Art/Architecture in Other Areas of Asia

sensui kawaramono

("riverbank workers as gardeners")

Form of the Borobudur temple

A pyramidal base with five concentric square terraces forms the base for three circular platforms that is topped with a monumental stupa. These divisions represet the three "realms" of Buddhist cosmology: 1) the world of desires (Kamadhatu), 2) the world of forms (Rupadhatu), and 3) the formless world (Arupadhatu). The majority of beings (such as humans and animals) live out their lives through sensory exepriences on the lowest level, the realm of desire. Beings who have learned to supress desire are on the path of Enlightenment, and they live in the world of form, meaning they see form (objects, things of substance), but they do not desire to acquire them. Full Buddhas go beyond form (having achieved Enlightenment), and they experience reality at its purest in a fundamental spiritual state, the formless ocean of nirvana. With regard to the structure of Borobudur, the base represents the world of desires; the five square platforms represent the world of forms; and the formless world is represented by the three circular platforms and the topped by a large stupa. The architectural features between the three stages have metaphorical differences: the square and detailed decorations of the world of forms disappear into the plain circular platforms, representing how the world of forms—where men are still attached with forms and names—changes into the world of the formless.

Forbidden City. Beijing, China. Ming Dynasty. 15th century C.E. and later. Stone masonry, marble, brick, wood, and ceramic tile.

After 1421, Beijing served as the capital of China, and its group of imperial buildings (surrounded by a two-and-a-half mile wall) known as the Forbidden City (Image 206), remains a remarkable achievement. The structure receives its name from the fact that the complex was forbidden to all but the emperor's family and servants. The Forbidden City lies in the center of Beijing, China, and was the seat of Chinese government during the Ming Dynasty to the end of the Qing Dynasty. The Ming Emperor Zhu Di began the construction of the palace complex in 1408. The palace was called "forbidden" because no one was allowed to enter or leave the city without express permission from the emperor. Today, it is the worlds' largest surviving palace complex with nearly one thousand buildings and over 8,500 rooms. The city was planned along a north-south axis and comprised of traditional wooden buildings with curved rooflines and alternating courtyards. It measures 7,800,000 square feet within its walls. Around its main courtyard and many smaller courts are grouped splendid halls, galleries, terraces, and gateways. White marble, wall facings of glazed terracotta, roofs of glazed and colored tiles, and woodwork finished with paint, lacquer, and gilding unite to create an effect of exceptional richness. The largest structure is the Hall of Supreme Harmony (Image 206), which houses the opulent throne room, is where the most important ceremonies, such as imperial weddings and coronations, were held. Emperors, however, spent most of their time living and working within the Inner Court, which contained buildings such as the Palace of Heavenly Purity, the home of the emperor; the Palace of Earthly Tranquility, where the empress resided; the Hall of Union; and the small Imperial Garden. The Palace of Tranquility and Longevity (Image 206) is an imperial retirement retreat on the inner court that was built in the 1770s for the Qianlong emperor, although he never actually lived there. Outside the walls there are three more imperial gardens. The Forbidden City palace complex was designed according to exacting religious and philosophical ideals. The colors selected and arrangements of buildings both displayed the impressive grandeur of the emperor and adhered to a carefully orchestrated scheme of balance and harmony. The buildings all faced south, which stood for holiness, and faced away from the north, which were the symbols of cold winds and evil. The roofs were made with yellow tiles, the exclusive color of the emperor. Ceremonial buildings are arranged in groups of three, representing heaven, and the five elemental colors (white, black, red, yellow, and green) are used throughout the design. The library roof was black to symbolize water in order to protect the precious writings from fire. White marble, wall facings of glazed terra-cotta, roofs of glazed and colored tiles, and woodwork finished with paint, lacquer, and gilding create an exception feeling of richness.

Ukiyo-e

As the period progressed, a new type of art arose in the form of wood-block prints. These images typically depicted scenes from everyday life. These works were known as Ukiyo-e (pronounced "oo-kee-oh-ay"), which translates as "pictures of the fleeting floating world," and thus referring to the impermanence of the world around us. These works were created for the prosperous merchant class which was on the rise during the urbanization of Japan in the Edo peroid (1603-1867). Popular ukiyo-e themes include depictions of beautiful women, kabuki actors and sumo wrestlers, scenes from history and folk tales, travel scenes and landscapes, flora and fauna, and erotica. The major Ukiyo-e painters are Harunobu, Kiyonaga, Utamaro, Hokusai, and Hiroshige.

Gold and jade crown. Three Kingdoms Period, Silla Kingdom, Korea. Fifth to sixth century C.E. Metalwork.

Bordered by China to the northwest, Chinese art has heavily influenced Korean art forms and themes. After hundreds of years of conflict among different kingdoms, Korea emerged as a state in its own right after the warring kingdoms were unified by King Munmu of the Silla Kingdom (57 BC - AD 935). The Silla rulers promoted the development of art and culture, and during this period, Buddhism reached its apex. Gyeongju, the Silla capital, is the site of impressive burial mounds of the royal tombs, with the interred including monarchs, their family members, and important members of the nobility. Built of wood, sealed with clay, and covered with mounds of stone and earth, these tombs functioned as impenetrable structures. From the time of their construction, these tombs have stood as symbols of both political authority and cultural grandeur. The Silla Kingdom was thought to be a "kingdom of gold," and Silla tombs have held a literal treasure trove of precious ornaments made from pure gold that were buried within, such as crowns, jewelry, caps, belts, and decorative weaponry. There are also objects made from other precious materials such as silver, crystal, and jade. These elegant objects were placed on the deceased to decorate the body with their extraordinary beauty and sophisticated craftsmanship, thus reaffirming the high esteem of both the patron and the artist. The Gold and Jade Silla Crown (Image 196) was found in one of these burial mounds, and it reflects the wealth, prosperity, and opulence of the Silla. The gold crowns are a uniquely Korean product that show no Chinese influence. Some scholars believe that the tree motif of the crowns represents the concept of the world tree, an important belief of Siberian shamanism, while others believe that the three-pronged protrusions are sybols of mountains or even birds. These antler-like prongs also indicate a strong connection to Korean Shamanism and the importance of the reindeer. The curved comma-shaped jewels (gogok) indicate Siberian influence and the importance of the bear cult. The gogok may also represent a connection with ancient Japanese culture since this type of jewel was used for adornment by the ruling. The gogok made of glass and jade may also symbolize fruit, the bounty of the trees. Some crowns incorporate tiny gold mirrors, leading art historians to hypothesize that when the crown was worn in sunlight (which would have been a dazzling spectacle), it would have reinforced the role of the Silla king as the symbolic representation of the sun on earth. The gold crowns are delicate in nature since they were created from thin sheets of gold, which is an incredibly malleable substance. The fragility of these crowns makes them impractical to wear on a daily basis, so scholars assert that they were likely only worn for ceremonial purposes, or they may have been created solely as funerary items.

Japanese painting

During the Nara period, the traditional technical methods of Japanese painting were established. The work was executed upon thin or gauzelike silk or soft paper with Chinese ink and watercolors. It was then mounted on silk brocade or its paper imitation and rolled upon a rod when not in view. The hanging scroll is called kakemono. The long, narrow horizontal scroll (emakimono), unrolled in the hands, usually illustrates a narrative with progressive scenes.

Daibutsu/Daibutsuden

Great Buddha/Great Buddha Hall

Travelers among Mountains and Streams. Fan Kuan. c. 1000 C.E. Ink and colors on silk. (nature > men)

In the Song Dynasty (960-1279), landscape painting reached its greatest expression. A vast yet orderly scheme of nature was conceived, reflecting contemporary Daoist and Confucian views. Sharply diminished in scale, the human figure did not intrude upon the magnitude of nature. The technique of ink monochrome was developed with great skill. Using the utmost economy of pictorial means, artists created a suggestion of mood, misty atmosphere, depth, and distance. During the Song dynasty, the incorporation of monumental detail in landscape painting also began to emerge, as we see in Fan Kuan's Travelers among Mountains and Streams (Image 201). Considered one of the finest landscape paintings ever produced by a Chinese artist, the work was used as a model for other Chinese painters. The painting is based on the Daoist principle of becoming one with nature, so when the viewer looks at the painting, he realizes how small he is compared the elements and power of the natural world. Huge boulders occupy the foreground at the viewer's eye level. In the middle ground, the artist has employed crisp, detailed brushwork to create a sense of rocky outcroppings covered with trees. Upon closer inspection, the viewer sees the miniscule figures of two men driving a group of donkeys loaded with firewood and a temple hidden in part by the forest. The background is dominated by a central mountain peak flanked by two smaller peaks, all of which rise through the mist and creates a solid screen of gritty rock that takes up nearly two-thirds of the picture. The dramatic height of the central peak is accentuated by a waterfall that plummets from a crevice close to the mountain's summit and then disappears into the narrow valley below. True to Daoist ideals, the painting focuses on the big picture of nature and the world as a whole instead of the individual, and this is reinforced by Fan Kuan's diversity of scale when showing human and natural elements.

Longmen caves. Luoyang, China. Tang Dynasty. 493-1127 C.E. Limestone.

Inside the grottoes and niches of the Longmen Caves (Image 195), the largest and most impressive collection of Chinese art of the late Northern Wei and Tang Dynasties (316-907) exists. These works, entirely devoted to the Buddhist religion, represent the high point of Chinese stone carving. The Longmen Caves are located on bothsides of the Yi River to the south of the ancient Wei and T'ang capital of Luoyang. There are almost 110,000 Buddhist stone sculptures (Image 195), more than 60 stupas, and about 2, 500 inscribed steles in the more than 2,300 limestone caves and niches carved into the steep cliffs. The earliest caves were carved some time in the late 5ht to early 6th centuries, and the most intensive period of carving dates from the end of the 5th century to the mid-8th century. The sculptural styles discovered in the Buddhist caves have been attributed to one of two styles: the earlier "Central China Style" and the later "Great Tang Style." The caves, stone statues, steles and inscriptions scattered at Longmen have been well preserved. The property area and buffer zone are consistent with the natural landscape and the ecological environment in the area dating back to the late 5th century. The works of humans and nature have been harmoniously unified at this site, as reflected in the integrity of the original landscape.

Angkor, the temple of Angkor Wat, and the city of Angkor Thom, Cambodia. Hindu, Angkor Dynasty. c. 800-1400 C.E. Stone masonry, sandstone.

Jayavarman II united the two states that geographically comprise modern Cambodia at the beginning of the 9th century, laying the foundations of the Khmer Empire, the major power in south-east Asia for nearly five hundred years. The court resided in several sites, one of which was in central Cambodia to the north of Tonle Sap ("The Great Lake"). Here, Jayavarman's son, Yashovarman established a permanent capital for the Khmer Empire, and he changed the name Angkor (from Sanskrit word for "city or capital"). Located in Cambodia's northern province of Siem Reap, today Angkor (Image 199) is one of the most important archaeological sites of Southeast Asia. Khmer art developed at Angkor had influenced much of South-East Asia. Khmer architecture has its roots in structures from the Indian subcontinent. The Khmer building style quickly distinguished itself as unique by developing its own special characteristics and creating a new artistic horizon in eastern art and architecture. Khmer style combines two basic plans of temple architecture in order to create a design representing Mount Meru, a sacred mountain with five peaks thought by Hindus to be the center of all the physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes and the dwelling of the gods. This style unifies the temple-mountain design with the galleried temple. Angkor was been built and rebuilt over the centuries, and each of the Khmer rulers built both religious and secular buildings to the site. The greatest phase of construction began in 1113 with the rule of Suryavarman II, who was responsible for building Angkor Wat (Image 199), which is considered the greatest of the Khmer monuments. The plan of Angkor Wat ("Capital Temple") (Image 199) consists of three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next, enclosed by a wall circuit and a moat. At the center of the temple, there are 5 towers in a quincunx formation, with the tower in the middle standing the tallest. Angkor Wat is unusual because it is oriented to the west, while other Angkor temples are oriented to the right. This suggests that Suryavarman II built the structure as a funerary temple, but scholars remain divided regarding the significance of the structure's orientation. Angor Wat was orginially a Hindu temple dedicated to Vishnu, and it has an extensive cycle of bas-reliefs of Hindu mythology, such as the Churning of the Ocean of Milk (Image 199). Click here for more information on one of the most well-known legends of the Cambodian culture and of the Hindu mythology. Suryavarman II death around 1150 was a period of turmoil due to internal struggle as well as external pressures. In 1177, Angkor was sacked by the Chams. Jayavarman VII rose to power and reasserted Khmer power through military success. To celebrate his victories, he built another capital at Angkor Thom, and he also launched an unprecedented building campaign in Angkor. The building campaign of Angkor Thom ("Great City") included a massive defensive wall circuit were built in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. The walls are divided by axes running north-south and east-west with a gateway at each end (Image 199). The four gateways faced the four cardinal directions. An additional gate, called the 'Gate of Victory', segments the east wall. This additional gate provided access to a terrace of the royal palace. As for the other gates, the two axes intersect at the center of quadrangle, and the state temple, Bayon, sits in the center, representing the intersection of heaven and earth. Bayon was dedicated to Buddha, and it is known for its huge stone faces of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, which face outward and keeping watch at each compass point. Some scholars believe that the smiling images are actually portraits of Jayavarman himself (Image 199).

Jowo Rinpoche, enshrined in the Jokhang Temple. Lhasa, Tibet. Yarlung Dynasty. Believed to have been brought to Tibet in 641 C.E. Gilt metals with semiprecious stones, pearls, and paint; various offerings. (WEST/CENTRAL ASIA)

Jowo Rinpoche enshrined in the Jokhang Temple (Image 184) is Tibet's most revered religious icon. It is believed to be made in India by an emanation of the Buddha himself during the Buddha Shakyamuni's lifetime. During the life of the Buddha, there were only two statues of this type. At some point before the 7th century, China gave India a gift of a very rare and expensive fabric believed to made by female deities, and India responded by gifting China with this statue. The Tang Dynasty princess Wencheng took the statue to Tibet from China when she married the Tibetan King Songsten Gampo. Hearing that the Chinese might invade Tibet, the princess hid the statue in a secret area of the Jokhang Temple. At some point after 710 CE, the statue was moved to the temple's central chapel. During the 14th century, Tsongkhapa, the founder of the Geluk lineage of Tibetan Buddhism, offered the Sambogakaya ornaments to the previously Nirmanakaya statue, transforming it into a Sambogakaya Buddha. The Nirmanakaya form is depicted wearing regular Dharma robes, and the Sambogakaya form is always shown wearing various ornaments - necklaces, earrings, arm bands, and crown. The Jowo Rinpoche statue is special for its beauty, but also because it contains the blessings of the Buddhas. All Tibetans know the Jowo Rinpoche, and they pray to see the statue before they die because they believe that its energy will transform them and help at the time of death. The great faith and devotion that Tibetans have with regard to the Jowo Rinpoche transform the statue into a real Buddha for Tibetans, who get blessings because they believe that they are seeing a very precious and a real Buddha. When people are sick or die, their relatives offer gold to the statue. The gold is directly applied to the face and body as an offering to the Buddha. They also offer "Golden Letters" to the Jowo Rinpoche. In a Golden Letter, the sick or dead person's name is written in gold on red paper and then burned in front of the statue in a butter lamp in hopes of healing them or providing safe passage for the spirit.

Night Attack on the Sanjô Palace. Kamakura Period, Japan. c. 1250-1300 C.E. Handscroll (ink and color on paper).

Most of the fine emakimono that survive today are from the Kamakura period, such as Night Attack on the Sanjo Palace (Image 203) from the latter part of the 13th century. The work is considered one of the Heiji scrolls that portray details and events of the Heiji disturbance of 1159, a period of armed skirmish and rebellion in the capital. A faction led by Fujiwara Nobuyori and the warrior Minamoto Yoshitomo staged a coup, surrounded the imperial palace, captured the sovereign, placed him in a cart, and then burnt the palace down. In the short term, the coup was successful, but Nobuyori and Yoshitomo were later defeated and killed. The Heiji scrolls are considered a masterpieces of yamato-e style painting. Night Attack on the Sanjo Palace is an excellent example of the emakimono (hand scroll) genre. These scrolls are often executed in continuous narrative form, often with accompanying text, with the same figures appearing many times against a unified background. The scroll reads from right to left, and all action flows to the left. A few people flow quickly into a confusing mob of warriors and nobles. The action is frenzied, and a wayward bystander is crushed by an ox cart. From this confusion, the viewer's attention shifts to the palace. Here, Fujiwara Nobuyori orders the retired emperor into the cart. Plumes of smoke appear first and lead the eye toward the inferno at the palace, with imperial supporters being killed as women of the palace attempt to flee. Gradually order is restored, and Fujiwara Nobuyori, his co-conspirator Minamoto Yoshitomo, and their warriors surround Go-Shirakawa's cart in a triumphant procession.

Terra cotta warriors from mausoleum of the first Qin emperor of China. Qin Dynasty. c. 221-209 B.C.E. Painted terra cotta.

One of the most important works from Early China as well as one of the most important archeological finds of the 20th century are the Terracotta Warriors from the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor of China (Image 193). Fishermen digging a well about a mile east of the emperor's tomb in Lishan discovered the Terracotta Army, and this prompted further investigation of the site. As a result, a complete necropolis surroundng the emperor's tomb was uncovered that included life-sized figures of soldiers, court entertainers, horses, and chariots. So far, four pits have been excavated, and over 6,000 figures uncovered. The soldiers stand in trenchlike, underground corridors, and they were originally painted in lacquer with bright pigments, such as pink, lilac, red, green, brown, blue, white, and black. They vary in height, uniform, facial expression, and hairstyle, and in some cases, these variances indicate differences in rank. Most of them originally wore real armor and held real weapons such as spears, swords, or crossbows. The combination of the colored lacquer finishes, individualized facial features, and weapory heightens the sense of the army's realism. The majority of the original weapons were looted or rotted away. In 246 BCE, Ying Zheng ascended to the throne at age 13. By 221 BCE, he had unified a collection of Warring States into a cohesive unit, and he proclaimed himself ruler of the newly unified state of Qin (pronounced "chin;" this is the precursor for the name China). Ying Zheng took the name Qin Shi Huang Di, the First Emperor of Qin, and began a successful rule during which China's territory was expanded, infrastructure built, coins and measures standardized, and the first version of the Great Wall completed. According Siam Qian, the court historian, Qin began construction of his mausoleum shortly after becoming emperor. Qin Shi Huangdi decreed a mass-production approach to creating the soldiers for his tomb, and more than 700,000 laborers worked on the project. The artisans produced figures almost like cars on an assembly line incorporating the same technology used to create terracotta pipes. As a medium, terracotta clay is quicker and cheaper than bronze. The artisans built the bodies first, and then customized them by adding different heads, hats, shoes, facial features, etc., which they made using small molds. The project was halted due to uprisings during the year after Qin's death in 210 BCE. As metioned earlier, four pits have been partially excavated to date. Only three are filled with the terra-cotta soldiers, horse-drawn chariots, and weapons while the fourth pit is empty, a testament to the original unfinished construction. The Terracotta Army faces the direction of the Emperor Qin's enemies, standing ever vigilant to defend him in the afterlife should his foes decide to attach. Archaeologists estimate the pits may contain as many as 8,000 figures, but the total may never be known. The actual burial mound of the Emperor Qin has not been excavated yet as archeologists have not determined how to access the hermetically sealed site without destroying its contents.

Under the Wave off Kanagawa (Kanagawa oki nami ura), also known as the Great Wave, from the series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji. Katsushika Hokusai. 1830-1833 C.E. Polychrome woodblock print; ink and color on paper.

One of the most prolific art images in history, Katsushika Hokusai's Under the Wave off Kanagawa (Kanagawa oki nami ura) (Image 211) is part of a woodblock series by Hokusai, who iss one of the most famous Japanese landscape artists and printmakers. The huge foreground wave dwarfs the distant Mount Fuji in the background, showing the intensity of the power of nature and the threatening aspect of the wave. The men in trading boats are miniscule compared to the force of the wave, bending low to fight the rough sea. While the print uses some Western techniques and incorporates Prussian blue, a distinctive European color, it also engages the Japanese pictorial tradition. The background uses a typical Western low horizon, but the foreground wave utilizes more traditionally flat and powerful graphic forms. A separate block of wood was used for each color, and they are recognizable for their emphasis on line and pure, bright color, as well as their ability to simplify form to a minimum. Trade brought ukiyo-e prints to Europe when Commodore Perry opened up relations between Japan and the West in the 19th century. As a result, a fascination with all things Japanese occured with the influx of Japanese art and objects. Works such as this deeply influenced some of the most prolific European painters, like Monet, Degas, Cassatt, Van Gogh, and Lautrec.

Chairman Mao en Route to Anyuan. Artist unknown; based on an oil painting by Liu Chunhua. c. 1969 C.E. Color lithograph.

Realistic paintings of workers, soldiers, and peasants began to replace more traditional landscapes, birds, and flowers. In 1966, the institution of China's Cultural Revolution led to strict regulation of artistic production, and many artists were humiliated and tortured for their work, as well as had it destroyed. Younger artists, however, opted to create works that would be widely distributed by the government, thereby increasing their popularity. The color lithograph Chairman Mao on the Way to Anyuan (Image 212) is based on a well-known oil painting of Chairman Mao that first appeared at the Beijing Museum of the Revolution in 1967. Young Mao is walking to the Anyuan coal mine in the western Jianxi province. He historically guided mineworkers through a successful strike that resulted in higher wages, better conditions, and great support for the Communist party. His heroic pose and the warm tones are representative of many idealized portraits of Mao during the period. The lithograph was described by party officials as a "model work," and it became one of the most popular images of the Cultural Revolution. It was reproduced prolifically as posters, statues, and even on kitchenware. Some believe that it may have been reproduced and disseminated as many as nine millions times within the decade.

Borobudur Temple. Central Java, Indonesia. Sailendra Dynasty. c. 750-842 C.E. Volcanic-stone masonry

The Borobudur temple was built by a king of the Saliendra dynasty to honour the glory of both hinself as monarch as well as the Buddha. The name "Borobudur" is believed to come from Sanskrit words vihara Buddha uhr ("Buddhist monastery on the hill"). Stylistically, the temple's artwork reflects Indian influences from both the Gupta and post-Gupta periods. The walls of Borobudur are covered in sculpted approximately 2,700 bas-reliefs (Image 198), and this sculptural cycle is considered the largest and most complete ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the world. Subjects included not only Buddhist spiritual personages, but also scenes from everyday life of the different social classes in 8th century Java. Artistically, each scene an individual masterpiece. The narrative reliefs on the main walls read from the right to left, those on the balustrade from left to right. This was done for the purpose of the Pradaksina, the ritual circumambulation, during pilgrims move around the temple in a the clockwise direction in order to keep the sanctuary to their right. Around the circular platforms are 72 openwork stupas, each containing a statue of the Buddha. In the 1970's, the temple was restored with UNESCO's assistance.

Portrait of Sin Sukju (1417-1475). Imperial Bureau of Painting. c. 15th century C.E. Hanging scroll (ink and color on silk).

The Joseon Kingdom (1392-1910) encouraged a return to Chinese Confucianism and the adoption of an isolationist stance in Korea. Neo-Confucianism became the state religion, and Buddhsim was discouraged, with Buddhists faced persecutions by the dynasty during certain periods. This period was he height of classical Korean culture, trade, science, literature, and technology. The Neo-Confucian royal court and literati elite (yangban) were the primary patrons of the arts, and they embraced and encouraged the advancement of secular art and culture. Painting of government officials make up a unique and vibrant genre within early Joseon paintings, such as the Portrait of Sin Sukju (1417-1475) (Image 205), who served as a politician, soldier, and Prime Minister during the Joseon Dynasty. Works such as this are evidence of the value placed on a proper Neo-Confucian education and literary fluency in order to socially and politically advance in early Joseon society. One of the primary purposes of portraits like this was to celebrate contributions to the state and to emphasize the Confucian value of loyalty to the king, making it somewhat propagandistic portrait. Silk was one of Asia's main trade goods at the time, and its use for the portrait indicates a high value as silk was in such high demand. Sin Sukju, as a key political figure of his time, was named a meritorious subject by a king four times during his life. In the style of 15th century Korean portraiture, the portrait depicts the sitter in a three-quarter pose facing his right, clothed in a resplendent official robe and official black silk hat. Of note is the garment's gold-embroidered green rank badge with peacocks. Although somewhat weathered, the portrait has a lifelike quality, conveying both the physical features of the official and his character.

yangban

The Neo-Confucian royal court and literati elite (yangban) were the primary patrons of the arts, and they embraced and encouraged the advancement of secular art and culture.

Ryoan-ji. Kyoto, Japan. Muromachi Period, Japan. c. 1480 C.E.; current design most likely dates to the 18th century. Rock garden.

The architect of the Ryoan-ji (Image 207), a 15th century Zen temple, is not known. Tradition attributes it to Somai, an artist who also worked at Daisen-in. The temple records have conflicting information, but the actually designers were likely anonymous professional laborers called sensui kawaramono ("riverbank workers as gardeners") assisted by Zen monks. The names Kotaro and Hikojiro were found chiseled into the back of one of the fifteen rocks, and this is believed to be evidence of sensui kawaramono involvement. The garden (Image 207) is known for its simplicity - made of only clay walls, raked sand, and fifteen rocks. The first temple at this location was constructed by Fujiwara Saneyoshi in 983. Most of his original work is not longer there, except for the large pond that covers much of the lower garden. The present garden was begun by Hosokawa Katsumoto, who founded Ryoan-ji proper in the upper half of the grounds. Following a fire in 1488, his son financed the construction of what is the present garden. While the purpose and significance of the garden are debated, it can be surmised that the garden is highly influenced by the ideals of meditation and the tea ceremony, which emphasizes honesty, rusticity, and understatement, all important concepts in Zen Buddhism. The rocks seem to be flowing from left to right, and some have described the composition as a tiger crossing the sea with her cubs, or islands in the ocean. Some scholars believe that more has been written about Ryoan-ji's fifteen rocks than all the other rocks in Japanese gardens combined.

Petra, Jordan: Treasury and Great Temple. Nabataean Ptolemaic and Roman. c. 400 B.C.E.-100 C.E. Cut rock. (WEST/CENTRAL ASIA)

The city of Petra, Jordan (ancient Raqmu) was the center of the Nabataean kingdom, strategically located at the crossroads of several caravan routs that linked China, India, and Southern Arabia with the Mediterranean world. The city is as famous now as it was in antiquity for it's wonderful rock-cut tombs and temples, which combine elements of Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Hellenized Western architecture. The facade of the Treasury at Petra (Image 181) most clearly represents the Hellenistic style and reflects the influence of Alexandria, with ornate Corinthian columns and two obelisks reaching up into the rock. The sculptural decoration is also Hellenistic, with Amazons and Victories flanking a combination of the Egyptian Goddess Isis and Tyche, the Greek Goddess of good fortune. The Hellenistic influence is also seen in the eagles, royal Ptolemies, vegetation, vines, acroteria, and kantharol. The decorative rosettes, however, are a design associated with the ancient Near East. The tomb is unique because most of the tombs in Nabateaean art were aniconic, or non-figurative, and this one has much figurative detail. The Great Temple at Petra (Image 181) is one of the largest complexes in Petra, a two-level structure dating from the 1st century. The site is still being excavated, as it was only discovered in 1992. The structure is generally considered to be dedicated to the principal deity of Petra, Dushara, however the discovery of a small theatre within the complex, along with written records of a popular assembly in Petra, show that it could have been a large palace and assembly hall. It is the largest freestanding building uncovered so far in Petra, covering 7,650 square meters. It was likely about 57 feet tall, and consists of a Lower Temenos, accessed by steep staircases, and an Upper Temenos that contains the temple proper. The temple was fronted by a façade of four sandstone columns on limestone bases, and the theater, or odeon, is in the center of this area.

The Nio-guardian sculptures of Todai-ji

The dancing 28-foot-tall Nio guardian figures (Image 197), Ungyo (mouth closed) and Agyo (mouth open), are a A-Un pair symbolizing the beginning and the end of things. The guardians symbolize the first and last syllable of a mantra, or the birth and death of the spiritual body in its effort to reach a state of prolonged presence. These staues were built in the 12th century during the Heian period by Unkei, Kaikei, and their workshop, and their purpose is to keep out impure thoughts that affect the attainment of the spiritual presence required to reach Enlightenment. Deer are commonly seen in the complex as they naturally inhabit the region. Deer are considered to be messengers of the gods in the Shinto religion, and they are allowed to roam the grounds freely.

Funeral banner of Lady Dai (Xin Zhui). Han Dynasty, China. c. 180 B.C.E. Painted silk.

The rise of the Han Dynasty put an end to the upheaval after the death of the Emperor Qin, and China was reunited in 206 BCE under its rule. Poetry, literature, and philosophy flourished during this period, and Confucianism was established as the standard for both official and individual conduct and for the educational curriculum. The Funeral Banner of Lady Dai (Xin Zhui) (Image 194) is not only a window into Ham funerary practices, but it is also a testament to Chinese silk production. Lady Dai (or the Marquise of Dai) was a noblewoman of high rank who enjoyed the privileges of her status in life as well as in death. Banners such as these were carried in front of funeral processions of the elite to lead the spirit to the tomb, and once inside, the banner was then draped over the coffin of the deceased (like the Egyptians, the elite were often buried in multiple coffins). It was important to lead the spirit to the tomb or it would remain on earth and bother the world of the living. The banner is made from silk, which speaks to her elevated status as silk was a luxury item that could only be afforded by the nobility. Silk was (and still is) expensive due to the arduous process involved in its production. The design on the banner tells the story of Lady Dai's ascent to heaven, and the narrative is divided into three sections both horizontally (Heaven, Earth, and the Underworld) and vertically (left-Yin, center-Mixture, right-Yang). Her journey to heaven is situated in a rich context of funeral objects, customs, and legends through a dynamic sense of left-right symmetry, which is accentuated by the paired dragon bodies intertwine and cross through the center of the bi disk, thus expressing the entrenched nature of yin/yang duality in early Chinese thought.

Buddha. Bamiyan, Afghanistan. Gandharan. c. 400-800 C.E. (destroyed in 2001). Cut rock with plaster and polychrome paint. (WEST/CENTRAL ASIA)

The valley of Bamiyan, Afghanistan in which the Bamiyan Buddhas (Image 182) once stood is part of a region that served as an important point along the Silk Road. Here, cultures collided, and the influences from China, Ancient Rome, India, and others mixed. The area was mostly home to the Buddhist religion, however, and the religion was actually born in the region and flourished in the Gandharan, which includes the Bamiyan valley. The area peaked with Emperor Chandragupta Maurya, and its wealth increased during the rule of Ashoka who was a practitioner of Buddhism. Monasteries were not terrifically popular in this area, and monks would typically live in carved out caves or grottoes that were connected to or close to chaityas (sanctuaries carved out of the rock). The Bamiyan valley has caves throughout its cliffs, and many works of art can be found inside them. Generally, the works are statues or wall paintings, and almost all of the art is devotional in nature. The enormous Bamiyan Buddhas were stellar examples of this art on a grand scale. The style of the Bamiyan Buddhas reflects the many influences in the area. There were made during the Kushan empire, a time particularly noted for its blending of cultures and identities. The main influence of style was the Gandharan, where the shape of the garment on the human form was a primary focus. Classical Greek and Roman sculpture also have impact on these Buddhas, and the region is even known for a specific art style called Greco-Buddhist. The Bamiyan Buddhas reflect an important transition in Buddhism, as they represent the period in which Buddha moved from a human figure to a transcendent being and icon. This form of the Buddhas is called Vairocana, and it is believed that the entire universe is encompassed within them. Originally, they were painted and gilded, and their faces probably fitted with masks. After the Taliban government in Afghanistan declared that the colossal Buddhas were idols, the Taliban used dynamite to destroy the statues in March 2001. The Taliban was strongly condemned for this action, and many countries have pledge support for the rebuilding of the statues.

Vairocana (Bamiyan Buddhas)

This form of the Buddhas is called Vairocana, and it is believed that the entire universe is encompassed within them.

Todai-ji. Nara, Japan. Various artists, including sculptors Unkei and Keikei, as well as the Kei School. 743 C.E.; rebuilt c. 1700. Bronze and wood (sculpture); wood with ceramic tile roofing (architecture).

Throughout the eighth century, the Japanese continued to emulate the architects of China. The gigantic monastery of Todai-ji (Image 197) originated from the Kinshō-ji, a temple founded in 728 in honor of the deceased son of Emperor Shōmu. It gets its name from its location to the east of Nara, which was the capital at the time. In 741, the Emperor issued an edict ordering a national system of monasteries be built, and the Kinshō-ji temple's status was elevated to the chief temple in the Kokubun-ji system. It served as the center for rituals to ensure peace and prosperity for both the nation and the its people. Due to its importance, the temple also functioned as a center for the training Buddhist monks. In 743, Emperor Shōmu commisioned a Great Buddha for the temple, known as the Daibutsu (The Great Buddha) (Image 197), which is 49 feet tall. It is housed in the Great Buddha Hall (Daibutsuden), which dates to 1709 as it has been rebuilt twice due to fire. According to legend, nearly 2,600,000 people worked to build the Buddha, but this number is likely exaggerated since it would amount to nearly the half of Japan's population at the time. Construction of the Buddha, which was completed in 751, consumed the majority of Japan's bronze production and left the country on the verge of bankruptcy. The Daibutsu was dedicated in 752 with a great ceremony including the emperor, his family, local monks, and ambassadors from China, India, and other distant locales. The statue was dedicated by "opening his eyes," a ceremony in which an Indian priest stood on a specially built platform and painted in the statue's eyes using a giant brush. Guests to the dedication brought an array of gifts, most of which are now preserved in the Shoso-in treasury, along with the original paintbrush. The Todai-ji temple's influence became so powerful that the Japanese capital was moved to Nagaoka from Nara in 784 in order to lower its influence on the affairs of the Japanese government. The temple remained active, although fires and earthquakes have damaged both the Daibutsu and the complex's wooden buildings to be rebuilt over the centuries.

The David Vases. Yuan Dynasty, China. 1351 C.E. White porcelain with cobalt-blue underglaze.

With the ascendance of the Yuan Dynasty (1260-1368), both painting and porcelain art forms reached a new level of achievement. During this period, China was completely controlled and ruled by Mongol conquerors, and it was actually considered part of the larger political entity known as the vast Mongol empire. Ironically, during this century of foreign occupation, Chinese culture not only survived, but it was also reinvigorated. Under Mongol rule, many aspects cultivated in Song art were brought to culmination. The human figure assumed greater importance, and landscape painting acquired a new vitality. The surface of the paintings, especially the style and variety of brushstrokes, became important. Still-life compositions came into greater prominence, especially bamboo painting. Likely the best-known porcelain vases in the world, the Yuan Dynasty David Vases (Image 204) were made for a Daoist temple altar. Their importance lies in the inscription on the necks, which reveal that in 1351 a man named Zhang Wenjin from Yushan county presented the vases and an incense burner to the temple in Xinguyan in honor of a general who had just been made a god. This shows us that blue-and-white porcelain construction was well-established at Jingdezhen by 1351. The vases were owned by Sir Percival David (1892-1964), a collector who amassed the most important private collection of Chinese ceramics in the world. The vases are about 2 ½ feet tall, and their form is based on Chinese bronze vessels. They are covered with designs that we often think of as typical for Chinese porcelain. The serpentine dragon is most prominent, while the neck and base feature floral patterns. There is a phoenix on the neck, as well as leaves the inscription. The elephant design of the handles appears to come from bronzewear, and may have included bronze rings at one time.

tokonoma

alcove for the display of a flower arrangement and a few carefully chosen objects of art.

gogok

curved comma shaped jewels

shoji

flexibly subdivided by screens (shoji) into a series of airy spaces

dry-lacquer process

lacquer applied to a solid core of wood or lacquered cloths placed over some kind of armature (for making clay figures and statues)

dotaku (early Japan)

large ritual bronze bells

netsuke

ornamental buttons

wabi

powerful design technique that uses understatement and simplicity to stimulate the viewer's imagination.

chaityas

sanctuaries carved out of the rock

haniwa (early Japan)

simply modeled clay figures of animals, people, houses, and boats known as haniwa, which were placed around the tomb mounds.

pagoda

towerlike, multistory, solid or hollow structure made of stone, brick, or wood, usually associated with a Buddhist temple complex and therefore usually found in East and Southeast Asia, where Buddhism was long the prevailing religion.

tarashikomi

wet-pigment technique called tarashikomi, in which a second layer of paint is applied before the first layer is dry.