Art History I Test 2 NSCC
Chartres Cathedral
-3 phases of Gothic (Early in facade, High French in back, Late in the North Spire) -painted arches, rib vaults- Gothic elements -colors vivid -knowledge, nature, light -limestone, stained glass Function: -Church with great beauty that honors Mary and gives her the respect she deserves -built after they found Mary's Tunic unharmed in the fire
buon fresco
(waterbased pigments applied to wet plaster) buon ("true") fresco ("fresh"), in which water-based paint is applied on wet plaster. The advantage of buon fresco is its durability. A chemical reaction occurs as the painted plaster dries, which bonds the pigments into the wall surface. chief disadvantage of buon fresco is that it must be done quickly without mistakes. The painter plasters and paints only as much as can be completed in a day, which explains the Italian term for each of these sections: giornata, or a day's work. The size of a giornata varies according to the complexity of the painting within it. A face, for instance, might take an entire day, whereas large areas of sky can be painted quite rapidly.
Song Dynasty
A brief period of disintegration followed the fall of the Tang, but eventually China was again united, this time under the Song dynasty (960-1279). A new capital was founded at Bianjing near the Yellow River. the mood during the Song was more introspective, a reflection of China's weakened military situation. Although China's territory had diminished, its wealth had increased because of advances in agriculture, commerce, and technology begun under the Tang. Patronage was plentiful, and the arts flourished. Song culture is noted for its refined taste and intellectual grandeur. Song culture was more self-consciously Chinese. Philosophy experienced its most creative era since the "one hundred schools" of the Zhou. Song scholarship was brilliant, especially in history, and its poetry is noted for its depth. Perhaps the finest expressions of the Song, however, are in art, especially painting and ceramics. (960-1279 CE) The Chinese dynasty that placed much more emphasis on civil administration, industry, education, and arts other than military.
clerestory
A clerestory (a row of tall, narrow windows in the upper walls, not visible in the figure), that allow light to enter in
Guang
A ritual pouring vessel shows a highly sculptural rendition of animal forms. related to the hunting life of the Shang. Shang dynasty, Cast bronze, An ancient Chinese covered vessel, often in animal form, holding wine, water, grain, or meat for sacrificial rites
INTERIOR VIEW, PALACE CHAPEL OF CHARLEMAGNE
Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), Germany. Carolingian Art
Reliquary Statue of Sainte Foy
Abbey church, Conques, France. Late 9th or 10th century with later additions. Silver gilt over a wood core, with gems and cameos of various dates. Romanesque
Gospel
Among the richest surviving artworks of the period are lavishly decorated Gospel books, essential not only for spiritual and liturgical life within established monasteries, but also for the missionary activities of the Church, since a Gospel book was required in each new foundation. Often bound in gold and jeweled covers, they were placed on church altars, carried in processions, and even thought to protect parishioners from enemies, predators, diseases, and other misfortunes. The sumptuous books were produced by monks in local monastic workshops called scriptoria. Each of the four Gospels is introduced by a three-part decorative sequence: a page with the symbol of its evangelist author, followed by a page of pure ornament, and finally elaborate decoration highlighting the initial words of the text (the incipit).
rib vaulting
An important innovation of Romanesque and Gothic builders. a form of groin vault in which the diagonal ridges (groins) rest on and are covered by curved moldings called ribs. After the walls and piers of the building reached the desired height, timber scaffolding to support these masonry ribs was constructed. When the mortar of the ribs was set, the web of the vault was then laid on forms built on the ribs themselves. After all the temporary forms were removed, the ribs may have provided strength at the intersections of the webbing to channel the vaults' thrust outward and downward to the foundations; they certainly add decorative interest. In short, ribs formed the "skeleton" of the vault; the webbing, a lighter masonry "skin." In Late Gothic buildings, additional decorative ribs give such vaults a lacelike appearance. intersection of two or three barrel vaults
CENTRAL PORTAL, RIGHT SIDE, WEST FAÇADE, REIMS CATHEDRAL
Annunciation and Visitation
Zhou Dynasty
Around 1100 bce, the Shang were conquered by the Zhou from western China. During the Zhou dynasty (1100- 221 bce) a feudal society developed, with nobles related to the king ruling over numerous small states. The supreme deity became known as Tian, or Heaven, and the king ruled as the Son of Heaven. Later Chinese ruling dynasties continued to follow the belief that imperial rule emanated from a mandate from Heaven. The first 300 years of this longest-lasting Chinese dynasty were generally stable and peaceful. later Eastern Zhou period was a troubled one. States grew increasingly independent, giving only nominal allegiance to the Zhou kings. Smaller states were swallowed up by their larger neighbors. 10 or 12 states, later reduced to 7, emerged as powers. The ensuing Warring States period (481-221 bce) saw intrigue, treachery, and increasingly ruthless warfare. Against this background of social turmoil, China's great philosophers arose—such thinkers as Confucius (551-479 bce), Laozi (flourished in sixth century bce), Mozi (c. 470- 391 bce), and Zhuangzi (369-286 bce). Traditional histories speak of China's "one hundred schools" of philosophy, indicating a shift of focus from the supernatural to the human world. Nevertheless, elaborate burials on an even larger scale than before reflected the continuation of traditional beliefs. the longest lasting Chinese dynasty, during which the use of iron was introduced.
Nicola Pisano Pulpit at Pisa
Baptistery, Pisa, Italy. Marble. Columns topped with leafy Corinthian capitals support standing figures and Gothic trefoil arches, which in turn provide a platform for the six-sided pulpit. The columns rest on high bases carved with crouching figures, domestic animals, and shaggy-maned lions. Panels forming the pulpit enclosure illustrate New Testament subjects, each framed as an independent composition.
PALACE PLAQUE OF A WAR CHIEF, WARRIORS, AND ATTENDANTS
Benin City Kingdom, Nigeria. Edo. Brass,
HIP PENDANT OF THE IYOBA (QUEEN MOTHER) IDIA
Benin City Kingdom, Nigeria. Ivory, iron, and copper
Edo/ Benin City
Benin City is a longstanding royal city in Nigeria. speaks Edo. They organized a sophisticated kingdom under the oba (king) Ogiso around 900, and a second powerful dynasty arose under the warrior-king Eweka I in the thirteenth century. Eweka I is credited with bringing Benin City to the height of its power. From the twelfth through nineteenth centuries, in fact, Benin City was an internationally renowned sacred city, as well as the political capital of the Edo Empire. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, three important oba, Ewuare, Ozolua, and Esigie, ignited an artistic revival in their capital. Thousands of art objects in cast brass, ivory, wood, and red ocean coral were created during their reigns. known for the casting of bronze
stupa
Buddhist architecture in South Asia; may be either structural (built up from the ground) or rock-cut (hewn out of a mountainside). Stupas derive from burial mounds and contain relics beneath a solid, dome-shaped core. A major stupa is surrounded by a railing that creates a sacred path for ritual circumambulation at ground level. This railing is punctuated by gateways, called toranas in Sanskrit, aligned with the cardinal points of the compass. The stupa sits on a round or square terrace; stairs may lead to an upper circumambulatory path around the platform's edge. On top of the stupa a railing defines a square, from the center of which rises a mast supporting tiers of disk-shaped "umbrellas." Buddhist shrine that is shaped like a dome or mound
Book of Hours
By the late thirteenth century, private prayer books became popular among wealthy patrons. Because they contained special prayers to be recited at the eight canonical devotional "hours" between morning and night, an individual copy of one of these books came to be called a Book of Hours. Such a book included everything the layperson needed for pious practice—psalms, prayers and offices of the Virgin and other saints (such as the owner's patron or the patron of their home church), a calendar of feast days, and sometimes prayers for the dead. During the fourteenth century, a richly decorated Book of Hours was worn or carried like jewelry, counting among a noble person's most important portable possessions.
FENG JU ALBUM
Calligraphy is regarded as one of the highest forms of artistic expression in China. For more than 2,000 years, China's literati—Confucian scholars and literary men who also served the government as officials—have been connoisseurs and practitioners of this art. Feng Ju is an example of "running" or semicursive style, neither too formal nor too free but with a relaxed, easygoing manner. Brushstrokes vary in width and length,creating rhythmic vitality. came to be officially accepted and learned along with other script styles by those who practiced this art. Six Dynasties period, Ink on paper
DOORS OF BISHOP BERNWARD
Cathedral of the Assumption of Mary, Hildesheim, Germany. Bronze. represented the most ambitious bronze-casting project undertaken since antiquity. Each door, including the impressive lion heads holding the ring handles, was cast as a single piece using the lost-wax process and later detailed and reworked with chisels and fine tools. portray events from the Hebrew Bible on the left and from the New Testament on the right Ottonian
Carolingian
Charlemagne established a dynasty and an empire known today as the Carolingian. the Carolingian realm reached its greatest extent, encompassing western Germany, France, the Lombard kingdom in Italy, and the Low Countries. Charlemagne imposed Christianity throughout this territory. This endorsement reinforced Charlemagne's authority and strengthened the bonds between the papacy and secular government in the West. The Carolingian rulers' ascent to the Roman imperium, and the political pretensions it implied, are clearly signaled in a small bronze equestrian statue glorify rulers who are clearly Carolingian. Charlemagne sought to restore the Western Empire as a Christian state and to revive the arts and learning: as inscribed on his official seal, "the Renewal of the Roman Empire." To lead this revival, he turned to Benedictine monks and nuns. the Anglo-Saxon scholar Alcuin of York, whom Charlemagne called to his court, spent the last eight years of his life producing a corrected copy of the Latin Vulgate Bible. His revision served as the standard text of the Bible for the remainder of the medieval period and is still in use. Carolingian scribes also worked on standardizing script. Capitals (majuscules) based on ancient Roman inscriptions continued to be used for very formal writing, titles and headings, and luxury manuscripts. But they also developed a new, clear script called Carolingian minuscule, based on Roman forms but with a uniform lowercase alphabet that increased legibility and streamlined production.
reliquary
Christians turned to the heroes of the Church, especially martyrs who had died for their faith, to answer their prayers and to intercede with Christ on their behalf; prayers offered to saints while in close proximity to their relics were considered especially effective. Bodies, parts of bodies, and things associated with the Holy Family or the saints were kept in richly decorated containers called reliquaries. Reliquaries could be simple boxes, but they might also be created in more elaborate shapes, sometimes in the form of body parts such as arms, ribs, or heads. By the eleventh century, many different arrangements of crypts, chapels, and passageways gave people access to the relics kept in churches. Owning and displaying these relics so enhanced the prestige and wealth of a community that people went to great lengths to acquire them, not only by purchase but also by theft. In the ninth century, for example, the monks of Conques stole the relics of the child martyr Sainte Foy (St. Faith) from her shrine at Agen. Such a theft was called "holy robbery," for the new owners insisted that it had been sanctioned by the saint, who had communicated to them her desire to move.
Describe the relationship between Confucianism (including Neo-Confucianism) and Chinese art.
Confucianism is a rational political philosophy that emphasizes individualism, nonconformity, and a return to nature. The goal is the attainment of social harmony is outward working concentric circles. Morality and empathy as basic standards for all human interactions. Etiquette, human-heartedness, and justice. The influence is seen in Confucian art in symbols and scenes of respect for the emperor, filial piety, and wifely devotion. Admonitions of the Imperial Instructress to Court Ladies. Neo-Confucianism found its spot in landscape (ridding oneself of impurities in order to join the greater force). revealed in the specificities of the way nature is portrayed: rock formations, changes of seasons, blossoms, etc. Song Dynasty. Travelers Among Mountains and Streams, Fan Kuan.
Abbot Suger
Construction began in the 1130s of a new church to replace the early medieval church at the abbey, under the supervision of Abbot Suger (abbot 1122-1151). Suger discusses the building of the church in a written account of his administration of the abbey, a rare firsthand chronicle and justification of a medieval building program. Suger prized magnificence, precious materials, and especially fine workmanship (see "Abbot Suger on the Value of Art in Monasteries" on page 512). He invited an international team of masons, sculptors, metalworkers, and glass painters, making this building site a major center of artistic exchange. Such a massive undertaking was extraordinarily expensive. The abbey received substantial annual revenues from the town's inhabitants, and Suger was not above forging documents to increase the abbey's landholdings, which constituted its principal source of income. Suger argues that the older building was inadequate to accommodate the crowds of pilgrims who arrived on feast days to venerate the body of St. Denis, and too modest to express the importance of the saint himself. in the 12th century, he built the Church of Saint Denis, the premier model of Gothic architecture
Ballcourt
Copan, Honduras. Maya culture, Used the ballcourt as a religious ceremonial game. and sacrifice. Found in many mesoamerican cities.
Interior of Durham Cathedral
DURHAM CATHEDRAL, begun in 1087 and vaulted starting in 1093, is an impressive example of Norman Romanesque, but has been altered several times . The nave retains its Norman character, but the huge circular window lighting the choir is a later Gothic addition. new system of ribbed groin vaulting
Woven and cut pile textile
Democratic Republic of the Congo. Raffia,
VIEW OF AMBULATORY AND APSE CHAPELS OF THE ABBEY CHURCH OF SAINT-DENIS
France.
Head
From Nok, Nigeria. Terra cotta,
Cathedral of Saint James
Galicia, Spain. Romanesque
Arena Chapel
Giotto was called to Padua in northern Italy soon after 1300 to paint frescos for a new chapel being constructed at the site of an ancient Roman arena—explaining why it is often referred to as the Arena Chapel. The chapel was commissioned by Enrico Scrovegni, whose family fortune was made through the practice of usury, or charging interest when loaning money, a sin considered so grave at the time that it resulted in exclusion from the Christian sacraments. the building of the Arena Chapel next to his new palatial residence seems to have been conceived at least in part as an attempt to atone not only for his father's sins, but also for his own. The building itself has little architectural distinction. It is a simple, barrel-vaulted room with broad walls to showcase Giotto's paintings. Giotto covered the entrance wall with the Last Judgment and the sanctuary wall with three highlighted scenes from the life of Christ. The Annunciation spreads over the two painted architectural frameworks on either side of the tall, arched opening into the sanctuary itself. Below this are, to the left, the scene of Judas receiving payment for betraying Jesus and, to the right, the scene of the Visitation, where the Virgin, pregnant with God incarnate, embraces her cousin Elizabeth, pregnant with St. John the Baptist. The compositions and color arrangement of these two scenes create a symmetrical pairing that encourages viewers to relate them, comparing the ill-gotten financial gains of Judas (a rather clear reference to Scrovegni usury) to the miraculous pregnancy that brought the promise of salvation. Giotto subdivided the side walls of the chapel into framed pictures. Both the individual scenes and the overall program display Giotto's genius for distilling complex stories into a series of compelling moments. He concentrates on the human dimensions of the unfolding drama—from touches of anecdotal humor to expressions of profound anguish— rather than on its symbolic or theological weight. His prodigious narrative skills are apparent in a set of scenes from Christ's life on the north wall. Giotto portrays palpable human suffering, drawing viewers into a circle of personal grief. What is new here is the way Giotto draws us into the experience of these events. This direct emotional appeal not only allows viewers to imagine the scenes in relation to their own life experiences, it also embodies the new Franciscan emphasis on personal devotion rooted in empathetic responses to sacred stories.
BASE OF NORTH ACROPOLIS AND TEMPLE, TIKAL
Guatemala. Maya culture. North Acropolis
Tale of Genji
Heian period, Handscroll with ink and colors on paper written by Lady Murasaki; first novel in any languange; relates life history of prominent and amorous son of the Japanese emperor's son; evidence for mannered style of the Japanese society.
Womb World Mandala
Heian period, Hanging scroll with colors on silk, represents an ultimate reality beyond the visible world.
panel painting
Il Libro dell' Arte (The Book of Art) of Cennino Cennini (c. 1370- 1440) is a compendium of Florentine painting techniques from about 1400 that includes step-by-step instructions for making panel paintings, a process also used in Sienese paintings of the same period. The wood for the panels, he explains, should be finegrained, free of blemishes, and thoroughly seasoned by slow drying. cover its surface with clean white linen strips soaked in a gesso (primer) made from gypsum, a task, he tells us, best done on a dry, windy day. Gesso provided a ground, or surface, on which to paint, and Cennini specified that at least nine layers should be applied. worked principally in tempera paint: powdered pigments mixed with egg yolk, a little water, and an occasional touch of glue.
Ottonian
In 843, the Carolingian Empire was divided into three parts ruled by three grandsons of Charlemagne. a new Saxon dynasty came to power in lands corresponding roughly to presentday Germany and Austria. We call this dynasty Ottonian after its three principal rulers—Otto I (ruled 936-973), Otto II (ruled 973-983), and Otto III (ruled 983-1002; After the Ottonian armies defeated the Vikings in the north and the Magyars (Hungarians) on the eastern frontiers, the resulting peace permitted increased trade and the growth of towns, making the tenth century a period of economic recovery. The Ottonian ideology, rooted in unity of Church and state, takes visual form on an ivory plaque, Ottonian rulers sought to replicate the splendors of both the Christian architecture of Rome and the Christian empire of their Carolingian predecessors. Sculpture Ottonian sculptors worked in ivory, bronze, wood, and other materials rather than stone. Like their Early Christian and Byzantine predecessors, they and their patrons focused on church furnishings and portable art rather than architectural sculpture. Drawing on Roman, Early Christian, Byzantine, and Carolingian models, they created large works in wood and bronze that would have a significant influence on later medieval art.
Confucianism
In contrast to the metaphysical focus of Daoism, Confucianism is concerned with the human world; its goal is the attainment of social harmony. To this end, it proposes a system of ethics based on reverence for ancestors and correct relationships among people. Beginning with self-discipline in the individual, Confucianism teaches how to rectify relationships within the family, and then, in ever-widening circles, with friends and others, all the way up to the level of the emperor and the state. it remained the state ideology of China for more than 2,000 years, until the end of imperial rule in the twentieth century. Once institutionalized, Confucianism took on so many rituals that it eventually assumed the form and force of a religion by infusing Confucianism with traditional Chinese cosmology. The moral system of Confucian society became a reflection of universal order. The system of ethics, education, and statesmanship taught by Confucius and his disciples, stressing love for humanity, ancestor worship, reverence for parents, and harmony in thought and conduct.
oba
King of Benin
MATTHEW WRITING HIS GOSPEL, LINDISFARNE GOSPEL BOOK
Lindisfarne. Ink and tempera on vellum
Olmec
Meanwhile, like their counterparts at San Lorenzo, the La Venta Olmec built earthen mounds and set over 100 monumental sculptures in their plazas. designed to symmetrically flank the site's central axis, which pointed south toward the nearest mountain on the horizon, presumably a sacred location. The sculptures included colossal heads, cave-niche thrones, basalt columns, and other enormous carvings. These earthen forms and stone sculptures formed a processional narrative array along the central axis that portrayed the Olmec creation story. The Olmec traded across Mesoamerica, obtaining jade from the Motagua River Valley in Honduras and malachite pigments from northwestern Mexico. As Formative Period people interacted, the ideas that Olmec art expressed so powerfully—about the parallels between maize plants and human life, reciprocal relations with natural forces, the preciousness of jade as a symbol of vital energy, and the cosmic ramifications of the ballgame—were adopted and transformed by groups throughout Mesoamerica. As Olmec civilization waned around 300 bce, people in the Maya area and Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico forged new civilizations from these foundational ideas. The first Mesoamerican civilization. Between ca. 1200 and 400 B.C.E., these people of central Mexico created a vibrant civilization that included intensive agriculture, wide-ranging trade, ceremonial centers, and monumental construction.
Teotihuacan
Mesoamerica's first truly urban settlement, a significant center of commerce and manufacturing. residents lived in walled "apartment compounds," and the entire city was organized on a grid The style, like that of the sculpture, was flat, angular, and abstract, often featuring processions of similarly dressed figures, rows of mythological animals, or other sequences of repeated images. Teotihuacan painters worked in several different color schemes, including a bright polychrome and a more restricted palette emphasizing tones of red. influence continued as other centers throughout Mesoamerica, as far south as the Maya region, borrowed and transformed its imagery. first major metropolis in Mesoamerica, collapsed around 800 CE. It is most remembered for the gigantic "pyramid of the sun".
Colossal Head, San Lorenzo
Mexico. Olmec culture, Basalt,
CEREMONIAL CENTER OF THE CITY OF TEOTIHUACAN
Mexico. Teotihuacan culture. the pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the moon
Tale of Genji
One of the earliest surviving examples is an illustrated handscroll from the twelfth century depicting a series of scenes from The Tale of Genji. The handscroll alternates sections of text with illustrations of scenes from the story and features delicate lines, strong (but sometimes muted) mineral colors, and asymmetrical compositions. The paintings have a refined, subtle emotional impact. They generally show court figures in architectural settings, with the frequent addition of natural elements and gardens that help to convey the mood of the scene. Thus a blossoming cherry tree appears in a scene of happiness, while unkempt weeds appear in a depiction of loneliness. Such correspondences between nature and human emotion are an enduring theme of Japanese poetry and art. The figures in The Tale of Genji paintings do not show their emotions directly on their faces, which are rendered with a few simple lines. Instead, their feelings are conveyed by colors, poses, fluttering of curtains, and the overall composition of the scenes. Only 19 illustrated scenes survive from this earliest known example of an illustrated handscroll of The Tale of Genji, created about 100 years after the novel was written. Scholars assume that it originally contained illustrations from the entire novel of 54 chapters, approximately 100 pictures in all. Each scroll seems to have been produced by a team of artists. One was the calligrapher, most likely a member of the nobility. Another was the master painter, who outlined two or three illustrations per chapter in fine brushstrokes and indicated the color scheme. Next, colorists went to work, applying layer after layer of color to build up patterns and textures. After they had finished, the master painter returned to reinforce outlines and apply the finishing touches, among them the details of the faces. written by Lady Murasaki; first novel in any languange; relates life history of prominent and amorous son of the Japanese emperor's son; evidence for mannered style of the Japanese society.
pilgrimage
Pilgrimages to three of the holiest places of Christendom—Jerusalem, Rome, and Santiago de Compostela—increased, although the majority of pilgrimages were probably more local. Rewards awaited courageous travelers along the routes, whether long or short. Pilgrims on long journeys could venerate the relics of local saints along the route, and artists and architects were commissioned to create spectacular and enticing new buildings and works of art to capture their attention.
Bowl with Scorpions
Swarts Ruin, Southwest New Mexico. Mimbres culture, Earthenware with white slip and black paint
THE EFFECTS OF GOOD GOVERNMENT IN THE CITY AND IN THE COUNTRY
Siena, Italy. Fresco. shows the city from a broad range of view points to get a bigger spectrum of activities that take place in siena. the porta romana = siena's gateway leading into rome, divides the city from its surrounding countryside. in the country side he makes a world with agricultural productivity, showing the actions of all seasons simultaneously. Lorenzetti
HINGED CLASP, FROM THE SUTTON HOO BURIAL SHIP
Suffolk, England. Gold plaques with granulation and inlays of garnet and checked millefiori glass
Virgin and Child Enthroned Giotto di Bondone
Tempera and gold on wood panel. exhibits greater spatial consistency and sculptural solidity while retaining some of Cimabue's conventions. the sense that these are fully three-dimensional beings, whose plainly draped, bulky bodies inhabit real space.
Gupta Period
The Guptas, who founded a dynasty in the eastern region of central India, expanded their territories during the fourth century ce to form an empire that encompassed northern and much of central India. Although Gupta rule was not long-lasting (ending in 550) or the most expansive, the influence of Gupta culture was tremendous and its impact was felt long after its decline. Renowned for their flourishing artistic, mathematical, and literary culture, the Guptas and their contemporaries brought forth some of India's most widely admired works of art. While Buddhism continued to be a major religion, the earliest surviving Hindu temples also date from this time. This was the "Golden Age" of Indian society (320 AD to 550 AD)
Kongo
The Kingdom of Kongo encompassed over 100,000 square miles of present-day northwestern Angola and the western part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In the fifteenth century, the capital city M'banza Kongo was the center of major trade networks, all of which were controlled by the Kongo king. Along with items made for trade, artists working for the kings of Kongo excelled at making luxury items for royal use. Textile squares, carved wooden cups, and woven hats and garments formed the bulk of this industry. The primary symbol of the Kongo religion is a cosmogram, a cross shape within a diamond, usually with four circles drawn at each point of the diamond. This cosmogram is visible in the patterns of "streets" on this textile. The cosmogram represents the "Four Moments of the Sun"; the points on the diamond represent sunrise, midday, sunset, and night. These points also represent the four cardinal directions (north, south, east, and west) and four life stages (birth, adulthood, death, and ancestry/rebirth). Royal textiles such as this used cosmogram imagery to stress the kingdom's spirituality and the divine right of its kings to rule. readily assimilated European Christianity into their own religious practice. In 1491, King Nzinga aNkuwa converted to Christianity, as did his son and successor Afonso I, who established Christianity as the official religion of the Kongo Kingdom. The conversions helped to solidify trade relations with the Portuguese, who had first arrived at M'banza Kongo in 1482. The ensuing trade in copper, salt, ivory, cloth, and, later, enslaved peoples brought increased prosperity to the kingdom. Kingdom, based on agriculture, formed on lower Congo River by late 15th century; capital at Mbanza Kongo; ruled by hereditary monarchy.
calligraphy
The emphasis on the expressive quality and structural importance of brushstrokes. The same brushes are used for both painting and calligraphy, and a relationship between them was recognized as early as Han times. Confucius had extolled the importance of the pursuit of knowledge and the arts. Among the visual arts, painting was felt to reflect moral concerns, while calligraphy was believed to reveal the character of the writer. Calligraphy is regarded as one of the highest forms of artistic expression in China. For more than 2,000 years, China's literati—Confucian scholars and literary men who also served the government as officials—have been connoisseurs and practitioners of this art. During the fourth century ce, calligraphy came to full maturity. The most important practitioner of the day was Wang Xizhi (c. 307- 365), whose works have served as models of excellence for subsequent generations.
stained glass
The light captured in stained-glass windows created luminous pictures and interior atmospheres that must have captivated worshipers whose everyday existence included little color. Gothic churches became the glorious jeweled houses of God: evocations of the heavenly Jerusalem and invitations to faithful living. And stained glass became the major medium of monumental painting. The "wonderful and uninterrupted light" that Suger sought in the reconstruction of the choir of Saint-Denis in the 1140s was provided by stained-glass artists that—as he tells us— he called in from many nations to create glowing walls for the radiating chapels and perhaps the clerestory as well. As a result of their exquisite work, this influential building program not only constituted a new architectural style; it catapulted what had been a minor curiosity among pictorial techniques into the major medium of monumental European painting. a complex and costly process.
portal
The most important imagery on a Romanesque portal appears on the semicircular tympanum directly over the door—often a hierarchically scaled image of abstract grandeur such as Christ in Majesty or Christ presiding over the Last Judgment—as well as on the lintel beneath it. Archivolts—curved moldings composed of the wedge-shaped stone voussoirs of the arch— frame the tympanum. On both sides of the doors, the jambs (vertical elements) and occasionally a central pier called the trumeau support the lintel and archivolts, providing further fields for figures, columns, or narrative friezes.
tympanum
The most important imagery on a Romanesque portal appears on the semicircular tympanum directly over the door—often a hierarchically scaled image of abstract grandeur such as Christ in Majesty or Christ presiding over the Last Judgment—as well as on the lintel beneath it. Archivolts—curved moldings composed of the wedge-shaped stone voussoirs of the arch— frame the tympanum. On both sides of the doors, the jambs (vertical elements) and occasionally a central pier called the trumeau support the lintel and archivolts, providing further fields for figures, columns, or narrative friezes. The jambs can extend forward to form a porch. Half-round panel that fills the space between the lintle and arch over the doorway of the church.
cosmic ballgame
The ritual ballgame was one of the defining characteristics of Mesoamerican society. It was generally played on a long, rectangular court with a large, solid, heavy rubber ball. Using their elbows, knees, or hips—but not their hands—heavily padded players directed the ball toward a goal or marker. The rules, size, and shape of the court; the number of players on a team; and the nature of the goal varied. The largest surviving ballcourt, at Chichen Itza, is bigger than a modern football field. Large stone rings set in the walls of this court about 25 feet above the field served as goals. may have had religious and political significance: It is part of creation stories and was sometimes associated with warfare. Captive warriors might have been forced to play the game, and when the stakes were high the game may have culminated in human sacrifice.
Sutton Hoo
The story of the excavation of Sutton Hoo—unquestionably one of the most important archaeological discoveries in Britain— begins with Edith May Pretty, who decided late in her life to explore the burial mounds that were located on her estate in southeast Suffolk, securing the services of a local amateur archaeologist, Basil Brown. Excavations began in 1938 as a collaborative effort between the two of them, and in the following year they encountered the famous ship burial. As rumors spread of the importance of the find, its excavation was gradually taken over by renowned experts and archaeologists who moved from the remains of the ship to the treasures of the burial chamber for which Sutton Hoo is most famous. Police officers were posted to guard the site, and the treasures were sent for safekeeping to the British Museum in London, although, since Sutton Hoo was determined not to be "Treasure Trove" (buried objects meant to be retrieved by their original owners and now considered property of the Crown—see Chapter 6), it was Pretty's legal property. She, however, decided to donate the entire contents of the burial mound to the British Museum. proposed that Sutton Hoo was actually a burial despite no human remains having ever been found, since they could have disappeared completely in the notably acidic soil of the mound. Other scholars used radiocarbon dating of timber fragments and close analysis of coins to focus the dating of the burial to c. 625, which happened to coincide with the death date of King Raedwald of East Anglia, the most popular candidate for the identity of the person buried at Sutton Hoo. After heated discussions and considerable controversy, new excavations were carried out in the area around Sutton Hoo during the 1980s and 1990s. These revealed a series of other discoveries in what emerged as an important early medieval burial ground and proved that the area had been inhabited since the Neolithic period—but they uncovered nothing to rival the collection of treasures at Sutton Hoo. Located north of London in Suffolk, Sutton Hoo is the site of two 6th and 7th century English burial site and an unidentified 7th century East Anglican King. Among the finds, is a ship burial full of ancient artifacts, most notably a superb gold and enamel purse cover with designs and a ceremonial helmet set with a sword, shield, and lyre.
Explain the innovations Giotto brought to late Medieval painting.
Through observation of people, Giotto was moving toward the depiction of a lifelike, contemporary world anchored in solid, three-dimensional forms. Patrons were struck by the accessibility and modernity of his work. Imitated nature- figured out spacial relationships and how to render a human body properly. Virgin and Child Enthroned. Updated Cimabue's work. Implementation of light and shadow. Bulky bodies inhabit real space.
transverse arches
To strengthen the exterior walls and enrich their sculptural presence, the masons added vertical bands of projecting masonry (called strip buttresses) joined by arches and additional courses of masonry to counter the weight and outward thrust of the vault. On the interior these masonry strips project from the piers and continue up and over the vault, creating a series of transverse arches. Additional projecting bands line the underside of the arches of the nave arcade. The result is a compound, sculptural pier that works in concert with the transverse arches to divide the nave into a series of bays. This system of bay division became standard in Romanesque architecture. An arch separating one vaulted bay from the next.
Shang Dynasty
Traditional Chinese histories tell of three Bronze Age dynasties: the Xia, the Shang, and the Zhou. Shang kings ruled from a succession of capitals in the Yellow River Valley, where archaeologists have found walled cities, palaces, and vast royal tombs. Society seems to have been highly stratified, with a ruling group that had the bronze technology needed to make weapons and ritual vessels. They maintained their authority in part by claiming power as intermediaries between the supernatural and human realms. It is thought that nature and fertility spirits were also honored, and that regular sacrifices were carried out to keep the spirits of dead ancestors vital so that they might help the living. Shang priests communicated with the supernatural world through oracle bones. They contain the earliest known form of Chinese writing, a script fully recognizable as the ancestor of the system still in use today. Second Chinese dynasty (about 1750-1122 B.C.) which was mostly a farming society ruled by an aristocracy mostly concerned with war. They're best remembered for their art of bronze casting.
Cathedral Complex, Piza
Tuscany, Italy.
Gislebertus (?) THE LAST JUDGMENT
West portal tympanum, Cathedral of Saint-Lazare, Autun, Burgundy, France. Romanesque
WESTWORK, ABBEY CHURCH OF CORVEY
Westphalia, Germany. Carolingian
Zen
Zen Buddhism was introduced to Japan from China, where it was already highly developed and known as Chan. an austere life of simplicity and self-responsibility. Chan (Zen) monks modeled their behavior on that of the founder of their lineage, the mythical Indian Buddhist sage Daruma inner strength and serenity. strove to attract followers from among those in power who could not abandon their secular life for the rigorous, cloistered existence of Zen monks who lived in temples. it emphasizes individual enlightenment through meditation, without the help of deities or magical chants. It especially appealed to the self-disciplined spirit of samurai warriors, who were not satisfied with the older forms of Buddhism connected with the Japanese court. the nation's continued dominance by the warrior class and the establishment of Zen as the religion of choice among those warriors who wielded power at the highest levels. As before, the later history of Japanese art continued to be marked by an intriguing interplay between native traditions and imported foreign tendencies. The Japanese word for a branch of Mahayana Buddhism based on highly disciplined meditation.
archivolt
a central pier called the trumeau support the lintel and archivolts, providing further fields for figures, columns, or narrative friezes. The jambs can extend forward to form a porch. a series of concentric moldings around an arch
lost-wax casting
a metal copy is produced from an original image made of wax. bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, and brass, an alloy of copper and zinc. First, the sculptor models a wax original. Then the wax is dipped into clay slip and packed with hard clay to make a heat-resistant mold. Next, the wax is melted, leaving an empty cavity into which molten metal is poured. After the metal cools and solidifies, the mold is broken away and the metal copy is chased (trimmed of excess metal) and polished.
Hinduism
a series of practices and beliefs; not one religion but many related beliefs and innumerable sects. It results from the mingling of Vedic beliefs with indigenous, local beliefs and practices. All three major Hindu sects draw upon the texts of the Vedas, which are believed to be sacred revelations set down about 1200-800 bce. The gods lie outside the finite world, but they can appear in visible form to believers. Each Hindu sect takes its particular deity as supreme. By worshiping gods with rituals, meditation, and intense love, individuals may be reborn into increasingly higher positions until they escape the cycle of life, death, and rebirth, which is called samsara. The most popular deities are Vishnu, Shiva, and the Great Goddess, Devi.
Nok
a small town in the geographic center of Nigeria. Masterful clay sculptures of humans have been—and continue to be—found here, as well as in neighboring regions. Many of the objects were not archaeologically excavated, however, and thus our knowledge of their creation and function remains very limited. Nok ceramics some of the oldest artworks from West Africa. Nok ceramics range from miniatures to over-lifesize figures. Most remains are broken; scholars believe that heads like this were originally attached to complete bodies either in wood or ceramic. The triangular or D-shaped eyes are characteristic of Nok style and also appear on sculptures of animals. Holes in the pupils, nostrils, and mouth allowed air to pass freely when the figure was fired. West Africa's earliest known culture; lived in what is now Nigeria; between 500 B.C. and A.D. 200; first people known to smelt iron; fashioned iron into tools for farming and weapons for hunting
yakshi
a spirit associated with the productive and reproductive forces of nature, the figure embodies female associations with procreative abundance, bounty, and auspiciousness. female and male figures of fertility in Buddhist and Hindu art
KANDARIYA MAHADEVA TEMPLE
a temple dedicated to Shiva at Khajuraho, In the northern style, a curvilinear shikhara rises over the garbhagriha of the temple. Extensively ornamented with additional halls on the front and porches to the sides and back, the temple rests on a stone terrace that sets off a sacred space from the mundane world. A steep flight of stairs at the front leads to a series of three mandapas. The mandapas serve as spaces for ritual, such as dances performed for the deity, and for the presentation of offerings. The temple is built of stone blocks using only post-and-lintel construction. Despite its apparent complexity, the temple has a clear structure and unified composition. Three rows of sculpture—some 600 figures—are integrated into the exterior walls. Approximately 3 feet tall and carved in high relief, the sculptures depict gods and goddesses, as well as figures in erotic postures.
Daoism
an outlook on life that brings together many ancient ideas regarding humankind and the universe. Its primary text, a slim volume called the Daodejing (The Way and Its Power), is ascribed to the Chinese philosopher Laozi, who is said to have been a contemporary of Confucius (551-479 bce). A dao is a way or path. The Dao is the Ultimate Way, the Way of the universe. The Way cannot be named or described, but it can be hinted at. a Daoist sage seeks a quiet life, humble and hidden, unconcerned with worldly success. The Way is great precisely because it is small. To recover the Way, we must unlearn. We must return to a state of nature. To follow the Way, we must practice wu wei (nondoing). "Strive for nonstriving," advises the Daodejing. a life of pure effectiveness, accomplishing much with little effort. Confucianism is a rational political philosophy that emphasizes propriety, deference, duty, and self-discipline. Daoism is an intuitive philosophy that emphasizes individualism, nonconformity, and a return to nature. If a Confucian education molded scholars outwardly into responsible, ethical officials, Daoism provided some breathing room for the artist and poet inside. philosophical system developed by of Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu advocating a simple honest life and noninterference with the course of natural events
flying buttress
arched exterior supports countered the lateral thrust of the nave vault and transferred its weight outward, over the side aisles, where it was resolved into and supported by a buttressing pier, rising from the ground. Flying buttresses permitted larger clerestory windows, nearly equal in height to the nave arcade an arched stone support on the outside of buildings, which allows builders to construct higher walls
Maesta
assembled from many wood panels bonded together before painting—was an arduous undertaking. had to be painted on both sides since it could be seen from all directions when installed on the main altar at the center of the sanctuary. Duccio's shading of drapery, like his modeling of faces, faithfully describes the figures' three-dimensionality, but the crisp outlines of the jewel-colored shapes created by their clothing, as well as the sinuous continuity of folds and gestures, generate rhythmic patterns crisscrossing the surface. Made for Siena Cathedral.Tempera and gold on wood
the Great Stupa
at Sanchi in central India. time of Ashoka, originally formed part of a large monastery complex crowning a hill. solid, hemispherical mound built up from rubble and dirt, faced with dressed stone, and covered with a shining white plaster made from lime and powdered seashells. stone railing demarcates a path at ground level. Another walkway creates a second raised level. On top of the mound a square enclosure designated by another railing contains the top of a mast bearing three "umbrellas," of decreasing size. used to shade kings and indicate people of importance. may also correspond to the "Three Jewels of Buddhism"—the Buddha, the Law, and the Monastic Order. enshrines some relics of the Buddha in a mound or dome-like building
scriptorium
books were made by hand, one at a time. Each one was a time-consuming and expensive undertaking, and no two were exactly the same. At first, medieval books were usually made by monks and nuns in a workshop called a scriptorium (plural, scriptoria) within the monastery. As the demand for books increased, rulers set up palace workshops employing both religious and lay scribes and artists, supervised by scholars. Books were written on carefully prepared animal skin—either vellum, which was fine and soft, or parchment, which was heavier and shinier. Ink and water-based paints required time and experience to prepare, and many pigments—particularly blues and greens—were derived from costly semiprecious stones. In very rich books, artists also used gold leaf or gold paint. Work on a book was often divided between scribes, who copied the text, and artists, who painted or drew illustrations, large initial letters, and other decorations. Occasionally, scribes and artists signed and dated their work on the last page, in what was called the colophon. A room in a monastery for writing or copying manuscripts
Buddhism
developed from the efforts of gifted and insightful teachers. Shakyamuni Buddha, At his birth, it is believed, that the infant prince, named Siddhartha Gautama, would become either a chakravartin (worldconquering ruler) or a buddha (literally an "awakened one" or a fully enlightened being). Hoping for a ruler like himself, Siddhartha's father tried to surround his son with pleasure and shield him from pain. Yet the prince was eventually exposed to the sufferings of old age, sickness, and death—the inevitable fate of all mortal beings. Deeply troubled by the human condition, Siddhartha at age 29 left the palace, his family, and his inheritance to live as an ascetic in the wilderness. After six years of meditation, he attained complete enlightenment at a site in India now called Bodh Gaya. Following his enlightenment, the Buddha gave his first teaching in the Deer Park at Sarnath. Here he expounded the Four Noble Truths that are the foundation of Buddhism: (1) life is suffering; (2) this suffering has a cause, which is ignorance and desire; (3) this ignorance and desire can be overcome and extinguished; (4) the way to overcome them is by following the eightfold path of right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. After the Buddha's death at age 80, his many disciples developed his teachings and established the world's oldest monastic institutions. A buddha is not a god, but rather one who sees the ultimate nature of the world and is therefore no longer subject to samsara, the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth that otherwise holds all in its grip. The early form of Buddhism, known as Theravada or Nikaya, stresses self-cultivation for the purpose of attaining nirvana, which is the extinction of samsara for oneself. Compassion for all beings is the foundation of Mahayana Buddhism, whose goal is not only nirvana for oneself but buddhahood (enlightenment) for every being throughout the universe. bodhisattvas ("those whose essence is wisdom"), saintly beings who are on the brink of achieving buddhahood but have vowed to help others achieve buddhahood before crossing over themselves. In art, bodhisattvas and buddhas are most clearly distinguished by bodhisattvas wear the princely garb of India, while buddhas wear monks' robes.
Maya
developed their cities as works of art. Each of the hundreds of kingdoms that arose in the tropical rainforests of southeastern Mesoamerica created a unique visual identity by elaborating and individualizing the basic building forms—the plaza, pyramid, palace, and ballcourt—and by creating unusual modifications of the basic sculptural forms—the stela, lintel, altar, and throne. Stucco reliefs transformed the flat walls of buildings into undulating forms that were brightly painted. Both images and hieroglyphs enlivened the surfaces, documenting the deeds of the rulers, their ancestors, and the city's patron deities. Decorated textiles, polychrome painted ceramics, and bark paper books added further visual complexity to the spectacle of the Maya court. a society divided into competing city-states in a nearconstant state of war with each other. A hereditary ruler and an elite class of nobles and priests governed each citystate, supported by a large group of farmer-commoners. Rulers established their legitimacy, maintained links with their divine ancestors, commemorated important calendrical dates, and sustained the gods through elaborate rituals, including ballgames, bloodletting ceremonies, and human sacrifice. conformed to the uneven terrain of the rainforest. Mesoamerican civilization concentrated in Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula and in Guatemala and Honduras but never unified into a single empire. Major contributions were in mathematics, astronomy, and development of the calendar.
Djenne
established by the third century ce, and that by the middle of the ninth century it had become a major urban center. the 26th king of Djenne converted to Islam in the thirteenth century and transformed his palace into a huge mosque built from adobe brick. The current mosque, constructed between 1906 and 1907, sits on the ancient site and is of adobe construction in the style of the original A city that became a center of learning
Amida Buddha
exemplifies the serenity and compassion of this Buddha. designed to simulate the appearance of the paradise that awaits the believer after death. Its remarkable state of preservation after more than 900 years allows visitors to experience the late Heian religious ideal at its most splendid. from several blocks in his new joined-block method of construction. Heian period, Gold leaf and lacquer on wood,
Set of Bells
found in the tomb of Marquis Yi of the state of Zeng. Each bell is precisely calibrated to sound two tones—one when struck at the center, another when struck at a corner. They are arranged in scale patterns in a variety of registers. Several musicians would have moved around the carillon, a complexity made possible in part by the more refined lost-wax casting process Bronze, with bronze and timber frame, frame height
Vishnu Lying on the Cosmic Waters
large, resplendent figure with four arms. His size and his multiple arms denote his omnipotence. lightly garbed but richly ornamented. ideal of the Gupta style evident in the smooth, perfected shape of the body and in the lavishly detailed jewelry, including Vishnu's characteristic cylindrical crown. birth of the universe and appearance of evil are portrayed here in three clearly organized registers. Typical of Indian religious and artistic expression, these momentous events are set before our eyes not in terms of abstract symbols, but as a drama acted out by gods in superhuman form. Relief panel in the Vishnu Temple. Sandstone, height approx. 5′ (1.5 m). relief
Good Samaritan Window
large-scale single figures that could be seen at a distance because of their size, bold drawing, and strong colors. Gothic
Mimbres/ Ancestral Puebloan culture
located in the mountains of west-central New Mexico and east-central Arizona, flourished from about 200 to about 1150 ce. Potters made deep bowls painted with lively, imaginative, and sometimes complex scenes of humans and animals. Much of our knowledge of this ceramic tradition is based on examples excavated in burials under the floors of Mimbres dwellings, where food bowls—most of them intentionally punctured before burial—were inverted and placed over the head of the deceased. The third southwestern culture, the Ancestral Puebloans, emerged around 500 ce in the Four Corners region, where present-day Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico meet. The Puebloans adopted the irrigation technology of the Hohokam and began building elaborate, multi-storied, apartmentlike "great houses" with many rooms for specialized purposes, including communal food storage and ritual. As in Mimbres culture, Ancestral Puebloan people found aesthetic expression in their pottery. Women were the potters in ancient Pueblo society. They developed a functional, aesthetically pleasing, coil-built earthenware, or low-fired ceramic, initiating a tradition of ceramic production that continues to be important today among the Pueblo peoples of the Southwest.
Bodhisattva; the Ajanta Caves
new phase of construction at the rock-cut monastery of Ajanta. Each cave appears to have had its own major patron. among the finest rock-cut architecture found anywhere. they preserve examples of wall painting, giving us a rare glimpse of a refined art form that has almost entirely been lost to time. a large vihara hall with monks' chambers around the sides and a Buddha shrine chamber in the back. Murals painted in mineral pigments on a prepared plaster surface cover the walls of the central court. flank the entrance to the shrine chamber. Bodhisattvas are enlightened beings who postpone nirvana and buddhahood to help others achieve enlightenment. They are distinguished from buddhas in art by their princely garments. This bodhisattva is lavishly adorned with delicate ornaments: a bejeweled crown, large earrings, a pearl necklace, armbands, and bracelets. Outline drawing, always a major ingredient of Indian painting, clearly defines shapes; tonal gradations impart the illusion of three-dimensional form, Sophisticated, realistic detail is balanced by the languorous human form. Detail of a wall painting in Cave I, Ajanta, Maharashtra, India. Vakataka dynasty
GREAT MOSQUE AT DJENNÉ
nine rows of heavy adobe columns, each 33 tall and linked by pointed arches, support a flat ceiling of palm logs, which is covered by adobe slip with raised conical air vents on the roof. A great double wall encloses an open courtyard on the west side
Virgin and Child Enthroned Cimabue
over 12 feet tall, this enormous egg-tempera panel painting set a new precedent for monumental altarpieces. Cimabue surrounds the Virgin and Child with angels and places a row of Hebrew Bible prophets beneath them. ambitious attention to spatial volumes, his use of delicate light-to-dark modeling to simulate three-dimensional form, and his efforts to give naturalistic warmth to human figures had an impact on future Florentine painting. high altar of the church of Santa Trinità, Florence. Tempera and gold on wood panel
Giotto
participated in a cultural explosion that swept through fourteenth-century Europe, and especially Italy. deeply moving murals of Florentine painter Giotto di Bondone (c. 1277-1337) were rooted in his observation of the people around him, giving the characters in sacred narratives both great dignity and a striking new humanity.
TWELVE VIEWS OF LANDSCAPE
presents an intimate and lyrical view of nature. carefully controlled ink washes evoke a landscape veiled in mist, while a few deft brushstrokes indicate the details showing through the mist. Simplified forms, stark contrasts of light and dark, asymmetrical composition, and great expanses of blank space suggest a fleeting world that can be captured only in glimpses. By limiting himself to a few essential details, the painter evokes a deep feeling for what lies beyond. created for a highly cultivated audience who were equally discerning in other arts such as ceramics. Southern Song dynasty, Handscroll with ink on silk,
Travelers Among Mountains and Streams
regarded as one of the great monuments of Chinese art. almost 7 feet high—but the sense of monumentality also radiates from the composition itself. The whole painting conveys the feeling of climbing a high mountain, leaving the human world behind to come face to face with the Great Ultimate in a spiritual communion. All the elements are depicted with precise detail and in proper scale. Jagged brushstrokes describe the contours of rocks and trees and express their rugged character. represents no specific place. in the rational, ordered composition, he expresses the intelligence of the universe. nature uncorrupted by human habitation, expresses a kind of Daoist ideal. reveal nature through a distant, all-seeing, and mobile viewpoint. -hanging scroll -ink and colors on silk -Fankuan (scholarly artist) -Song Dynasty, China -1000 CE
Discuss the innovations of Gothic architecture. Use relevant terminology.
started with Abbot Suger building the Benedictine abbey of Saint Denis; significance, precious materials, and fine workmanship, open flowing space using romanesque implements (ribbed vaults, buttresses, etc.)
Buddha Preaching His First Sermon
the Mathura style gave rise to the Buddhist visual forms found over much of north India. A seated Buddha embodies the fully developed Sarnath Gupta style. Carved from fine-grained sandstone, the figure sits in a yogic posture making the teaching gesture indicative of the First Sermon. the devotees/listeners represented on the pedestal. The Buddha's plain robe, portrayed with none of the creases and folds so prominent in the Kushan-period images, is typical of the Sarnath style. The body, clearly visible through the clinging robe, is graceful and slight, with broad shoulders and a well-proportioned torso. The downcast eyes suggest otherworldly introspection, yet the gentle, open posture maintains a human quality. Behind the head is a large, circular halo. Carved in concentric circles of pearls and foliage, the ornate halo contrasts dramatically with the plain surfaces of the figure. Sarnath, India / sandstone
Shinto
the indigenous Japanese religious belief system centered around kami, which only later came to be called Shinto. Until the latter part of the nineteenth century, when the government forcibly separated the two religions and elevated Shinto to bolster worship of the emperor, Buddhism and Shinto were intimately intertwined, evolving together as complementary systems. Shinto explains the origins of the Japanese people and its deities protect them, while Buddhism offers salvation after death. Japan's indigenous religious belief system. It encompasses a variety of ritual practices that center around family, village, and devotion to kami. The term Shinto was not coined until after the arrival of Buddhism in the sixth century ce; as kami worship was influenced by and incorporated into Buddhism it became more systematized, with shrines, a hierarchy of deities, and more strictly regulated ceremonies. "Way of the Kami"; Japanese worship of nature spirits
voussoir
wedge-shaped stone building block used in constructing an arch or vault
joined-block wood sculpture
wood with a thinner cross section and fewer irregularities is less susceptible to cracking because it can dry more evenly. Japanese sculptors developed an ingenious and unique method, the joined-block technique, to reduce cracking in heavy wooden statues. This allowed them to create larger statues in wood than ever before, enabled standardization of body proportions, and encouraged division of labor among teams of carvers, some of whom became specialists in certain parts, such as hands or crossed legs or lotus thrones. put four blocks together vertically two by two in front and back, to form the main body, then added several blocks horizontally at what would become the front of the statue for the lap and knees. After carving each part, they assembled the figure and hollowed out the interior. This cooperative approach also had the added benefit of enabling workshops to produce large statues more quickly to meet a growing demand. Jocho is credited as the master sculptor who perfected this technique.
