laden with offerings
Aten
God of the sun disk; worshiped as the great creator god by Akhenaten
Osiris
God of the underworld, identified as the dead king; depicted as a mummified king
Maat
Goddess of truth, right, and orderly conduct; depicted as a woman with an ostrich feather on her head.
Hathor
Goddess with many functions and attributes; often depicted as a cow, or a woman with a cow's head or horned headdress; mother, wife, and daughter of Ra; protector of the royal palace; domestic fertility goddess.
Amon
Great god of Thebes; identified with Ra as Amon-Ra; sacred animals—the ram and goose.
Akhenaten
He effaced the names and images of the other gods and moved his capital north from the major cult center of Thebes to Akhetaten (now known as Tell el-Amarna, from which the term for this period is derived). Akhenaten chose the site and name for his new capital because the sun rising over the horizon at that point resembled the hieroglyph for sunrise
How does this differ from Old Kingdom examples
He wears a flattened trapezoidal kilt. His wife and daughter are small and curvilinear by comparison, continuing the Old Kingdom tradition of increasing naturalism for decreasing rank. In general, paintings of this period were slightly more naturalistic than those of the Old Kingdom. The birds turn more freely in space than the human figures, and on the fish there is evidence of shading, which conveys a sense of volume
Bes
Helper of women in childbirth, protector against snakes and other dangers; depicted as a dwarf with features of a lion.
Howard Carter
Howard Carter was excavating in the Valley of the Kings. He found one tomb whose burial chamber and treasury room had not yet been plundered. It yielded some five thousand works of art and other objects, including the mummified body of the king
Labyrinth
In Greek mythology the palace was called a "labyrinth," which Evans believed originally meant "house of the double axe." The later Greek meaning of labyrinth as a complex, mazelike structure, may have resulted from the asymmetrical, meandering arrangement of rooms, corridors, and staircases the Palace of Minos (see fig. 6.3). Greek coins of Knossos minted in the later historical period generally contained maze patterns.
6.11 Crocus Gatherer, Thera, Before 1500 BC-
In contrast to the boxers, the Crocus Gatherer (fig. 6.11) has white skin, following the convention of Minoan representation of females. She holds a basket and and reaches for a crocus with her right. Although her body is frontal—she is in a squatting position—she turns her head to speak to a companion. Her curly black hair, whose ringlets echo the lines of her ear, is held in place by a blue headband. She wears a large earring, three necklaces, a short-sleeved dress, and a flounced overskirt. The stylized outline of her eye is reminiscent of ancient Near Eastern eye outlines, although her physiognomy is more specific. Again—as in Minoan rather than Egyptian painting—she is set in a spacious landscape amid mountains and rocks.
Thera or Santorini:
In the 1960s the volcanic island of Thera, now known as Santorini, in the southern Cyclades, began to yield exciting new archaeological material. The geographical location of Thera, north of Crete, places it squarely within the trading and seafaring routes between the Aegean Sea, Egypt, Syria, and Palestine
Minoan Script: Linear A & B
In the Aegean two kinds of script, Linear A and Linear B, are preserved on clay tablets. Linear A, the written Minoan script and language, developed about 2000 b.c. and remains undeciphered. Linear B came into use by about 1400 b.c. Lin[1]ear B adapted the Minoan script used to write early Greek after the Mycenaean domination of Crete. Since it was used mainly for inventory lists and palace records, Linear B pro[1]vides evidence of Mycenaean administration but reveals little about religion and social practices
Anubis
Jackal god, patron of embalmers; god of the necropolis who ritually "opens the mouth" of the dead.
three Old Kingdom pharaohs of the Fourth Dynasty
Khufu Khafre- khufus son menkaure- khafre son Khufu's pyramid—the largest of the three—was over twice as high as Zoser's step pyramid at Saqqara.
Megaron
Megaron Greek for "large room"; used prin[1]cipally to denote a rectangular hall, usually supported by columns and fronted by a porch, traditional in ancient Greece since Mycenaean times
Middle Kingdom:
Monumental architecture continued in the Middle Kingdom, though much of it was destroyed by New Kingdom pharaohs for use in their own colossal building proj[1]ects. Besides pyramids, a new form of tomb was introduced
Agamemnon
Mycenae was the legendary home of King Agamemnon, who led the Greek army against King Priam of Troy in the Trojan War.
5.18: Nebamun hunting birds, from the tomb of Nebamun, Thebes, c. 1390-1352
Nebamun hunting birds, from the tomb of Nebamun, Thebes, Egypt, c. 1390-1352 b.c. Fragment of a painting on gypsum plaster. British Museum, London, England
Niello
Niello Dagger with lion hunt, 16th century b.c. Bronze, gold, silver, and niello, approx. 93 ⁄8 in. (24 cm) long. National Archaeological Museum, Athens, Greece. Archaeological Receipts Fund (TAP) It is inlaid with gold and silver with details added in niello (an alloy of sulfur and silver) a
Paris
Priam's son Paris abducted Helen, and Agamemnon was pledged to avenge this offense against his family. But as soon as the Greek fleet was ready to sail, the winds refused to blow because Agamemnon had killed a stag sacred to the moon goddess Artemis. As recompense for the stag, and in return for allowing the winds to blow, Artemis exacted the sacrifice of Agamemnon's daughter Iphigenia
Serapis
Ptolemaic period; with characteristics of Egyptian (Osiris) and Greek (Zeus) gods.
5.3 & 4: Stepped Pyramid-, Saqqara Dynasty III, ca. 2630-2611 BC-
Pyramids had been preceded by smaller mastabas, single-story trapezoidal structures; the term derives from the Arabic word for "bench" (fig. 5.3). These were originally made of mud-brick and later were faced with cut stones From 2630 to 2611 b.c., King Zoser's architect Imhotep constructed a colossal structure within a sacred architectural precinct at Saqqara, on the west bank of the Nile about 30 miles (48 km) south of Cairo. Five mastabas of decreasing size, one on top of the other, resulted in a "step pyramid" (fig. 5.4). Inside, a vertical shaft some 90 feet (27.4 m) long led to the burial chamber. The exterior was faced with limestone, most of which has now disappeared.
5.20: Queen Nefertari before the Divine Scribe Thoth, from the tomb of Nefertari, Valley of the Queens, Mew Kingdom 19th Dynasty, 1290-1224 B. C.
Queen Nefertari before the Divine Scribe Thoth, from the tomb of Nefertari, north wall, Valley of the Queens, Egypt, New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty, 1290-1224 b.c
5.8: Khafre, Giza, Dynasty 4, c. 2570-2544 BC
Seated statue of Khafre, from Giza, 2520-2494 b.c. Diorite, 5 ft. 6 in. (1.68 m) high. Egyptian Museum, Cairo. The standing lions carved on Khafre's throne are the king's guardians and images of regal power in their own right. Horus, who protects the back of Khafre's head, was the son of Isis, a mother goddess called the "Pharaoh's throne." Both gods reinforce Khafre's divine right of kingship. The association of a ruler and his throne is reflected in modern usage when we refer to the "seat of power.
5.12: Sesostris III, c. 1878-1841 BC
Senusret III, c. 1878-1841 b.c. Quartzite, 6½ in. (16.5 cm) high. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Gift of Edward S. Harkness, 1926. exemplifies the new approach to royal representation in the Middle Kingdom. He referred to himself as the shepherd of his people, and his portrait seems to show concern. Lines of worry crease the surface of his face, and his forehead forms a slight frown. There are bags under his eyes, and his cheeks are fleshy. This is no longer solely an image of divine, royal power. Instead, it departs from earlier conventions of royal representation, and a specific personality emerges
Trojan War
Ten years later the war ended and Agamemnon returned to Mycenae, bringing with him the Trojan seer Cassandra. He was murdered by his wife Klytemnestra, who had not forgiven him for Iphigenia's death, and her lover, Aegisthos. Agamemnon's children, Orestes and Elektra, killed Klytem[1]nestra and Aegisthos to avenge their father's death.
egytian gods
The Egyptians, like their Near Eastern neighbors, were polytheists. Gods were manifest in every aspect of nature; they influenced human lives and ordered the universe, and they could appear in human or animal form or as various human and animal combinations. The result of this belief system was a pantheon of enormous complexity. Over time the number was increased by the introduction of foreign gods into Egypt. Like most polytheists, the Egyptians did not find the religious ideas of other cultures incompatible with their own, and they incorporated new deities either singly or in combination. This process of fusion is known as syncretism. A few of the principal gods of ancient Egypt in their most typical guises are listed here.
6.15: Mycenae Citadel and Lion Gate, 1500-1300 BC
The Lion Gate crowned the entrance to the citadel of Mycenae (fig. 6.15), which was centered authoritatively at the end of a long approachway . Its opening is framed by a post-and-lintel structure, and the triangular section over the lintel is called a relieving triangle because it reduces the weight on the lintel. This was formed by corbeling, or arranging layers, called courses, of stones so that each level projects beyond the lower one
6.8 Octopus jar- Palaikastro (Crete) ca. 1500BC-
The Octopus Vase (fig. 6.8) from Palaikastro, like the Kamares jar, is enlivened by a vigorous surface design related to natural forms
Why was the palace not fortified
The building complex known as the palace (fig. 6.4) was not fortified, for the fact that Crete is an island was a natural protection against invasion
5.25: Canopic coffinette of Tutankhamon, c. 1327 BC
The canopic coffinette in figure 5.25 is one of four that contained the pharaoh's organs. These small coffins were housed in a wooden shrine that was placed in another room of the tomb. Their shape conforms to that of the large coffins, and they also show Tutankhamon as Osiris. Each was made of beaten gold, decorated with inlaid colored glass and semiprecious stones
6.10: Boxing Children, from Akrotiri, Therea, c. 1650-1500 BC
The fresco of Boxing Children (fig. 6.10) is a largescale depiction of human figures. As is true of painted figures from Egypt and Crete, these stand on a flat ground rather than in a naturalistic space
Nubia and Meroë
The land south of the Nile's first cataract (now southernmost Egypt and the Sudan) was called Nubia by the Romans. To the Egyptians, it was the Land of the Bow (after the Nubi[1]ans' standard weapon), the Land of the South, and Kush. As in Egypt, the Nile's floods were crucial to the develop[1]ment of Nubian culture, which was enhanced by the wealth of its natural resources—gold, copper, and semiprecious gems—and its location along a major African trade route Archaeological exploration of Meroë is still incomplete, but its significance in antiquity is clear from Classical accounts. In about 430 b.c., the Greek historian Herodotos (History, II, 29) described the arduous journey by ship, followed by forty days on foot and another boat journey, from Aswan to Meroë. The most impressive buildings from Meroë are the pyramids. They are derived from Egyptian pyramids but rise more steeply than those at Giza and have flat, rather than pointed, caps. Scholars believe that these flat tops may each have supported a sun disk, indicating worship of a sun god.
Differences between the mortuary temple and the pylon temple
The main architectural innovation of Hatshepsut's reign was the terraced mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri (fig. 5.17). The primary function of the Egyptian mortuary temple, usually constructed from a pylon plan, was twofold: first, to worship the king's patron deity during his lifetime; and, second, to worship the king himself after his death. As a mortuary temple for both Hatshepsut and her father, the Deir el-Bahri complex reinforced her image as his successor. At the same time, the major deities Amon, Hathor, and Anubis were worshiped in shrines within the temple. On the exterior, terraces with rectangular supports and polygonal columns blended impressively with the vast rocky site. The pyramid in figure 5.28 belonged to Queen Amanishakheto (first century b.c.) and was discovered in a relatively good state of preservation. According to Cailliaud's drawing, the entrance, inspired by Egyptian temple pylons, was decorated with reliefs illustrating the ruler's triumph over Meroë's enemies
6.3 & 4: Reconstruction of the Palace of Minos at Knossos, Crete, ca. 1700-1400 BC-
The major Minoan site was Knossos, which had been inhabited since early Neolithic times. Its palace (see fig. 6.3) was the traditional residence of Minos and the largest of several palaces on Crete. In fact, there is no royal iconography known from Minoan Crete. But the structure called the "Palace at Knossos" resembles known palaces in the ancient Near East
6.21: "Mask of Agamemnon," from Mycenae, c. 1500 BC
The mask in figure 6.21, the so-called Mask of Agamemnon, is a good example of the goldwork found in royal Mycenaean graves, although the gold itself was imported. The mask covered the face of a ruler once thought to have been Agamemnon, but in fact his identity is unknown. Despite stylizations such as the scroll-shaped ears, the more distinctive features—the thin lips and curved mustache—seem to be those of a particular person
Crete & Minoan Art
The modern Greek island of Crete, to the south of the Cyclades and northwest of the Nile delta, was the home of the most important Bronze Age culture Its palace (see fig. 6.3) was the traditional resi[1]dence of Minos and the largest of several palaces on Crete. In fact, there is no royal iconography known from Minoan Crete. But the structure called the "Palace at Knossos" resembles known palaces in the ancient Near East. In Greek mythology the palace was called a "labyrinth," which Evans believed originally meant "house of the double axe." The latter was a cult object in the Minoan era, and it is represented in paintings and reliefs throughout the pal[1]ace at Knossos. Double axes may have been used to sacri[1]fice bulls, which were sacred animals in ancient Crete
6.16, 17 & 18: Treasury of Atreus, Tholos Tomb, Mycenae, ca. 1300-1250 BC-
The most dramatic surviving structures at Mycenae are the monumental royal tholos (Greek for "round building") tombs. The largest (figs. 6.16, 6.17, and 6.18) has been called both the "Treasury of Atreus" and the "Tomb of Agamemnon" (the son of Atreus). In fact, however, it is not known who was buried there. Like the entrance to the citadel, the tholos was preceded by a dromos, or roadway, 118 feet (36 m) long, whose walls were of Cyclopean masonry. Above the entrance, which was designed like the Lion Gate, was an enormous lintel weighing over 100 tons. It also had a relieving triangle above it and was filled in with carved stone blocks.
6.1 & 2: Female Cycladic idol from Amorgos 2700-2300 BC
The most impressive examples of early Bronze Age Cycladic art are human figures made of marble. They range in height from nearly 5 feet (1.5 m) (figs. 6.1 and 6.2) to only a few inches. Today they are called idols because they are thought to have been objects of worship. Most were found lying in graves.
5.5, 6, & 7: Great Pyramids, Gizeh, Dynasty IV,
The most impressive pyramids were built for three Old Kingdom pharaohs of the Fourth Dynasty: the pyramid of Khufu (the largest, known as the Great Pyramid); the pyramid of his son Khafre; and the pyramid of Khafre's son Menkaure (fig. 5.5). All three are near Cairo at Giza, on the west bank of the Nile, facing the direction of sunset (symbolizing death). Each pyramid was connected by a causeway (an elevated road) to its own valley temple at the edge of the original flood plain of the Nile. When the king died, his body was transported across the Nile by boat to the valley temple. It was then carried along the causeway to its own funerary temple, where it was presented with offerings of food and drink, and the Opening of the Mouth ceremony was performed The pyramid was a resting place for the king's body, and burial chambers were constructed either in the rock under the pyramid or in the pyramid itself. In Khufu's case (fig. 5.6), the burial chamber is located in the middle of the pyramid. There were also smaller chambers, possibly for the body of the queen, the organs of the deceased, and worldly goods for the journey to the afterlife. The chambers were connected by a maze of passages, including dead ends designed to foil grave robbers. In this objective the builders failed; during the Middle Kingdom a succession of thieves plundered all of the Gizapyramids From the pyramid of Khafre, a processional road led to his valley temple, guarded by the Great Sphinx (fig. 5.7), a colossal human-headed creature with a lion's body, carved out of sandstone.
6.9: Ship Fresco, from Akrotiri, Therea, c. 1650-1500 BC
The most significant painting discovered on Thera is the large Ship Fresco; part of the left section is reproduced in figure 6.9. It was painted in a long horizontal strip, or frieze, that extended over windows and doorways. The scene includes harbors, boats, cities and villages, human figures, landscape, sea life, and land animals, all of which provide information about the culture of ancient Thera.
5.13, 14 & 15: Temple of Amon-Mut-Khonsu, Luxor Egypt, c. 1390 BC
The plan of the New Kingdom temple of Amon-Mut-Khonsu at Luxor in figure 5.13 shows the spaces through which worshipers moved from the bright outdoors to the dark inner sanctuary. When they arrived at the entrance, they confronted two rows of gods in animal form facing each other
Thera, Atlantis & Plato
The precise role of Thera in the Minoan era remains to be determined. Some believe it is the source of the story of the lost Atlantis, described by Plato in his Timaeus and Kritias; others strongly disagree. In any case, new archaeological finds reveal the dynamic, ever[1]changing nature of history
6.6: Snake Goddess, from Knossos, Crete, c. 1600 BC
The precise significance of the small statue of the so- called Snake Goddess (fig. 6.6) is not known. However, the motif of a male or female deity dominating animals, referred to as the "Master" or "Mistress of Beasts," occurs earlier in the ancient Near East and later in Greek art
5.28: Tomb of Amanishakheto, Meroë, Nubia, late 1st century BC
The pyramid in figure 5.28 belonged to Queen Amanishakheto (first century b.c.) and was discovered in a relatively good state of preservation. According to Cailliaud's drawing, the entrance, inspired by Egyptian temple pylons, was decorated with reliefs illustrating the ruler's triumph over Meroë's enemies
6.5: Bull-leaping (Toreador Fresco), from the palace of Knossos, ca. 1450- 1400 BC-
The so-called Toreador or Leaping Bull Fresco (fig. 6.5) is the best-known wall painting from Knossos. It represents a charging bull, two girls, and one boy. The girl at the left grasps the bull's horns, the boy somersaults over its back, and the girl at the right stands ready to catch him
Pylon Temples of the New Kingdom:
The standard Egyptian temple, called a pylon temple after the two massive sloping towers (pylons) flanking the entrance, was designed symmetrically along a single axis.
6.19: Grave Circle A
There is also some connection between the later tholoi and earlier Mycenaean shaft graves. One such grave circle inside the citadel itself can be seen in the reconstructed aerial view in figure 6.19. The reconstruction shows the massive Cyclopean masonry walls and the disposition of the graves within them.
Minoan vs. Mycenaean
There is some controversy over the origin of the two cups, but the one on the left seems to be the work of a Minoan artist, while the one on the right is Mycenaean. The scene on the left cup shows a man tying up a bull, possibly for the ritual Minoan bull sport. Landscape forms—trees, earth, and clouds—are depicted with consid[1]erable naturalism. Also reflecting a concern for naturalism is the sense of time, noted above in the Toreador Fresco (see fig. 6.5); here the bull first sniffs the ground and then is enticed by a cow. The man's thin waist and flowing curvilin[1]ear outlines recall the slender figures in Minoan painting. The cup on the right is Mycenaean in execution, but its iconography is Minoan. It is cruder than the Minoan cup and stresses the violence of the struggling bull caught in a net rather than landscape forms. The style of the Myce[1]naean cup is more powerful and its forms are generally more abstract. The relief on both cups was made using the repoussé technique (from the French word pousser, mean ing "to push"), in which an artist hammers out the scenes from the inside of the cup. Final details were added on the outside and a smooth lining of gold was attached to the inside
Homer
These tales were well known to the historical Greeks: the Trojan War from The Iliad, written in the eighth century b.c. and attributed to Homer; and the tragedy of Agamemnon's family from plays of Aeschylos, Sophokles, and Euripides (fifth century b.c.)
Ramses II
This pharaoh is often thought to be the pharaoh that refused to let the Israelites leave Egypt in the story of Mosses. You may be familiar the movie The Ten Commandments with Charlton Heston as Mosses and Yul Brynner as Ramses. Others believe that it was Ramses father, Seti I, who was the pharaoh in the story. Seti I is the pharaoh who is killed at the beginning of the movie The Mummy. Queen Nefertari was the wife of Ramses I.
5.10 Menkaure and (wife) Khamerernebty, Gizeh, Dynasy IV, ca. 2490-2472 BC. Slate-
This sculpture would be considered High Relief. If you look closely you can see that they are still attached to the original piece of Slate.
Rock-cut Tombs
This was rock-cut architec[1]ture, in which the sides of cliffs were excavated to create artificial cave chambers. Rock-cut tombs became popular with aristocrats and high-level bureaucrats in the Eleventh and Twelfth dynasties, and in the New Kingdom with the pharaohs.
Why is this tomb so important?
Three coffins, one inside the other, protected the mummy. The two outer coffins were made of gilded wood; the innermost coffin was made of solid gold and weighed 243 pounds (110 kg). The mummy and its three coffins rested inside a large rectangular stone sarcophagus. The canopic coffinette in figure 5.25 is one of four that contained the pharaoh's organs. These small coffins were housed in a wooden shrine that was placed in another room of the tomb. Their shape conforms to that of the large coffins, and they also show Tutankhamon as Osiris. Each was made of beaten gold, decorated with inlaid colored glass and semiprecious stones
5.24: The Innermost Coffin of Tutankhamen, from, Thebes, Dynasty XVIII, ca. 1323 BC
Tutankhamon's mummy wore a solid-gold portrait mask (fig. 5.24). It was inlaid with blue glass, lapis lazuli, and other colored materials
6.22: Minoan and Mycenaean cups from Vapheio, near Sparta, c. 16th century BC
Two gold cups from an intact tholos tomb at the site of Vapheio, in the region around Sparta (fig. 6.22), were also buried with a king. There is some controversy over the origin of the two cups, but the one on the left seems to be the work of a Minoan artist, while the one on the right is Mycenaean
Mut
Wife of Amon; originally a vulture goddess, later depicted as a woman.
Tholos (tholoi is plural)
a circular tomb of beehive shape approached by a long horizontal passage; (b) in Classical times, a round building modeled on ancient tombs.
Hypostyle
a hall with a roof supported by rows of columns
Hieroglyphs
a picture or symbol of an object standing for a word or syllable, developed by the ancient Egyptians into a writing system
Papyrus
a plant found in Egypt and neighboring countries; (b) a paperlike writing material made from the pith of the plant.
Mastaba
a rectangular burial monument in ancient Egypt
Serekh
a rectangular outline containing the name of a king in the Early Dynastic period of ancient Egypt.
Pyramidion :
a small pyramid as at the top of an obelisk
Obelisks
a tall, four-sided stone, usually monolithic, that tapers toward the top and is capped by a pyramidion (fig. 5.15). Objet trouvé: see Found object
Terra-cotta jars
an earthenware material, with or without a glaze; (b) an object made of this material.
Cartouches
an oval or scroll-shaped design or ornament, usually containing an inscription, a heraldic device, or (as in Egypt) a ruler's name.
Relieving Triangle
and the triangular section over the lintel is called a relieving triangle because it reduces the weight on the lintel
How did she become pharaoh?
assumed royal titles and iconography and had her own divine conception depicted in her temple reliefs. In keeping with the conventional scene, the compound god Amon-Ra was shown handing the ankh symbol ( ), hieroglyph for "life," to her mother, Queen Ahmose. In this imagery, Hatshepsut proclaimed her divine right to rule Egypt as a king. She also referred to herself in texts as the female Horus, evoking the traditional parallel between pharaohs and gods.
Mummification
death was a transition to a simi[1]lar existence on another plane. To ensure a good afterlife, the deceased had to be physically preserved along with earthly possessions and other reminders of daily activities. This was first achieved by simple burial in the dry des[1]ert sands. Later, coffins insulated the body and artificial means of preservation were used. But in case the body of the deceased did not last, an image could serve as a sub[1]stitute. The dead person's ka, or soul, was believed able to enter the surrogate before journeying to the next world
6.14: "Goddess" from the citadel of Mycenae, Fresco, c. 1200 BC
e. The so-called Mycenaean Goddess (fig. 6.14) was discovered in the cult center of the citadel. Her face is rendered in profile with a frontal eye, but her naturalism is enhanced by curvilinear contours
Death Masks
h death masks were intended to guarantee a dead person's identity in the afterlife.
By destroying Hatshepsut's images
her step-son Thutmose III was attempting to erase her from history and to damn her in the next life.
Ankh symbol:
hieroglyph for "life,
Courses
horizontal layers of brick or masonry in a wall
5.7: Sphinx:
in ancient Egypt, a creature with the body of a lion and the head of a human, an animal, or a bird (fig. 5.7).
Repoussé
in metalwork, decorated with patterns in relief made by hammering on the reverse side (fig. 6.22).
Valley of the Kings
in the New Kingdom pharaohs were no longer buried in pyramids but in hidden tombs in the Valley of the Kings. Their wives were buried in the Valley of the Queens. Hatshepsut was buried in the Valley of the Kings.
Kamares Ware
is an art of shape and color in which patterns are integrated in a balanced, organic manner with the form of the vessel
Recumbent Deity
is typically a sphinx with the head of what ever god is being worshipped at this temple these make up the avenue of deities on the diagram below.
King Priam
king of troy
Low Relief
relief sculpture in which figures and forms project only slightly from the background plane.
Cyclopean Masonry
stone construction using large, irregular blocks without mortar. This is an excellent example of Post and Lintel-
After his death, many of Akhenaton's images
suffered the same fate as Hatshepsut in the hopes of removing the memory of the heretic and damning him in the next life
5.1 & 2: Palette of King Narmer, ca. 3100 BC.
the Palette of Narmer (figs. 5.1 and 5.2); it dates from the beginning of pharaonic rule and is designed to project the ruler's power. On both sides, the palette is decorated in low relief. The large scene in figure 5.1 is depicted according to certain conventions that lasted for over two thousand years in Egypt. King Narmer (thought to be Menes, the first pharaoh) is the biggest figure—his size and central position denote his importance. His composite pose, in which the head and legs are rendered in profile view with the eye and upper torso in frontal view, is an Egyptian convention. This is a conceptual, rather than a naturalistic, approach to the human figure, for the body parts are arranged as they are individually understood, and not as they are seen in nature. The entire figure is flat, as is the kilt, with certain details such as the kneecaps rendered as stylizations, rather than as underlying organic structure
Frieze
the central section of the entablature in the Classical Orders; (b) any horizontal decorative band
Ramses II:
the favorite consort of the nineteenth-dynasty pharaoh Ramses II
Clerestory
the upper part of the main outer wall of a building, located above an adjoining roof and admitting light through a row of windows
Folded Arm Figurine:
this is the term usually applied to these female figures, because of their folded arm pose. In antiquity they were painted with red pigment. Many of them were found in graves, but seem to have been used during life before being interred with their owners.
Palette
typically a palette refers to something used to mix pigment on, such as paints or, in this case, make-up. Remember, while this is a palette, it is a ceremonial decorative object and is much larger then a usuable make-up palette would be.
Imhotep-,
was a priest at Heliopolis and is reputed to have been the first Egyptian to build monumental stone structures. His name is inscribed inside the pyramid, where he is designated "First after the King of Upper and Lower Egypt." He became a legendary figure in ancient Egypt, revered for his wisdom as a magician, astronomer, and healer, and was worshiped as a god
Sir Arthur Evens
when the British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans (1851-1941) excavated the site of Knossos. Inspired by his knowledge of later Greek myths about the pre-Greek Aegean, Evans established a historical basis for the myths
Saffron
which was considered valuable for medicinal as well as for ritual purposes. The girl depicted here is collecting saffron for presentation to a nature goddess
