Art Section 1

During the rise of the Impressionist movement in Europe, Japan sent a group of artists to study in France. These artists returned to Japan and introduced the ideas they had encountered in the West. What knowledge did they bring back?

For a short time at the end of the nineteenth century, there was a group of artists in Japan who used linear perspective and the colors and subjects of Impressionism. The Japanese soon rejected these ideas and returned to the isometric perspective and flat areas of color favored by Japanese traditions.

What are the 2 primary types of sculptures?

Freestanding (in the round) and relief (meaning that the sculpture projects from a surface or background that of which it is a part of) High-relief projects boldly, while bas or low-relief projects slightly from the surface

Which civilization came after the Assyrians?

From c. 612-538 BCE (Neo-Babylonian period), Babylonia once again became the dominant force in the region. - Famous hanging gardens of Babylon - Ishtar Gate: Gateway to the great ziggurat to the temple of Bel in which animal figures are imposed on a walled surface.

Johann Joachim Winckelmann

German scholar who shifted away from Vasari's biographical emphasis to a rigorous study of stylistic development as related to historical context

The transition from the medieval period to the Renaissance is like a mix of Gothic and Renaissance art. Whose art best exemplifies this transitional time period?

Giotto di Bondone - Best known for frescoes - Achieves simple perspective by overlapping and modeling figures in the round, thus giving an illusion of a stage for his figures and giving viewers a sense of looking into the event - Differs from the flat, unexpressive Gothic works; gave figures powerful gestures and emotional expressions

The Persian Empire (c. 538 - 330 BCE) flourished in what is today present-day _________________ What artworks were they notable for?

Iran - Impressive architectural achievements - Palace at Persepolis: constructed of brick, stone, wood. Reflects the influence of Egyptian architecture.

What was a Greek work of art of the Middle Classical Period?

- Advances in architecture - Parthenon: temple. Restored in 447 BCE after being destroyed by the Persians in 480 BCE. Most admired work of all age, use of columns has been a principal feature of Western architecture for more than 2000 years

Civilization and art have been present in China for thousands of years, and some archaeological finds in China rival those in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Remains of painted wares have been found that date back to the _______________________

4th millennium BCE

Gianlorenzo Bernini

- Another baroque artist - Son of sculptor - Child prodigy that received recognition by the Pope at age 17 - Talented architect, painter, and draftsmen - Worked as a designer in a theater - Ecstasy of Saint Theresa (1647-52): set into altar of the Cornaro Chapel. The space includes a concealed stained glass window that bathes the figure of a saint in dramatic gold lighting, as if she were on a stage - Did not adhere to the classical calm and natural flow of drapery around the figure that had been used in the past; made marble and stone look like real fabric and clouds

Performance art

- Another development that allows artistic expression to transcend traditional boundaries - Includes conventional media like photography and painting - Combination of theater and arts - Artists themselves become the work - The Guerilla Girls: a socially concious all-female group of New-York based artists that began in 1985. They kept their individual identities anonymous and wore gorilla masks even in public. They used guerilla warfare tactics of pasting posters and flyers, giving public speeches, and challenging what they see as an art world dominated by white men.

Tintoretto

- Another great Venetian painter - Linked with the artistic style of Mannerism that was popular in the late 16th century. It is characterized by distortion of certain elements such as perspective and scale as well as the use of twisted positioning and acidic colors. - He used Mannerist techniques but his color scheme differed from Mannerists - Had dramatic angles; used small figures as models and rearranged them until they had the most dramatic effect - Use chiaroscuro: dramatic contrasts of light and dark

Artemisia Gentileschi

- Another important Baroque artist - Daughter of a painter - Studied in her father's studio - Had a remarkable adaption of Caravaggio's techniques - Works include self-portraits and paintings of Old Testament women

Postmodernism

- Arose as a reaction to Modernism - Tend to reintroduce traditional elements or to exaggerate modernist techniques by using them to the extreme - Postmodern works often return to earlier styles, periods, and references and often question the mores and beliefs of contemporary society Philip Johnson: - Was at one time, one of the leading modern architects of the International Style (For decades, architecture had largely been dominated by the Bauhaus idea of form following function, and sleek towers of steel sheathed in glass were the standard for large buildings) - Suggested the radical idea that one of the functions of art was decoration, and with the AT&T Building (1984; now 550 Madison Avenue), he added a finial to the top of the standard office tower in 1970 Today, artists around the world work in an endless variety of media and styles. One can no longer say that any particular city, country, or even continent is the "center" of the art world.

Describe the rule of the Akkadians.

- Around 2334 BCE, the cities of Sumer came under the rule of Sargon of Akkad - Although the Akkadians spoke a different language from the Sumerians, they assimilated Sumerian culture. - Loyalty to the city-state was supplanted by loyalty to the king: emphasis on monarchy - Akkadian rulers tend to be depicted in freestanding and relief sculptures Around 2150 BCE, Akkadian rule came to an end when the Guti, barbarous mountaineers, invaded and took control

Architecture

- Art and science of designing and constructing buildings - In every culture and geographic area, shelters are built for protection - Structures can also be used for communal and personal purposes - Architects: specialists in designing structures - Materials can be sticks, mud, grass, animal skin, ice and wood depending on the climatic area - Brick and stone are also used - Post-and-lintel construction uses a long stone or wooden beam placed horizontally across upright poles - The famous Greek Parthenon uses post-and-lintel construction and is still used today, usually with steel and wood - Key developments include the arch, vault, and dome. Each allowed for a variation of the same concept that allowed for greater height and more interior open space inside a building - Romans were great engineers and the Colosseum is a great example of vaulted construction -Romans used concrete as building material for aqueducts, great baths, and other public works projects - In the medieval period, a skeletal building style developed that alternated between strong buttresses and thin walls with stained-glass windows, which admitted more light and color into the building - Flying buttresses counterbalanced the outward thrust of high, vaulted ceilings, allowing for more height and window openings -During the Industrial Revolution, many new materials and processes were developed - The Crystal Palace in 1851 had the framework of thin iron rods and used glass - The Eiffel Tower of Paris uses wrought iron - Antonio Gaudi created ingenious buildings of cut stone in Spain in the late 1800s and early 1900s that have a very organic appearance since it uses no straight lines. This challenged the notion of regular geometric shape of buildings and searched for aesthetically interesting designs - Steel and concrete were favored materials for large public, commercial, and multi-housing while brick and wood were common for residential homes

Art Noveau

- Art style that became popular in late 19th, early 20th centuries - style of decoration, architecture, and design - Characterized by depiction of leaves and flowers and flowy, sinuous lines

Performance art

- Artists engages in some kind of performance, sometimes involving viewers - Like environmental art, lacks permanence of traditional genres of art - Video and photographs are the only documentations - Means for recovering unique, unrepeatable human experiences - Cannot be sold as objects - Escape from increasing commercialization of art - True to inventiveness of the artist - Artists explore new ideas, materials, and processes - Challenges us to reconsider the definition and conceptions of art

Photography

- Developed in mid-19th century - Popular way to document likeness of people and scenes - Pressured painters to compete with the camera for achieving a high degree of realism - Artists also felt the less of a need to confine themselves to naturalistic styles and were encourages to explore various forms of art - Originally not considered an art form - Has only grown in the art world in the 20th and 21st centuries - Is in constant flux as new technology becomes available - Film and video are also art forms

Acrylic paint

- Developed most recently after World War II - Made of synthetic material, plastics, and polymers - Very versatile - Do not require buildup of layers and long drying periods like oil paints - Unable to achieve the subtleties of oil paints however - Valuable alternatives to artists allergic to oil paints or turpentine

After the Roman empire collapsed in Western Europe, it continued in Byzantium. Describe the art.

- Best known for mosaics in which small ceramic pieces, pieces of stone, or glass were set in ground material to create large murals - Art was largely Christian - The Great churches of Ravenna (located in present day Italy) had mosaic walls - Hagia Sophia: built in Constantinople and is considered one of the greatest architectural achievements in history

Raphael Sanzio

- Brought to Rome as a young painter where Julius II gave him several commissions - Employed numerous assistants to help him cover the Pope's official chambers with large, sumptuous frescoes, notably the School of Athens (c. 1508-11), an homage to the great Greek philosophers and scientists - Considered the most influential painter of the Madonna - Painted Sister Madonna (c. 1513-14, creating an image of the Virgin Mary that endured religious paintings throughout the century

Bauhaus

- Byword of modern design - Established standards for architecture and design that would have a profound influence on the world of art - Made a bold attempt to reconcile industrial mass-manufacture with aesthetic form - Taking the view that form should follow function and should be true to the materials used, the faculty at the Bauhaus designed a curriculum that continues to influence many contemporary schools of art - Closed by the Nazis in 1933, yet many faculty still continued to teach in the United States - One of the faculty was Josef Albers, a well-known graphic artist , designer, and painter - We can still recognize the Bauhaus influence in our contemporary society with its streamlined furnishings and buildings

Mixed media

- Category of artworks in which artist uses several art medias - Sometimes in conjunction with found objects ( fabric, rope, broken dishes, newspaper, buttons, toys, etc.) - Collage: mixed media in which artists combine various materials like photographs, unusual papers, theater tickets, virtually anything that can be adhered to a surface - Items are selected for their texture, color, or other aesthetic purposes - Pablo Picasso and George Barques introduced this medium to the high art sphere in around 1912 - Artist Robert Rauschenberg is known for his mixed media combined with silkscreen images and paint - Some artists create assemblages created with found objects, both two and three dimensional in their work - Joseph Cornell is a 20th century artist who filled open boxes with a variety of objects for their symbolic and metaphoric statements - Traditional nonwestern groups employed mixed media with masks (possibly carved of wood and embellished with grass, beads, and paint), ceremonial costumes, and other objects

Dominikos Theotokopoulos (El Greco)

- Closely associated artist with the Counter-Reformation - Strongly influenced by Tintoretto's paintings - Worked for a period of time in Titian's workshop in Venice - 1576: left Italy for Toledo, Spain - One of the most well known Mannerist painters - Dramatic use of elongated figures captured the Counter-Reformation

Louis XIV's long reign was marked by a blossoming of French culture. Louis XIV united all of France and built a lavish palace at Versailles beginning in 1669. What were some features of the palace?

- Covered about 2000 acres, includes various grand chateaux: - Stable capable of housing hundreds of horses - Grand orangerie or greenhouse (for orange trees) - Zoo - System of fountains - Grand canal large enough for staging mock sea battles The opulence and power of this "sun king," around whom the world of the court revolved, became a model that contemporaneous monarchs tried to emulate.

Cubism

- Developed by Pablo Picasso and George Braque in Paris around 1908 - Broke down and analyzed form in new ways - Psychologists had explained that human experience is much richer than can be gathered from a traditional painting that shows a single view from a fixed vantage point. When we look at any given scene, we remember the scene as an overlay of visual impressions seen from different angles and moments in time. - Picasso and Braque were familiar with these theories, as indicated by their habit of breaking figures up into multiple overlapping perspectives - Influenced by African art, which they imagined to be more intuitive and closer to nature than intellectualized European art - Reacted against the naturalistic, often sentimental, artworks that were popular in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century - Favored abstract forms over lifelike figures

Early Roman art reflected the influence of Etruscan art. However, by the second century BCE many Roman sculptures and other Roman artworks were variations of Greek works, and the standards for idealized presentations of Roman rulers were based on those of the Greeks. What were some advancements in architecture, engineering, and art that the Romans contributed?

- Discovery of modern concrete enabled Roman builders to fill the spaces between their stone walls with rocks and rubble bound together by the concrete mixture - With concrete and strong material, Romans were able to make huge domed buildings - The use of a curved arch led to bridges and aqueducts. These structures allowed for a paved road system, making communication and control very effective in the empire - Romans created idealistic statues - Often, colossal triumphal arches would be topped with relief sculptures portraying Roman emperors or Roman military victories. - Relief sculptures were created for funerary purposes - The Colosseum (72-80 CE) and the Pantheon (c. 126 CE), remain as monuments to the engineering genius of the Romans - Portraits were sculptured from tiny busts to huge statues -During the Roman Republic it became common for members of a funeral procession to carry small carved images of the deceased family member - Statues in memory of great statesmen or other noble figures were erected in public areas Roman art impacted the art of the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and later periods.

Rembrandt van Rijn

- Dutch artist that created some of the best known works of the Baroque period in the mid- 17th century - Painter, printmaker, and draftsman - The Night Watch (1642), more properly known as Sortie of Captain Banning Cocq's Company of the Civic Guard: like any group portrait, each member of the company paid a sum to be included in the painting. Broke tradition and gave some more attention to some members, thus causing the decline of his career - His self-portraits of his later years are considered to be some of the greatest studies of the inner life of the sitter ever to be painted - Died in poverty

Emperor Qin (c.210 BCE)

- First emperor to unite the kingdom - Had a life-size full army, their equipment, and horses made of clay that was buried as part of his tomb - Technical ability demonstrated in these sculptures and the life-like detail was astonishing

Armory Show (1913)

- First major showing of modern art in the US held from February 17 to March 15 - Artworks that were to become landmarks of various European art movements were a part of the Armory Show - Had a lasting and profound effect on American art - Marcel Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase (1912) and Picasso's Les Demoiselles d' Avignon (1907) both shocked viewers with their challenging approaches to the figure and space - Brancusi's The Kiss had blocklike, abstract figures - Kandinsky's non-objective paintings added to the outrage

Describe Mesopotamian art.

- From around 4000 BCE, the Sumerians in Mesopotamia created impressive sculptures and buildings - Religion is a central aspect; built massive temples at the center of the city -Built ziggurats: less complex platform structures evolved over time into the stepped pyramids

Fauves, or "Wild beasts"

- Got their name from wild use of arbitrary colors - Used colors so intensely that it violated the sensibilities of critics and the public alike - Led by Henri Matisse

Surrealists

- Group of artists that attempted to portray the inner workings of the mind in their artworks - Influenced by the theories of Sigmund Freud - Included artists Rene Magritte and Salvador Dali

Romanticism

- Hearkened back to the emotional emphasis of the Baroque with similar characteristics and different subject matter - Highly imaginative - Characterized by an emotional and dreamlike quality - Romantics favored feelings over reason - Incorporated exotic or melodramatic elements - Often took awe inspiring natural wonders as subject matter Eugene Delacroix - Ingres's rival (despite a different style of art) - Centered on exotic themes - Included foreign settings, violence towards animals, and historical subject matter Theodore Gericault and William Blake are also Romanticist artists

Texture

- How things feel or how we think it feels when touched - Actual texture: for 3D objects. Can be on a pot or plate. Can be created from objects on a collage like yarn, shells, shiny paper, rope, etc or brush strokes. - Implied texture: for 2D objects. Can be created by using a pattern of lines or shapes or contrasts of light and dark. Shiny surfaces reflect light while matte surfaces appear soft and dull.

Color

- Hue: simply the name of a color (red, blue, green, etc.) - Red, yellow, blue are primary colors - Secondary colors are made by mixing 2 primary colors (ex. red + yellow = orange) - There are 6 tertiary colors that are made by combining a primary color and its adjacent secondary color (ex. violet + blue = violet-blue) - Color wheel: organization of hues into a visual scheme. Dates from the 18th century though the concepts were from Sir Isaac Newton in the 17th century - Value: lightness and darkness of a color or grey. Can be primarily light, primarily dark, or contrasting from one to the other. - Adding white makes a lighter hue - Adding black makes a darker hue - Neutrals: black and white. These are not colors. - Intensity: refers to the brightness or purity of a color. Unmixed primary colors are pure and the most intense colors. Adding black, gray reduces the intensity of a color. Adding a color's complement lowers the intensity, making it more dull or neutral - Equal parts of complementary colors creates a muddy brown - Relativity of color: discovered in the 19th century that a shade of red for example can look brighter or darker, more or less intense depending on similar or contrasting colors placed next to it - In Western art, warm colors are red, orange, and yellow and is referred to as such because we associate them with the warmth of the sun. Cool colors are green, blue, and violet; they remind us of cool forests, mountains, and lakes. - Warm colors advance toward the viewer while cool colors recede - Employing contrasts of warm and cool colors can create a sense of movement - Local color: "true" color of an object or area seen in normal daylight (ex. grassy field is green, but appears blue in the distance. The local color is green) - Optical color: color with special effect of lighting (ex. colors in moonlight, daybreak or candlelight) - Arbitrary color: colors for emotional or aesthetic appeal. More artists are using arbitrary color in the 20th and 21st century

Perspective

- Illusion of depth - Uses space - May use shading and highlighting on the contours—the visible borders— of objects to replicate the manner in which light shining on objects lends those objects a sense of volume and space - Can also be done by placing objects higher to look farther away or lower to appear closer - Artists can also manipulate the size of objects to create a sense of perspective—larger objects will appear closer to the viewer than smaller objects. - An artist can also have closer objects overlap objects that are farther away to indicate depth and distance - The artist can make objects appear closer to the viewer by giving them greater detail than objects that are farther away replicating the manner in which our eyes are able to perceive more detail in objects that are nearer to us - Aerial/atmospheric perspective: a technique that takes into account the ways that fog, smoke, and airborne particles change the appearance of things when they are viewed from a distance. Objects that are farther away will appear lighter and more neutral in color and will lack contrast of color or value - Developed using mathematical techniques during the Renaissance - Linear perspective: founded on the visual phenomenon that as lines recede into the distance, they appear to converge and eventually vanish at a point on the horizon. For example, notice this effect when viewing highways, railroads, or fence posts as they stretch into the distance. In employing linear perspective, the artist establishes one or more vanishing points on the real or imagined horizon of the artwork. Then, lines are carefully drawn to ensure a precise and extremely realistic depiction of interior and exterior scenes. In drawing a black and white checkerboard floor (a frequent feature in Renaissance interior paintings), the horizontal lines of the tiles are drawn as parallel, but the vertical lines— which we know are also parallel in reality—appear to converge or come together in a systematic way as they recede toward the back wall of the interior.

What were some notable works and styles of the Hellenistic period?

- Increase in Eastern civilizations as Greek styles blended with those of the Asian minor - Sculpture Venus De Milo and Laocoon Group were masterpieces designed to present the ideals of beauty

How was the art of Greece's Archaic Period (660 - 475 BCE) ?

- Influenced by stone sculptures of Egypt and Mesopotamia - Created marble and limestone sculptures - Freestanding figures used Egypt's frontal pose, but were more dynamic and placed greater emphasis on depicting realistic features - Temples built using early Ionic and Doric columns - Some vases portrayed black silhouetted figures, while those in the Corinthian style set figures against a floral, ornamented background - Athenian-style vases used black figures on a larger scale and were more linear - Red-figure, black background vases were also common

Caravaggio

- Italian Baroque painter - Renowed for his dramatic use of light and dark (chiaroscuro); it is so important that it is termed caravaggesque - His work has a provocative degree of naturalism - Portrayed Virgin Mary and apostles not as noble figures in traditional garb, but as poor, simple folks in threadbare garments (he used actual lowerclass individuals as models) - Some patrons rejected his canvases

Impressionism

- Largely grew out of satisfaction with the rigid rules that had come to dominate the Salons held to recognize selected artists each year Edouard Manet: - Sometimes referred to as the first Impressionist - Showed light by juxtaposing bright, contrasting colors - Greatly inspired artists following him - Le Dejéuner sur L'herbe (Luncheon on the Grass) (1863): painting included in the Salon des Refuses- an exhibit of works rejected from the official Salon. The scandal surrounding this work resulted from its violation of the unwritten rule that the only appropriate nudes in contemporary art were classical figures or women in suitably exotic settings. In Luncheon on the Grass, Manet based his work on an engraving with a classical subject matter, but he showed contemporary clothed men with a nude woman as part of the group, causing an uproar - While Manet continued to submit his work to the Salon, other artists who disagreed with the rigid artistic standards espoused by the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris and favored by the Salon set about establishing Impressionism as a new style Claude Monet - Source of the movement's name - His work Impression, Sunrise (1872) had critics settle on the name impressionism to ridicule it - Urged his followers to work outdoors as technical advances in paint and brush production that made the medium more portable - Impressionist artists put their colors directly on the canvas with rapid strokes to capture the rapidly changing light *Scientific studies of vision and color led to the discovery that shadows were not merely gray but that they reflected the complementary color of the object casting them. Other Impressionist artists are Camille Pissarro and Alfred Sisley

The art of the Etruscan civilization is seen as a transition from the ideals of Greece to the pragmatic concerns of the Romans. Etruscan civilization arose in what is now Italy in the first millennium BCE. Describe their art.

- Largely known for art of tomb decoration - Buildings no longer remain as they were constructed from brick and wood - Ceramic models depict temples with tiled, gabled roofs supported by columns in the fashion of the Greeks - Artifacts include sarcophagus lids and other art forms from baked clay - Talented bronze work - The only paintings that remain are the ones on the walls and ceilings of the tomb. They were done in bright, flat colors and show figures playing music and dancing as part of funeral traditions

Explain more Islamic art.

- Largely nonfigurative - Abstract or calligraphic decoration can be found on most Islamic art objects, including sacred architecture - The Dome of Rock (687-692) is one of the oldest examples of Islamic architecture. Its position in Jerusalem marks the presence of Islam in a city that is also sacred to Jews and Christians. - The act of prayer is central to the practice of Islam, and the mosque, with its qibla wall facing toward Mecca, emerged as a site for communal prayer. Mosque architecture can be found in a variety of forms throughout the world today.

Craft and Folk Art

- Largely utilitarian - Through time and culture, people often sought to make the objects more distinctive or beautiful - Includes pottery, jewelry, fibers, glass, and wooden objects - Raises questions about the nature of art and the aesthetic pursuit - Pottery is a medium based on the use of natural materials like clay. It can be formed with hands or tools. A basic pot is formed by punching the clay in the middle of the ball and pinching the clay between the thumb and fingers. Clay can be rolled out in coils with the palm of the hand and stacked up to form a clay vessel. It can be on a tiny, dainty or on a huge scale depending on the diameter. Slab-plots by rolling out clay, cutting carefully measured pieces, and assembled by applying liquid clay (slip) to the edges to be joined - Potter's wheel creates "thrown" pots, this allows for particularly thin-walled pots of various shapes that are possibly functional or not - Clay forms are air-dried then put in a kiln or specialized oven, driving out moisture and causing a chemical change. Pots harden permanently then have glaze (made of clay and minerals) applied to the surface to make it glassy and waterproof. the surface may also be decorated with incised or carved designs - Fiber arts include woven and nonwoven materials - Weaving has a long history in the production of materials for clothing and other needs - Weaving uses a loom or does simple braiding, knitting, or crocheting - Quilting is also a fiber craft art form - Glass was first made in the Middle East in the third millennium BCE. It is made up of silica, which is derived from sand, flint, or quartz with other raw materials that add color - Glassblowing enables the formation of glass vessels like vases, drinking glasses, or perfume bottles - Stained glass was a dominant art form in the medieval period and was common in the window of cathedrals. By the end of the 19th century, stained glass was popular for lampshades - Wood makes functional objects like furniture, boats, boxes, homes - For wood today, it is mainly used for its aesthetic appeal despite also being functional (art for art's sake) - Functional objects like tables and chairs assume the status of art when the design is unique, the craftsmanship superb, and the visual effect beautiful.

Abstract Expressionism

- Led by Kandinsky dictum that art, like music, could be free from limitations of pictorial subject matter - Aimed at the direct presentation of feeling with an emphasis on dramatic colors and sweeping brushstrokes - Artists include William de Kooning, Lee Krasner, and Franz Kline - Jackson Pollock's work was the pinnacle of the movement. He eventually ditched the paintbrush and intentionally dripped paint onto the canvas. (he would most likely not use an easel) - Usually the art is separated into 2 types: action painting with dramatic brushstrokes and Pollock's innovative dripping technique or color field paintings that features broad areas of colors, simple, often geometric forms - Mark Rothko and Josef Albers were 2 well known color field artists

Printmaking

- Mechanical 2D process that permits the production of multiple original works -Many processes like lithograph, relief prints, etc. - Matrix: printing plate on which the image is created on. Ink is applied on the matrix then image is transferred on paper or other material - Relief printmaking: the artist cuts way parts from the surface of the plate. Matrix may be made of wood, linoleum, or a synthetic material, and a number of tools, including woodcarving or linoleum knives and gouges, can be used for cutting its surface. Once cut, remaining parts will stand out ranging from thin lines to broad areas when inked that produces the image. Ink is rolled over the surface of the plate with a brayer, and paper is placed over the inked plate. The plate and paper are then put into a press or rubbed with a burnisher to force the ink onto the paper. - Intaglio printmaking: works opposite of relief printmaking. Lines are incised on a wood or soft metal plate. Carving tools engrave (cut lines into the surface) or etch (design is encised with a laser through a metal plate with a layer of wax or varnish and then is submerged in acid that etches or eats away the exposed metal. Leaving it for a short amount of time leaves faint lines while leaving it for a long amount of time forms deeper grooves. Wax/varnished is removed and ink is forced into the etched areas of the warmed plate then removed. finally, paper is placed on the plate, and it is passed through a heavy press. The paper is forced into the etched, inked areas, and the ink transfers to the paper. In an etching, the printing process causes the printed areas to actually rise above the surface of the paper, giving a degree of dimension to the print.) - Lithography: process in which the image is drawn with a waxy pencil or crayon directly on a plate that can be made of stone, zinc, or aluminum. The greasy image is hardened, and the plate is saturated with water. Then, ink is applied. The ink adheres only to the greasy image since oil resists water. The image is picked up on the paper when the plate is moved through a press. Lithography can be a complex and demanding process, but in contrast to woodcut and engraving, it does not require special professional training; anyone who can draw can make a lithograph. - Screen print: used to print most t-shirts. In the silk- screening process, a photograph or other image is transferred or adhered to a silk or synthetic fabric that has been stretched onto a frame. The image serves as a sort of stencil, blocking out areas of the permeable fabric. When ink is forced through the fabric using a squeegee, at those areas not blocked by the stenciling, the image is transferred to the paper or fabric beneath. - Because multiple originals can be made through printmaking processes, the cost of an individual print is considerably less than that of a painting - Printmaking techniques have been used in the print industry for illustrating newspapers and books since the development of the printing press in the fifteenth century.

Line

- Most basic of art elements - Can be made using any mark-making tool: finger, pencil, paint, etc. - Definition is: the path of a point moving through space - Have length, width, direction - Can be solid ___________ (pretend you can't see the tiny spaces) or implied - - - - - - - Can be soft, bold, indistinct - Horizontal and vertical lines create a stable and static feeling - Vertical lines causes the eye to move upwards (Medieval churches were created with very high arched ceilings, designed to raise the eyes of the people upward toward heaven to promote a feeling of spiritual awe) - Horizontal lines, such as the line of the horizon, suggest a feeling of peace and tranquility - Curving and jagged lines create a sense of activity -Though the use of lines is perhaps most essential and noticeable in drawing and some kinds of printmaking, all artists use line in their artwork in some way.

Watercolor

- Most common water-based paint - Transparent - Whiteness of the paper plays a factor - White paint is rarely used in water color - Tints are made by adding water to the paint (amount of water affects the value) - Lightest colors are applied first then darkest - Work from background to foreground, from broad areas to areas of color - Must be planned carefully and done diligently

Tempera

- Mostly used before oil paints - Water-based paint - Uses egg as a binder - Tempera painting requires great skill - Colors dry quickly; cannot be blended once applied to a surface - Narrow tone range- either light or dark - Ancient tempera paintings still retain their bright and brilliant colors

Dada

- Movement that challenged established ideas of art during World War I and the aftermath - Originated among a group of disaffected intellectuals living in Zurich - Art that aimed to protest against everything in society and to lampoon and ridicule accepted values and norms Marcel Duchamp: - His 2 works represented this amusing and irreverent view of the world. LHOOQ (1919) added a mustache to a reproduction of the Mona Lisa. Fountain (1917) was a common porcelain urinal - Invented a new category of ready-mades by taking an object and giving it a new context to make it art - Challenged traditional ideas about the way the artist functions—rather than physically making a work of art, an object became a work of art merely through the artist's choice *Picasso also made ready-mades. He took bicycle handle bars to appear as bullhorns with a bicycle seat to create Bull's Head (1943)

Environmental art/ Earthworks/ Land art

- New category of art that emerged in the 1960s - Some works can be classified as sculptures - Usually large in scale and constructed on-site - Can occupy natural spaces outside museums and galleries - Redefines space it is installed in - Performance may be coupled with it - Often the viewer, to some degree, is drawn into and involved with the artwork - Usually requires essential collaboration with the community and governmental agencies to gain approval - Usually designed to be impermanent or change over time - Photographs provide us more long-lasting documentation of these works that are fleeting with nature

During the Middle Stone Age/ Mesolithic Period, the climate warmed and cave dwellers moved out of their caves and into rock shelters. Describe the rock shelters.

- Often located in eastern Spain - Created from around 7000 to 4000 BCE - Like the cave paintings, has animal figures - Depicts human figures, both alone and in groups *except for 1 human figure in Lascaux, cave paintings did not have human beings - Emphasis on scenes where human beings dominate animals

Throughout the ________________ centuries, art historians continued to develop approaches that placed increasing emphasis on an understanding of the interrelationship between the formal qualities of a work of art and its context.

19th and 20th

What were civilizations that flourished in America? What is some of their art?

- Olmec - Inca - Toltec - Aztecs - Mayans Great pyramids, rivaling those of Egypt, rose as the central features of large cities, of which the Pyramid of the Sun in Mexico is one of the best known. The decorative carvings on the Mayan ruins continue to amaze us, and in addition to architectural marvels, statues in clay and stone, as well as fine textiles and jewelry, remain as reminders of the glories of these civilizations.

Hans Holbein the Younger

- One of the greatest Renaissance portraitists - Best known for his work in England despite being born in Germany - Was court painter to Henry VIII of England, which demonstrated his skill of details and capture of psychological character of his subjects - His work has been the model and standard up through the 19th century

Drawing

- One of the most basic art processes - Common media include pencils, pens, charcoal, crayons, markers, etc. of various colors - Can be done on a variety of surfaces like paper or walls - Primarily uses line. Hard pencils produce thin, light lines (think that it is harder to get pigment on the surface and the tip can be more precise). Soft pencils (like charcoal) produced thick, dark lines - The amount of pressure exerted changes the value. The more pressure, the darker - Shading can also change value - Hatching: places lines closely side by side for shading - Crosshatching: crisscrosses lines for shading - Drawing media can be blended to change the value and enhance shading - Stippling: pattern of dots that changes value. The closer, more densely clustered the dots are, the darker - Ink can be thinned with water for a lighter wash. Turns its from opaque to transculent - Colored pastels were popular in the 1700s. These soft sticks of color can be readily blended to create delicate tints and shades, and they are particularly popular for portraiture. - The major drawback of pastels is that they are very fragile, and pastel drawings must be cared for quite gently. Often, the surface of a pastel drawing is sprayed with a fixative to reduce the risk of smearing. - Colored pencils are more durable than pastels, but like pastels, they may be layered to create blended colors

Titian Vecelli

- One of the most prolific Venetian painters - Well known for his portraits - Greatest colorist of the Renaissance - Used various elements of setting (like a column or curtain) as a backdrop for portraits instead of an atmospheric neutral background - His influence of background elements can be seen in portraiture up until the 21st century

Great Wall

- Perhaps the most famous work of ancient Chinese art - Constructed over a course of centuries - Covers thousands of miles - Originally had a utilitarian function - Admired for aesthetic and engineering appeal

Photorealism

- Pop-inspired group of artists that began to produce super-realistic works - Aimed for a hyper-real quality resulted from the depiction of the subject matter in sharp focus, as in a photograph - Clear contrast to sfumato - Photorealist artists Chuck Close with his portraits, and Duane Hanson with his witty sculptures of ordinary people, hearkened back to the Realism promoted by Gustave Courbet.

While there is evidence of early people in many areas of present-day Canada and the United States dating back nearly 12,000 years, several of the conditions that we identified earlier as being necessary for preservation were not present. As a result, the majority of artifacts from these cultures are only from the last _________ years.

2000

Realism

- Reaction to Neoclassicism and Romanticism - Inspired by the idea that painting must illustrate all features of their subjects, even the negative ones - Obligated to show the lives of ordinary people as subjects that were as important as the historical and religious themes that dominated the art exhibitions of the day Gustave Courbet: - His flamboyant and outgoing personality outraged conventional audiences - The Stonebreakers (1849-50): painting of ordinary workmen repairing a road at the official government-sponsored Salon. Also had political implications in the context of a wave of revolutions that spread across Europe beginning in 1848 Other artists of the Realism movement were Honore Daumier and Jean Francois Millet

Describe characteristics of minimalism and some of their artists.

- Reduced art to the barest essentials - Emphasized simplification of form - Often used monochromatic colors - "hard line painting": very precise outlines Frank Stella: Large, entirely nonobjective paintings David Smith: Sculptor who used stainless steel Dan Flavin: Used neon tubing to create large pieces reflecting abstract minimalism

Composition

- Refers to the artist's arrangement of the elements of art - In terms of a painting, it is the picture plane - In terms of architecture, it describes organization of elements in space - Rhythm: associated with movement or pattern that can be created through repetition of elements - Rhythm causes the viewer's eyes to move across and around the composition, sometimes smoothly, sometimes more jarring - Motif: single element of a pattern like a color or line - Checkerboards are an example of a regular pattern - Balance: equal distribution of visual weight in art - Symmetrical balance: composition is repeated exactly the same on both sides of the central axis (ex. folding a paper in half) - Many formal styles of architecture make use of symmetry with columns, wings, and windows arrayed equally on either side of the central entrance - Many formal styles of architecture make use of symmetry with columns, wings, and windows arrayed equally on either side of the central entrance. - Approximate symmetry: avoids rigidity and monotony by slightly varying shapes or objects on either sides. Can include variations in color, detail, or position. (ex. people of unequal weight on a seesaw) - Focal point: where the eye tends to rest. Appears more dominant than other parts of the composition - Proportion: size relationships among parts of a composition - Scale: relative sizes of elements within artworks; dimensional relation to parts of a work to the overall size of a work -When representing the human face and figure realistically, artists strive to use accurate proportions. The standard relationship for various parts of the body was established nearly 2,500 years ago during the Classical Period of Greece. Greeks believed that the human figure could be a measurement for all things. The ideal human was determined to be 7 .5 heads high. The corners of the eyes should fall halfway on a line between the chin and the top of the head. The bottom of the nose should fall halfway between the chin and the corners of the eyes. The bottom of the lip should fall halfway between the chin and the bottom of the nose.

Space

- Related to the organization of objects and the area around it - Positive space: objects, shapes, and forms (figure) in an artwork - Negative space: area around the figure (objects, shapes, forms)

Two-dimensional art processes and techniques are those that are created on a flat plane. They have height and width, but not significant depth. Artworks that have depth as well as height and width and that exist in space are three dimensional. Give some examples for both

2D: - Drawing - Printmaking - Painting - Photography - Some mixed media 3D: - Sculpture - Environmental art - Some mixed media

Earthworks/Land Art/ Environmental Art

- Since the 1970s, art was no longer confined to galleries or museum spaces - Christo and his partner Jeanne-Claude created interest in this art form Christo: - Began in Europe to startle the world with the idea that the idea that landscape or architecture is something that can be packaged - Wrapped well-known monuments in fabric - Built a 24 mile long cloth fence in California - Surrounded 11 Florida islands with pink plastic - Set up orange fabric gates on pathways throughout Central Park These works required years or decades of preparation Jeanne-Claude: - Handle the logistical details of Christo's projects Their partnership raises important questions about the concept of the individual genius of the artist and how he or she works. Other artists associated with Earthworks are Michael Heizer and Robert Smithson

Fresco

- Technique of painting, usually on walls or ceilings - Buon "true" fresco: mixes pure powdered pigments with water to apply to a wet plaster ground. Paint is permanently bound in the plaster. The artist must plan carefully because they can't make changes - Fresco secco: applies paint to dry plaster instead - Frescoes have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and in many medieval and Renaissance churches - Famous Mexican muralist Diego Rivera of the 20th century used this technique for murals in Mexico and the United States

How was Greece's art during the Early Classical Period?

- Temples were built with sturdy Doric columns - Unfortunately, much of the sculpture from this period has not survived, but luckily Roman copies have provided us with a good deal of information on these ancient works - Sculptures characterized by solemnity, strength, and simplicity - Most often focused on a scene the moment before or after an important action - Stiff frontal postures of the Archaic period were abandoned for more complex, life-like figures and positions - Contrapposto or counter positioning: shows the body at best advantage. Standing figure posed with weight shifted to one leg for a more naturalistic, relaxed appearance

Reformation

-One of the most important events impacting the history of sixteenth-century art - Protestants criticized the opulence and corruption of the Catholic Church and called for its purification - Moved away from richly decorated churches and religious imagery of the Renaissance - Church reacted with a Counter-Reformation: emphasized, even more than before, lavish church decoration and art of a highly emotional, dramatic nature

Gouache

- Water-based paint - Similar to school-quality tempera - Has more body and dries quicker than watercolor - Good medium for creating bright colors and meticulous detail - Known for its color - Often used in design and fine work

Encaustic

- Wax based paint - Used to paint grave markers in ancient Egypt that survive to this day - Colored molten wax is fused with the surface via application of hot irons - Very durable

Donatello

- Widely considered the founder of modern sculptor - Had a strong influence of classical antiquity - His bronze statue David (c. 1420-60s) was the first freestanding nude cast since antiquity - His sculptures reflected a greater emphasis on naturalism and the expression of character and dramatic action

What three major cultures flourished on the islands in the Aegean Sea, on Crete, and along the Aegean coast? These were precursors of the Greeks? What art did they have?

1) Cycladic culture ( 3200 - 2000 BCE ) - Group of islands on the Aegean - Simplified, geometric, nude female figures - Decorated pieces of pottery - Marble jars and bowls 2) Minoan culture - Supplanted Cycladic culture - Centered on Knossos on Crete, where the legend of the Minotaur (half-man, half-bull who devoured those who entered his maze) took place - Reached its pinnacle in the second millenium BCE - Art depicts sea life - Statues of female snake goddess - Naturalistic, pictorial style - Paintings in 2 forms: frescoes on palace walls and pottery designs - Impressive architectural achievements- built 4 major (unfortified) palaces and designed in a light, flexible, organic style - Collapse of Minoan culture coincided with the pinnacle of the Mycenaean culture 3) Mycenaean culture - Centered around city of Mycenae on Greek mainland - Built elaborate tombs - Burial practices allowed for good preservation of many objects - Mastery of gold and goldsmithing - Skillful in use of relief sculpture

What are the 2 modes of art analysis?

1) Formal analysis: focuses on the visual qualities of the work itself. A basic assumption of formal analysis is that the artist makes decisions related to the visual aspects of the work, which can reveal something about the meaning. The elements of art (discussed later on) is related to formal analysis. For this analysis, excellent skills in observation and description are required. Focus is always kept on the object, to which the art historian is always primary. 2) Contextual analysis: looks outside of the work of art in order to determine its meaning. Analyzes context in which the work was made in and later contexts where the work continues to be consumed. Contextual analysis focuses on the cultural, social, religious, and economic context in which the work was produced. Art historians may examine issues of patronage, viewer access to the work, physical location (in the original context), cost, subject matter in relation to other artworks of the time period, and so on.

Arts of the Renaissance were often referred to as High Renaissance artists. Which 2 artists were the model for the term "Renaissance Man"?

1) Leonardo Da Vinci - Inventor, architect, engineer, painter, sculptor, scientist, musician - Designed locks that controls movement along canals - Drew viable models of submarines and helicopters - Painted the Last Supper (c. 1495 - 98) - Painted the Mona Lisa (c. 1503-05); used sfumato (comes from the Italian word fumo or smoke; use of mellow colors and a blurred outline) which allows forms to blend subtly in one another without perceptible transitions - Worked in Florence 2) Michelangelo di Buonarotti - Entered a competition to have a statue created from a cracked piece of marble; created the larger-than-life sized David (1504). It was meant to be placed high on the facade of the Florence Cathedral meant to be viewed from below. It had beautiful carvings, a smooth finish, and striking pose that embodied the spirit of Florence as a republic - Commissioned by Pope Julius II in 1505 to design his tomb and sculpted great statues like Moses (c. 1513-15), The Dying Slave (1513-16), and The Bound Slave (1513-16), only for the project to be cancelled for uncertain reasons - This made Michelangelo bitter, disappointed, and hesitant to decorate the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. It took 4 years (from 1508 to 1512) to cover 7000 square yards. The Sistine ceiling has renewed attention recently as restorers cleaned the frescoes, removed the collection of wax, oil, and grime accumulated over the centuries, thus restoring the original brightness of the colors. Not everyone was happy with the results of the cleaning, however, and a controversy about this restoration, as well as the restoration of artworks in general, continues within the art world.

During the fifteenth century and into the early decades of the sixteenth century, areas of southern Germany witnessed a flowering of artistic production. Which 2 are considered the greatest artists of the Renaissance in Northern Europe?

1) Matthias Grunewald - Only 10 of his works survived, yet still had a notable impact - Known for religious scenes and depictions of Christ's crucification - Isenheim Alterpiece (c. 1510- 15): work consisting of nine panels mounted on two sets of folding wings, is considered to be his greatest masterpiece 2) Albrecht Durer - Perhaps the most famous artist of Reformation Germany - Early training was largely influenced by late Gothic works - As the ideas of the Italian Renaissance spread northward in the sixteenth century, Dürer's work began to reflect some of these new influences - Aimed to achieve a style that combined the naturalistic detail favored by artists of the north with the theoretical ideas developed by Italian artists - Traveled to Italy and brought new knowledge back to Italy - Wrote about theories of art - Published series of woodcuts and copper engravings, such as The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (c. 1498)

In later medieval art, the architecture of churches became a dominant art form. Every city, town, and village had a church at its center, and the largest of these are masterpieces of art that often took more than a century to complete. Describe the churches (there are 2 styles). Give an example.

1) Romanesque: - Uses roman arch as basis - Early medieval church style - Stone vaulted; replaced highly flammable wooden roofs - Used a barrel-vault (tunnel of arches). *vault: arch-shaped structure used as a ceiling or as support to a roof - Has massive walls to support heavy stone arches - Small window and door openings - Often decorated with carvings and relief sculptures An example is Saint-Sernin in Toulouse, France (c. 1070-1120). 2) Gothic: - Developed in first half of 12th century and remained popular until the 16th century - Pointed arches gave an upward, soaring sense to the direction of Heaven - Ribbed vaults: framework of thin arches built under the intersection of the vaulted sections of the ceilings - Flying buttresses (additional bracing material and arches placed on the exterior of a building) counteracted downward and outward pressure caused by the arches of barrel vaults. This allowed for larger windows, many of which are filled with beautiful stained glass and higher ceilings An example is the Chartres Cathedral in France (begun c. 1145, rebuilt after 1194)

What 2 fields sometimes overlaps with art history?

1) aesthetics: philosophical inquiry into the nature and expression of beauty 2) art criticism: explanation of current art events to the general public via the press.

India is an extremely diverse nation in which more than _________ different languages and dialects are currently spoken, and India is home to a variety of religious and cultural traditions.

1,600

Art history

Academic discipline dedicated to the reconstruction of the social, cultural, and economic contexts in which an artwork was created

The kingdom of Nubia lay to the south of Egypt and covered a large area of _______________

Africa As contemporary historians become increasingly interested in revising and expanding art history, more knowledge about this great African civilization is being uncovered.

Which medium of art is the Japanese best known for?

Although Japanese artists created excellent works in painting, architecture, crafts, and sculpture, it is for their printmaking that Japanese artists are best known in the Western world. Japanese prints had a profound influence on Western art, as French artists began to imitate the prints that they began to collect in the late nineteenth century. The flat colors and overhead viewpoint of these prints were adopted by many French artists during this period.

Pliny the Elder

Ancient Roman historian who sought to analyze historical and contemporary art in his text "Natural History"

The use of everyday objects in artistic works had a decided influence on the next big movement in art—Pop Art (1960s). Give some pop art artists.

Andy Warhol: - Icon of pop art - Used a silkscreen approach that was used to mock the art world to create Brillo boxes, soup cans, and images of movie stars Roy Lichtenstein: - Adopted imagery of comic books and recreated them on a larger scale that the pattern of dots to make them were massive Robert Indiana: - Used stencils that were originally used to produce commercial signs to create his own artistic messages

Der Blaue Reiter

Another German expressionist group Led by the Russian artist Vasily Kandinsky, who around 1913 began to paint totally abstract pictures without any pictorial subject. Other pioneers of total abstraction were the Russian painter Kazimir Malevich and the Dutch artist Piet Mondrian, whose De Stijl canvases, consisting of flat fields of primary color, have become a hallmark of modern art.

Art history is closely related to other disciplines such as ________________________________

Anthropology, history, sociology and the field of aesthetics

What were some changes of the Late Classical period?

Architecture declines as Athens was defeated in the Peloponnesian War. Temples of this era were still built using simple Doric columns, but the use of highly decorated Corinthian columns became increasingly more popular

In addition to written sources, what might art historians use for contextual analysis?

Art historians also seek to situate the work in the context of the literature, music, theater, and history of the time period. They may rely on interviews with artists and consumers of the work of art. This is especially the case in cultures that rely more on oral history than on written documents. Guided by the field of anthropology, some art historians also use methods such as participant observation to understand the context of a work of art. An art historian studying masquerade traditions in West Africa, for example, may participate in a performance while carefully documenting the event in order to better understand art traditions.

Craft art

Art that was dismissed in the past Ex. Pottery, textiles, body art (tattoos) *There is also a third category that art historians consider today that might not be considered as art by its intended audience (such as mass produced posters, advertisements, design for everyday objects like the fork, telephone, living room sofa, etc.)

Fine art

Art usually produced specifically for appreciation by an audience who also understood objects as works of art. Art historians in the past often limited their focus to fine art Ex. Paintings, prints, drawings, sculpture, architecture

What further conditions that allow for the creation of artworks and enable their survival?

Art usually thrives in highly organized cultures with stable population centers, usually great cities, that house ruling classes who in turn support the work of artists Also, if a civilization has a tradition of protecting its art in locations that are largely inaccessible, it is more likely that the works from that culture will survive to a point where they are included in a study of art history. Many extant artifacts have come from burial chambers, caves, and tombs, where they have been protected by being naturally concealed.

Up until the Renaissance, painters and sculptors, in accordance to Greek traditions of art, considered artisans. How did this change during the Renaissance?

Artist's statuses and roles shifted. Great artists became recognized as intellectual figures. They now had a special place in society.

While the Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian cultures grew in southern Mesopotamia, the _______________ dominated in the north.

Assyrians (900-600 BCE) - Most powerful civilization in the Near East - Among the most notable of Assyrian artworks are relief carvings, which often depict battles, sieges, hunts, and other important events. - Throughout the seventh century BCE, the Assyrian hold on power weakened

The best-known ancient Greek art is that from the city-state of _________ from the Classical Period.

Athens

Giorgio Vasari

Author and artist who lived during the Renaissance; gathered the biographies of artists, past and present, in the "Lives of Artists". His text provided us with insights into the changing roles during the period and the developing concept of artistic genius

What was the next important civilization?

Babylonians Centuries before there were coexistence of several city-states in Mesopotamia. Around 1792 BCE, Hammurabi, king of city-state Babylonia, was able to centralize power. Hammurabi codified Babylonia law. The Code of Hammurabi is the oldest code in entirety and it is a stone stele onto which Hammurabi's code is carved with a sculpture in high relief at the top that depicts Hammurabi receiving inspiration for his code of law from the sun-god, Shamash.

The medieval period witnessed a great deal of civil strife, and consequently the art of this era was preserved largely by the Church. During these times, the majority of the population was illiterate; formal education was largely limited to the noble class and the clergy. The international language was Latin. Describe written documents and their significance.

Books were often hand-copied on vellum or parchment. Preservation and production were often confined to monasteries, where monks spent time copying and illustrating the books in their collection. Books were so valuable that they were chained to tables were they were read. Illuminated manuscripts were remarkable works of art and helped facilitate the exchange of artistic ideas between northern and southern Europe. Examples include the Book of Kells (late 18th or early 19th century) and the Coronation of Gospels (c. 800-810)

The dynasties succeeding Qin built grand walled cities with huge palaces and tombs. What else are they known for?

Bronze statues and ceremonial vessels with intricate designs, but their method of casting is unknown.

What were some works of art in the Old Stone Age/ Upper Paleolithic Period?

Chauvet Cave paintings (c. 30,000 BCE) - One of the oldest works of art - Located in Southeastern France - Discovered in 1994 - Has minimal use of yellow - Paintings/engravings mostly used red ochre and black charcoal - Depicts horses, rhinoceros, lions, buffalos, mammoths Lascaux (France) and Altamira (Spain) cave paintings - Large colored drawings of horses, lions, bison, and mammoths - Has several outlines of human hands These cave paintings may seem like scribblings of cavemen, but it became apparent that the various groups of drawings were created by skilled artists working within an established tradition The artists used pigments of red and yellow ochre to add color to the elegant black outlines they had created using charcoal. Though we cannot be sure of the original functions, it is possible that these works were created as part of hunting ceremonies or other ritual behavior Fertility figures (small stone female figures with exaggerated bellies, breasts, and pubic areas) Best known: Venus of Willendorf (c. 28,000 to 25,000 BCE) - About 4 and 1/8 inches tall - Undefined facial features - Missing feet - Barely visible arms *Keep in mind that art historians use the best available information to date. These dates are estimated and are frequently contested and sometimes are revised as new information are made available

What 2 inventions allowed Impressionists to paint outdoors easily for the first time?

Chemically based paints and the paint tube

Comparative study

Contrasts 2 artworks or qualities of artwork (like styles/time periods: Gothic and Renaissance for example) to understand more clearly the unique features of each other and the stylistic changes that led from one to another Then, we can seek to relate these changes to historical context.

Harlem Renaissance

Decade long flowering of arts fueled by the popularity of jazz, writers, artists, and musicians During the 1920s, Harlem became a center for African-American creativity. Inspiration to many artists, including Jacob Lawrence, Romare Bearden, and other well- known artists of the next generation.

To the south, the Spanish court of King Philip IV of Spain tried to emulate the court of France. Who was his court painter?

Diego Velazquez - Contemporary of Bernini (the baroque artist who made the Ecstasy of Saint Theresa) - His method built figures from patches of color, rather than starting from a drawing - Influenced the Impressionism movement

Modern art history was strongly influenced by 18th century ______________________________

Enlightenment theory

Peter Paul Rubens

Established a huge workshop in Flanders and produced works of great color and energy that became the model for many artists

The influence of Buddhist traditions is strong, of course, but what often astonishes people unfamiliar with the art of India is the influence of __________ art on the classical images of Buddha.

Greek India has ruins of great early civilizations that rival those of Egypt and Mesoamerica, and the sensuous style of Indian sculptures has had an enduring impact on art over the centuries. In contrast, much Indian art reflects the tremendous influence of Hinduism. This religion, with its many gods and goddesses, gave rise to a lovely, lively, and sinuous style. Images of Shiva, who dances gracefully with his multiple arms, are particularly striking.

Die Brucke

Group of German artists that emphasized emotional responses Includes Emil Nolde and Ernst Ludwig Kirchner Took the brilliant arbitrary colors of the Fauvists and combined them with the intense feelings found in the work of the Norwegian artist Edvard Munch This highly charged attempt to make the inner workings of the mind visible in art is known as Expressionism.

During the 1950s, the art scene in New York was dominated by the ideas and writings of critics like which 2?

Harold Rosenberg and Clement Greenberg. These critics had an tremendous impact on the development of art styles. Greenberg chose to promote a particular view of art and was an advocate for artists who were further developing abstraction.

How did Native Americans demonstrate architectural skill?

In their pueblo complexes. These dwellings often consisted of well over a hundred rooms laid in multiple stories.

The introduction of Buddhism from _________ had a profound effect on Chinese arts and culture.

India

What allowed Japanese art to remain relatively consistent and traditional?

It was closed off to the West. The island kingdom of Japan, though tiny in size, has had a great influence on the international art world. Also, as with China, Buddhism was imported to Japan and became an important focus in the traditional arts. The strength of Japan's artistic traditions remained even when the country became more open to Western cultures.

In response to the non-objective style of Abstract Expressionism, other artists began to return to naturalism, producing works that, though they may appear in some ways similar to those of the abstractionists, focused on ordinary consumer objects. Give examples of artists

Jasper Johns - Created a series of works featuring common things like flags, numbers, maps, and letters Robert Rauschenberg - Created sculptures from cast-off objects he found around him to create "combines" - Bed (1955): hung his own bedclothes on the wall like a canvas and painted over it - Monogram (1959): Consisted of numerous "found items including a stuffed goat, a tire, police barrier, the heel of a shoe, a tennis ball, and paint

While art objects in a variety of media have been created by many different African cultural groups, our study of them has been limited in many cases. Why?

Lack of preservation. While there are some objects in metal and clay, the use of fiber and wood, which are quite perishable, has resulted in relatively few artifacts being preserved. Unfortunately, much African art was also destroyed by early European traders and colonial settlers on the Fang mask used for the ngil ceremony, an inquisitorial search for sorcerers. Wood, Gabon, nineteenth century. continent. Westerners often viewed much of what they found in Africa as dangerous and threatening to the colonial pursuit, perceiving artworks as pagan symbols that should be destroyed rather than preserved. Hence, a wealth of cultural artifacts has been lost. The objects that were preserved were often collected as archaeological artifacts and, in most cases, important contextual information was lost. It is only relatively recently that art historians have begun to explore the rich variety of artworks and aesthetic systems of African cultures. In many cases, traditional African arts challenge the Western concept of art for art's sake—functional baskets, ceramics, and textiles, for example, are some of the most prized material objects for many African cultural groups.

What are the formal qualities of art?

Line, shape, Form, Space, Color, Texture. Formal analysis requires careful observation and description, often using the special vocabulary of art.

Paint

Made up of pigments, binders, and solvents Pigments: - Finely ground materials that can be synthetic of natural - Natural pigments include clays, gemstones, minerals, and plant and insect materials - Gives color Binders: - Holds grains of pigment together and allows paint to adhere to the surface - Egg yolk, linseed oil, wax, etc. Solvent: - Changes the consistency - Alters drying time - Water or oil Water and gems cannot be considered paint, since water just changes the consistency. Needs a binder Paint can be applied to surfaces like boards, papers, canvases, plaster walls with a variety of tools such as fingers, paint brushes, sticks, palette knives, etc.

Why is contextual information lost when we look at African art in a museum?

Many African cultural groups, such as the Dan and the Bwa, are well- known for their impressive masks. Masks, though, are not meant to be seen in isolation as they are typically displayed when in art museums. Instead, masks are usually integrated into performance, coupled with a full-body costume and accompanied by music, dance, jokes, festivities, and a great meal shared with friends and family.

Today, Islam is a major religion that is not limited to any one region of the world. However, historically Islam emerged in the Arabian Peninsula following the teachings of the prophet _____________

Muhammad His relevations are recorded in Islam's holy book, the Koran. This text plays a central role in the practice of Islam and some of the most valued art are beautifully produced copies of the Koran or containers that hold the sacred text

Where in Africa were some of the oldest cave paintings found?

Namibia

The Revolution of 1789 in France ushered in an era of great change throughout Europe, and the idea of a democratic republic ruled by and for the people was reflected in the artwork of the time. Which art style did it lead to? Describe it and explain some of their artists.

Neoclassicism: - Attempt to hearken back to the democratic ideals of the ancient world, art of this period demonstrated a revival of interest in the art of classical Greece and Rome - Emerged in decades leading up to the Revolution - Influenced by Enlightenment philosophy - Direct challenge to Rococo art and its associations with aristocracy - Emphasis on line, order, and cool detachment Jacques Louis David: - His painting the Oath of the Horatii (1784), illustrated republican virtues - Joined members of the new government as the master of ceremonies for the grand revolutionary mass rallies following the revolution - Dedicated painter to Napoleon Bonaparte - Painted large propagandistic canvases that seemed to undermine his earlier revolutionary ideals - A closer investigation of his work and his career reveals the complicated world of an artist and his patrons Jean Dominique Ingres: - Student of David - Sharp outlines, unemotional figures, careful geometric composition, and rational order are hallmarks of the Neoclassical style

After WW1, the art world shifted from Paris to _____________

New York

In West Africa, the Nok civilization flourished from c. 900 BCE to 200 CE. It is located in what is present-day ________

Nigeria. The Nok are known for their life-like terracotta sculptures, in which many were portraits of political and religious leaders. It is possible that the early Nok civilization had an influence on later cultural groups like the Yoruba. Another important historical tradition from Nigeria relates to the Benin Kingdom, which first emerged around 900 CE when the Edo people settled in the area. Much of the remaining art from the Benin Kingdom was produced in association with a rich life at the royal court. Cast bronze portrait heads were intended for ancestral altars, and a variety of objects were made to reinforce the tremendous power of the oba, or Benin king. Countless treasures from the Benin Kingdom were destroyed or confiscated by the British in the 1897 raid on the royal palace. As a result, many more of these objects from historic Benin can be found in museums in Europe and the United States than in Nigeria.

Describe the work of the Germanic people and Vikings during the Medieval period.

Notable from the early medieval period (c. 375-1025) is the art of nomadic Germanic peoples, particularly their metalwork: - Abstract - Decorative - Geometric - Small-scale, portable jewelry or ornaments - Made of bronze, silver, gold and covered with a pattern of jewels Artifacts from this era also exist from the seafaring culture of the Vikings in Scandinavia: - Wood was an important medium - Carved artistic designs and sculptures on their wooden ships - As a result of viking invasions, the artistic style of the Vikings, Anglo-Saxon England, and Celtic Ireland merged into a Hiberno-Saxon style

Art historians also uses many written sources in the quest for contextual information about a work of art. Where can these often be found? Give some examples.

Often these texts are stored in archives or libraries. Archival sources may include items such as letters between the artist and patron, or other documents pertaining to the commission, and art criticism produced at the time the work of art was made. An art historian might also search for written documentation about the materials used to produce the work of art, such as their cost and source, and about the function of the artwork—how a particular sculpture was used in ritual practice, for example.

What was WW2's effect on art?

Organizd movements of art virtually came to a standstill. Art was produced, but most of the effort was directed to the war. Many artists served in the military and some art was designed to serve as propaganda When the war was over and Europe was recovering, a new center for the international art world emerged. The action had shifted to New York, and it would be decades before the artistic centers in England, France, Italy, and Germany would regain something that approximated the prominence of New York.

Boticelli

Painted the Birth of Venus (c. 1482) - Established image of female beauty that lasted throughout the century - One of the first paintings of a full-length female nude since antiquity - Longed necked Venus has flowy hair and a languid pose

How did a change in the economy trigger the Renaissance?

Paper money was first developed. This partially led to vast fortunes accumulated by the nobles of the Medici family. Wealthy families like this were major patrons of art during the Renaissance. Another important factor was the fact that examples of Greek and Roman art were readily available in Italy, and these classical works of art had a tremendous impact on the art of the Renaissance.

Describe some post-impressionist artists.

Paul Cezanne - Was dissatisfied with the lack of solid form in Impressionist works - Suggested that a painting could be structured as a series of planes with a clear foreground, middle ground, and background - Argued that the objects in the painting could be reduced to their simplest underlying forms- cube, sphere, cone. This had an impact on the development of Cubism in the early 20th century George Seurat: - Placed emphasis on scientific rules of color - Optical mixing: applied his colors in small dots of complementary colors that blended in the eye of the viewer - Had vibrant results - Emphasis on technique often led to static compositions Vincent Van Gogh: - Dutch artist who studied art - Used theories of contrasting colors and very direct application of applying paint - His vigorous brushwork and twisting forms were designed to capture an intense response - Developed the idea that color should not slavishly imitate colors of the natural world, but rather should be intensified to portray human inner emotions - The intense and jarring yellows, greens, and reds in the poolroom of Van Gogh's Night Café (1888), which van Gogh considered a place of vice, illustrate this very influential idea. Paul Gauguin: - Known for the story of his life as much as he is known for his art; was a successful stockbroker who left his wife and family in his 40s to pursue art as a career - Worked with Van Gogh for a short period of time in Southern France - Dissatisfied with his art, he went to Tahiti searching for more intense color and a more "unschooled" style, where he painted the island's lush, tropical settings, and native people (as seen through the lens of colonialism) Edgar Degas: - His work exemplifies the effect of exploration and colonialism (some artists were intrigued by African masks and others collected Japanese prints that were used to ship imported goods from Japan) - Combined the snapshot style of photography with a Japanese-like perspective from slightly above his subject

Oceania is the collective name for the thousands of islands that constitute Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia. Describe their art.

Polynesia: - Tattoos and body art are important ways of expressing social stature - These art forms are lost when the person passes away and are preserved only through engravings by visitors of the island or through photographs Melanesia: - The Asmat cultural group's art is related to warfare - Asmat engaged in head-hunting practices, but these traditions have died out - Enormous carved wooden shields decorated with beautiful black, red, and white abstract patterns were traditionally used for protection in raids among groups throughout the area; these are now used as a cultural symbol rather than its original function - Carved masks were a central part of Melanesian cultures. In many cases, these masks were used in ceremonies that involved summoning the spirits of ancestors to honor the dead Rich traditions continue to develop throughout Oceania today, especially as groups such as the Maori of New Zealand seek cultural renewal by reviving old traditions in a new context. Many people from traditional cultural groups that have been threatened by colonization recognize that art offers vibrant possibilities for expressing and reinforcing cultural identity.

In England, a group of artists dissatisfied with the effects of the Industrial Revolution banded together and became known as the _____________________

Pre-Raphaelites: - Created a style that attempted to return to the simpler forms of pre-Renaissance art - Created many quasi-religious works - Blended Romantic, archaic, and moralistic elements

Shape and form

Shape defines two-dimensional areas of an object while form defines three-dimensional areas. For example, a square is a shape but a cube is a form. A drawing of an apple is a shape, but a clay apple is a form. Shapes and forms may be geometric, such as circles/ spheres, triangles/pyramids, and squares/cubes. It may be organic when it is freeform and irregular in shape or form. A geometric shape or form can convey a sense of order and stability, while organic shapes and forms tend to express movement and rhythm.

Describe ancient Egyptian art (generally dated at c. 3000 BCE, following the predynastic period through 332 BCE, when Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great) and give some examples.

Recognizable works include the great monuments of ancient Egypt: the Sphinx, the great pyramids at Giza, the larger-than-life-sized statues of the pharaohs, and the portrait head of Queen Nefertiti. Much Egyptian art emphasizes the style of hierarchial scale: uses the status of figures or objects to determine their relative sizes within an artwork Hierarchial scale is exemplified in the Palette of King Narmer: - Relic from the Old Kingdom. - Slab of stone that may have been used mix cosmetics - King Narmer is depicted centrally and bigger than other figures - In the main image on the palette, Narmer is seen holding the hair of a fallen enemy, with his arm raised in preparation for delivering a deathblow - Lower section of the palette (below the king and his enemy) shows 2 smaller figures of defeated enemies - The organization of the figures, their relative sizes, and their poses recurred in most of the ancient Egyptian art that followed. - Figures are presented so that each part of the body is shown as clearly as possible, in a technique known as "fractional representation." The head is in profile with the eye in frontal view, the torso is in full frontal view, and the lower body, legs, and feet are in profile. This formula became a standard style that endured for centuries as the typical way of representing people in Egyptian art. Egypt had excellent conditions for preservation. Burial customs decreed mummification and entombment with lavish furnishings, symbolic servants, and jewelry, resulted in rich stores of objects and images. The most famous of the Egyptian tombs is that of the boy king, Tutankhamun: - By the 20th century, most ancient Egyptian tombs of the pharaohs had been broken into and robbed. King Tut's tomb, however, was cleverly hidden and remained almost completely intact until 1922 - Excavators found a treasure-trove of objects, all superbly made of rich materials - His burial mask was made of gold and decorated with blue glass and semiprecious stones. It was found in the innermost layer of the king's sarcophagus, rested on the mummy's face and shoulders. The mask presented an idealized portrait of the king.

Baroque

Refers to artworks produced from the late 16th century through the mid-18th century - Less static than Renaissance styles - Greater sense of movement and energy - Appealed largely to emotions - Influenced by the Counter-Reformation, aimed at dramatic and moving appeals to faith. Whereas the Renaissance witnessed wars between cities, the Baroque era saw conflicts between empires. During this time, the Church was determined to preserve its dominance in Spain and Italy, and orders like the Jesuits were founded to convert the peoples of other areas. The word "baroque" represents the richness of colors and ornamentation that heightened energy and emotion that were characteristics of the great works of this period

What art form is most often linked with the New Stone Age/ Neolithic Period?

Rings or rows of rough-hewn stones located in Western Europe that dates as early as 4000 BCE. These are exceedingly large (as much as 17ft in height and 50 tons in weight). This gives the name megaliths meaning "great stones" and the culture that created these works are often called megalithic. The most well known of these stone arrangements is Stonehenge - Believed to be built in many phases around 2100 BCE - Found on Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England - Features concentric rings of sarsen (a form of sandstone) and smaller bluestones (rocks indigneous to the region) - Outermost ring is comprised of huge sarsen stones in post-and-lintel constructions (2 upright pieces topped with a crosspiece or lintel) - Next ring composed of bluestones, which encircle a horse-shoe shaped row of 5 lintel-topped sarsen stones (these are the big ones that weigh 50 tons) - Outside, facing the Northeast, is the vertically placed heel-stone. - If one stands in the center and looks outward, the heel-stone marks the point at which the sun rises on the midsummer solstice

Describe the Rococo style and some of their artists.

Rococo art: - Seen as an extension of the Baroque period - Aimed to arouse grand emotions - Celebrations of gaiety, romance, and frivolity of grand life at court, specifically at the court of Versailles - Emphasis on light-hearted decorations - Use of gold and pastel colors Jean Antoine Watteau: - Leader of a new generation and innovator of a new style of painting, fete galante: depicts members of nobility in elegant contemporary dress enjoying leisure time in the countryside Francois Boucher: - Influenced by Watteau's delicate style - Favorite painter of Madame Pompadour, the mistress to Louis XV - Often transformed characters of classical myths into scenes of courtly gallantry, with emphasis on nubile nudes Jean Honore Fragonard: - Also promoted by Madame Pompadour - Influenced by Boucher

Giorgione

Rome and Florence were not the only locations to witness an incredible flowering in the arts. Venice, too, became a center of artistic creativity. - Made innovations in landscapes - Painted scenes not taken from the Bible or from classical or allegorical stories - Painted The Tempest (c. 1508) were the landscape was the subject of the painting rather than the subjects. It has a threatening storm.

An important feature of Louis XIV's court that was to influence art well into the 19th century was the system of choosing and supporting artists called the ____________

Salon: annual exhibition that that established rules for judging art that is still influential in the art world today It was also under the rule of Louis XIV that the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, often referred to simply as the "Academy," was established, and it soon came to be a means for imposing aesthetic standards and principles of taste.

Fillipo Brunelleschi

Second place winner to the Florence Baptistery competition. After losing he concentrated on architecture and won a competition to complete the dome of the Florence Cathedral, which remain unfinished for many years because architects had not been able to construct the huge vault that was required to span the whole space. Brunelleschi used a double-shelled dome design that was imitated by many later architects. Brunelleschi is credited with developing linear (single vanishing point) perspective. Masaccio is credited with putting linear perspective into practice. Brunelleschi used both linear and aerial perspective in his frescoes.

How did Renaissance artists in Northern Europe differed from the South?

Small: During the fifteenth century, the artworks being produced in northern Europe were smaller in scale than those of contemporaneous artists to the south. Realistic: The work of northern artists displayed a degree of realistic detail beyond what can be seen in works of the south, primarily due to their use of new oil paints. While the Renaissance was occurring in Italy, much of European art north of the Alps was still Gothic in style. Less classical antiquity: The influence of classical antiquity was also much less of a factor in the north, as the northerners did not share Italy's cultural connection with ancient Rome, nor did they have the advantage of being in close proximity to ancient Roman works as did their Italian counterparts. The art of northern Europe in the sixteenth century demonstrates a far greater awareness of the Italian Renaissance than that of the fifteenth century. Many artists traveled to Italy to study the great works of the Renaissance, and some Italian artists brought these ideas with them when they traveled to the north. Engravers copied some of the more notable Italian works, and these engravings became available throughout Europe, thus spreading the ideas and styles of the Renaissance. Trade connections between upper-class German merchants and merchants in Venice, a center of trade and art, provided another avenue of influence. Though the influence of the Italian masters was notable, not all northern artists embraced the ideals and innovative techniques of the Renaissance, as many maintained a more traditional approach. Moreover, though linear perspective and the colors used farther south did travel northward, the manner in which they were used in the northern countries was quite different.

What was the order of civilizations?

Sumerians Akkadians Guti Neo-Sumerians Babylonians Assyrians Neo-Babylonians Persians Egyptians Nubians Greeks Etruscans Romans

China's Golden Age

Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE): - Artists produced some of the greatest works of ceramic sculptures - Traditional Chinese art placed great value on ink drawings - Scrolls were for contemplation - Chinese tradition in writing, painting, and sculpting were maintained over centuries

What happened 50 years after the Guti invasion?

The cities of Sumer were able to reassert control. The King of Ur became the Neo-Sumerian ruler The greatest works of this era were ziggurats built at city centers. The ziggurats functioned primarily as temples but also served as administrative and economic centers.

Environmental conditions also has a major impact on preservation. Give 1 example of good and bad conditions.

The hot, dry climate of the desert of Egypt enabled the preservation of even delicate materials, like papyrus. The sealed Egyptian caves and tombs likewise helped contain objects for wonder and enjoyment centuries later. In contrast, the humid climate of West Africa means that objects made of perishable materials had little chance of survival over the course of decades, and not to mention, centuries. This is why civilizations that are most studied are not the ones who made the best art, but rather whose art has been preserved and discovered. There are, for example, many sites of important civilizations in Central and South America that though known, remain yet unexplored. Too often the story at these sites has been one of exploitation and destruction, as people carelessly take artifacts to sell them on the international market in antiquities.

Art historians acknowledge that the meaning of a work of art can shift over time, and that an artwork may be perceived differently by viewers who approach it from different perspectives. What factors influence the perception of a piece of art? Give an example an explain.

The meaning of art depends on factors of social status, education, gender, physical access, religion, and race. One example is Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel paintings. It would be significant in different ways in the eyes of : 1) The Pope. He had commissioned the work and has extensive theological knowledge, as well as nearly exclusive access to the work in his private space in the Vatican 2) A chapel worker (ex. janitor cleaning the floors). Their level of literacy is probably low and the building is their workplace. 3) A modern tourist. There are various religions and tourists can see/understand the historical, religious, and artistic context. Although the work was made for Catholics in the 16th century, the work can be viewed (but would be viewed differently) in the eyes of a 21st century, atheist, Muslim, or Protestant. Nevertheless, everyone can still appreciate the beauty and aesthetic value of the work.

At the beginning of the Renaissance, there was a 1401 competition for the design of the Florence Baptistery's doors. What was the winning design?

The winner was Lorenzo Ghiberti. His design harkened back to Ancient Greece and depicted the sacrifice of Isaac, in which Isaac appears as a classic Greek figure. After the doors were installed, Ghiberti was asked to design a second set to the doors for another entrance to the cathedral. This time it took more that 25 years. The doors were so magnificent that Michelangelo called them the "Gates of Paradise," and they have been referred to by that name ever since.

Sculpture

There are freestanding sculptures like the Venus de Milo and Michelangelo and relief sculptures that are attached to a surface such as doors, sarcophagi , altars, and church walls that can be high or bas/low relief as talked about previously There are 4 ways: 1) Carving: - Subtractive process in which some original material is removed - Stone or wood sculptures can be made by chiseling or gouging away with chisels, hammers, or files - Can range from miniature forms that rest on a fingertip to monumental forms of living rock 2) Modeling: - Additive process - Soft, workable material like clay, wax, plaster, or papier mache is formed by hand - Can be shaped with tools or decorated by hand 3) Casting: - Unfired clay or wax sculpture is the basis for cast form - Original form is encased in plaster - Plaster hardens then is removed from original form to be used as a mold - Mold is filled - May be cast in metal, plaster, or more recently synthetic materials like plastic or polyester resin 4) Construction: - Metal sculpture can be welded from sheet metal or bent from wire - Some artists use paper, board, or wood that is cut and glued or joined together by other means and possibly painted over - Can be formed by combining found objects Some sculptures have moving parts, like Alexander Calder's mobiles with forms suspended by wire, which can be moved my wind or air currents. Other artists use a variety of motors, pulleys, ropes, pumps, and other mechanical means to introduce movement.

The civilizations that arose in Mesopotamia in the valley between what 2 rivers developed writing and arts in parallel with Egypt?

Tigris and Euphrates. This valley lacked natural barriers like deserts and mountains that protected Egypt, leaving them vulnerable to invasions hence, the history of this ancient region is one of successive conquest and destruction. Moreover, the use of more perishable materials by Mesopotamian civilizations has left us with fewer examples of their arts.

What is the basic goal of art history?

To arrive at an understanding of a work of art and its meaning in its historical moment, taking into account: 1) formal qualities, 2) functions in the original context, and 3) the goal and intentions of the artist and patron of the work of art. Other questions are also accounted for, as well as the social position and perspectives of the audience in the work's original time and place.

How did art historians usually begin their analysis?

With a close examination. Direct examination of the work of art is ideal because much is lost when we look at a reproduction rather than an original object For example, we look at a photograph of a statue rather than directly at the statue itself in the museum. It is difficult to get the 3D qualities and a sense of scale. Texture is lost. When looking at reproductions of paintings some rich colors are lost. Photographs are flatter and lack a subtle transition from light to dark. However, reproductions are often studied by art historians due to practical constraints. Sometimes works of art can be damaged or lost over time, so earlier descriptions can also be used to aid formal and contextual aid. In addition to examining the work of art in question, art historians will also seek to understand any associated studies (sketches, preparatory models, etc.) and other works by the artist and his or her contemporaries.

How did politics affect China's art?

With the communist revolution that established the People's Republic of China in 1949, art became suffused with political ideas and was often an instrument of propaganda. However, since the late 1970s, Chinese art has gradually become less political.

What are some perishable materials?

Wood, fibers

The 17th and 18th centuries in Europe were a time when society was governed by __________________________________________

a ruling class that viewed its power as a divine right Some of the most powerful sovereigns ever to rule and dominated the lives of the people in their empire: - Empress Maria Theresa of Austria - Catherine the Great of Russia - Peter the Great of Russia - King Louis XIV of France This was a time that saw the ongoing concentration of power and wealth into the hands of a few until the results eventually became intolerable for the majority of the people. Few lived in great luxury. Most lived difficult, ordinary lives and their disparity gave rise to protests like those found in the writings of Enlightenment authors, Jean Jacques Rosseau in particular Ironically, however, it was the patronage of the wealthy ruling class that gave rise to the great wors of art during this period

Art historians today generally define "art" very broadly as __________________________________

almost any kind of visual material that is created by people and is invested with special meaning and/or is valued for its aesthetic appeal

When considering contemporary views of art history as well as perspectives on art history from the past, it is important to keep in mind that all histories are individual stories and thus will inevitably reflect ______________________

certain biases

More recently, art history has been revised, particularly by ________________ historians, who have noted that the traditional version of art history has largely focused on ______________ , whether as artists or as patrons.

feminist; white men As a result of such revisions, art history has expanded its scope in recent years and has become a field that is broader, more international, more multicultural, and more inclusive than in the past, often involving Marxist, feminist, and psychoanalytic methods and viewpoints. Moreover, the concern with great artistic geniuses and masterpieces has lessened as the full range of "visual culture," ranging from advertisement posters to film to photography and television imagery, has come to view.

Art history often emphasizes a chronological development with the assumption that within one cultural setting the work of one generation of artists will __________________________________________

have an impact on following generations. As we place these works of art in their cultural and historical context, they are connected to the long history of events that has led up to our present culture.

Art history provides information and insights that add background to the __________________________ of the works of art we study.

meaning and significance

As an academic discipline, art history arose in the ____________________ century.

mid-eighteenth

For many years, art historians classified much of the art of North and South America as _______________________________

products of simple craftsmanship These artifacts were not truly considered works of art and therefore were kept solely in archaeological and anthropological museums.However, renewed interest and new studies of these works have added considerably to our understanding and appreciation of the art of the first Americans, and objects from these cultures are becoming more and more common in the collections of art museums.

Much of what we know of the earliest life on earth has been revealed through a study of the objects or artifacts that remain from early cultures. In many cases, the objects that remain are those made of enduring materials such as _______________________________

stone, metal, fired clay

Oil paints were not widely used until _________________

the 1400s - Oil paints are more versatile than tempera - Can be easily mixed - Can be thinned up to makes layers of glazes: transparent or semi-transparent layers that are applied over another color to alter it slightly - For example, a yellow can be applied over a crimson to have a luminous effect that can't be achieved with tempera - Impasto can be achieved by applying the oil paint thickly or in heavy lumps - Dries slowly; artists can work on an oil painting for days or even weeks