ASL 3520 Midterm

Where and when was the first permanent school for deaf Americans established?

est. 1817, The American School for the Deaf (originally named the Connecticut Asylum for the Education and Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Persons)

Why did printing become one of the most important single occupations for deaf men?

These Deaf foremen would often own the paper and earn money from advertisements and subscriptions.

Discuss the distinction between "mutes" and "only deaf" made by people of that time.

mutes: persons who could not speak "only deaf": lost hearing when older and retained speech easily understood by hearing people

How many school newspapers were being published by the late 19th century?

Nearly 50 papers

One of the roles of the dissident press was to try to educate the general public about issues that mainstream press ignore. The Little Papers were able to do this more successfully than other types of dissident press. Why?

"Another important result of the Little Papers was their dissemination of information to hearing people. . . . The Little Papers may have done this more successfully than other types of dissident press because they had a ready audience of hearing people—the hearing parents of the deaf children at the schools."

Discuss the homes for the Elderly Deaf and Infirm Deaf. How were they funded, who ran them, and who was allowed to live there?

"Legitimate" Deaf people could rely on the younger Deaf generation to provide and care for them when they became old and infirm. These homes for the elderly represent one of the most treasured examples of community activism. They were charitable endeavors that reflected the high moral standard of the deaf society. They also showed the community's economic and social success and independence. Deaf white women often received some of their greatest recognition in their role of caring and maintaining these homes. These homes provided opportunities to show off their domestic skills, organizational skills, social opportunities and gave them a sense of power in that they ran these homes efficiently. Only the "legitimate" deaf were allowed to stay in these homes. There was a real distinction between those who became deaf due to aging and those who were culturally deaf. Occasionally the blind were allowed to live in these homes since they were considered highly self-sufficient. Those who reflected poorly on the status of the Deaf such as those with mental problems or retardation were barred from these homes. These homes also frequently excluded racial minorities.

According to Abraham Lincoln and from my lecture, what was the civil war really about?

"This is essentially a People's contest. One the side of the Union, it is a struggle for maintaining in the world, that form and substance of government, whose leading object is, to elevate the condition of men-to lift artificial weights from all shoulders-to clear the paths of laudable pursuit for all-to afford all, an unfettered start, a fair chance, in the race of life."

What two challenges facing the deaf did the NAD address in their first meeting in August of 1880?

-First the transformation of the US from a rural agricultural society to an urbanized industrial nation. This created the possibility that the deaf would not be prepared vocationally or socially for this new life. -Second was the determined onslaught of oralism and those who were trying to destroy their language and community.

What changes in America around the 1920s led Americans to discuss driving safety issues and thus threaten Deaf people's driving rights?

-Prior to the 1920's many deaf people owned cars and had permits to drive. Unfortunately, as the eugenics movement gained momentum, many people began to pass laws that either restricted or banned deaf people from driving. Mainstream society classified the deaf as feeble minded and use words such as "menace", "defective", and "dangerous" to describe deaf drivers. •-With new technology such as the telephone, radio, and sound moving pictures, the deaf were beginning to feel increasingly isolated from mainstream culture and entertainment. The Americans had a strong love affair with the automobile. In 1917 five million cars were on the road...by 1927 there were 15 million produced by Ford alone. Everyone wanted to own and drive one. When people began to ban the deaf from driving, that impacted not only the deaf people's entertainment and social opportunities but their employment as well.

What are four arguments Deaf people gave in support of their rights to drive?

-proving their ability to compensate for a lack of hearing with superior caution and visual attentiveness -States resources funded deaf school with goal of creating self sufficient citizens. Denying deaf people the opportunity to drive curtailed their economic opportunities -deaf people built care, why not drive them -deaf people paid taxes, which paid for roadways

Identify some of the cultural functions performed by the Little Papers.

1. A source of unity 2 of 3 2. An exchange of ideas and information 3. A way to keep abreast of each other's activities, successes, deaths, etc. 4. Reaffirmation that they were not alone 5. Established and maintained cultural norms and behaviors a. Provided behavioral guidance since behaviors of individuals might reflect poorly on Deaf people as a class. Individual hearing people's behaviors were often interpreted by a prejudiced hearing public as a cultural trait/ weakness. - Irishman = Drunkenness - Mexicans = Laziness - Deaf = illiterate, rude, lazy 6. Emphasized an identity separate from the hearing majority. 7. Educated the general public about issues that the mainstream press ignored and also provided information to hearing people, primarily the parents and families of the Deaf kids. 8. Addressed unique needs only they alone could satisfy

Why did Gallaudet set up a preparatory class at the college?

1. Gallaudet wanted the College to be "the full equivalent of that adopted in similar schools for the hearing and the speaking." 2. Most residential schools did not have a "high class" and thus many were not prepared to enter at the collegiate level or have the background necessary to succeed. 3. He wanted all deaf students from residential schools all over to have an opportunity to enter college and not just those from ones with a college preparatory program.

Identify three of John Carlin's four points for establishing a college for deaf people.

1. Having a college for the deaf was a fair request since there were many for the hearing..why not one for the deaf too? 2. Deaf people were capable of succeeding in a collegiate environment and of first-rate scholarship. 3. By creating a professional class of deaf people, this would restore the deaf to society and bring them out of their isolation and poverty of their minds. 4. Patriotism-it made the deaf better citizens and add glory to the republic.

There had been several failed attempts prior to the American School to establish a school for deaf people. Identify factors that contributed to the success of the American School.

1. Political connections and influence of Cogswell 2. Clerc's brilliance as an educator and role model 3. Religious zeal..a strong link between social reform and religious belief by Gallaudet and others in New England

In AGB's paper "Memoir Upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race," he identified seven key factors that he believed promoted intermarriage among Deaf people. Identify four of those.

1. Residential schools 2. Associations and Organizations 3. Deaf newspapers and publications, including the Little Paper Family 4. Instruction by means of sign language 5. Writing in sign language 6. Erroneous ideas about deaf people (the idea that the deaf cannot learn to talk and speechread, therefore a waste of time to try) 7. The desire of the Deaf to establish a Deaf State

According to Baynton, in the histories of American deaf people, there are two key events that emphasize two turning points for the education of deaf Americans. What are they?

1. The creation of the American Asylum for the Deaf (ASD) in 1817 by Thomas Gallaudet and Laurent Clerc. This was the beginning of the creation of American Deaf communities and the development of their identities as a distinct group of people. This allowed for deaf people to not only learn about the world at large but also to learn about themselves. This school served as a role model for the teaching method/philosophy of manualism (the use of sign language) for all the other schools that were formed afterwards. 2. The rise and spread of oralism by a group of reformers to eradicate the language and the culture of the American deaf. Oralist sought to use a speech only method and to deny any use of sign language in the classroom and among the deaf.

Why did the schools start the little papers?

1. To provide vocational training for deaf pupils. Printing became a highly prized occupation for deaf man. Printing offered financial stability, prestige, employability, and a accessed to a wide Deaf and hearing readership. 2. To inform patrons, parents and the general public about the schools' goals, activities and progress. 3. To assist students in literary studies 4. To teach reading

Identify the five stated goals that the Virginia School had for their pupils.

1. learn English 2. Develop social skills 3. general knowledge 4. religious awareness 5. develop a marketable skill

What were the four modes of communication used in the American School?

1. the natural language of signs.. a mix of French, home, old ASL and MVSL 2. methodical signs..a standardized sign system similar to manually coded English (MCE) 3. fingerspelling 4. writing

What is 'eugenics'?

1. the study of improving the human species by improvement of inherited qualities. (Oxford American Dictionary) 2. the study of or belief in the possibility of improving the qualities of the human species or a human population, especially by such means as discouraging reproduction by persons having genetic defects or presumed to have inheritable undesirable traits (negative eugenics) or encouraging reproduction by persons presumed to have inheritable desirable traits (positive eugenics). (Dictionary.com)

What does Baynton say are the two aims of this book (FS)?

1.To explain why sign language enjoyed great esteem and popularity among hearing Americans through most of the nineteenth century but then near the end of the century, became despised by them to the point that they sought to eradicate it. 2.To show and highlight American cultural history from the mid nineteenth century to 1920 from a new and revealing perspective. To provide a new and revealing perspective of why Americans behaved the way they did at that time.

What did Edward Allen Fay contribute to the debate of deaf intermarriage?

1889 study of marriages of the deaf • D/D unions produced no more deaf children than D/H • Either kind of marriage posed only one in ten risk of deaf children • Relations between blood relatives resulted in considerably more deaf children. This did not pose a concern since most people like most Americans did not support consanguineous marriages. • Recognized that deafness was etiologically heterogeneous. This meant that the anomalies that cause deafness are many and varied. What one deaf partner has..the other most likely will have a different variation. • Gave credence to the fact that hearing siblings of the hereditary deaf had the same likelihood of creating deaf children as their deaf siblings. • Fay pointed out that Deaf marriages gave them happiness and protection, if not more, than it did for hearing people.

Who created the Automobile Bureau? Why? What was its role?

1923 NAD created the Automobile Bureau. They gathered statistics and monitored legislation across the states to keep the deaf community and its advocates informed and give them information that helped them to fight these bans.

After the initial four females who were admitted to the preparatory class, how may years did Edward Gallaudet refuse admission to females?

22 years (until 1886)

PH Confer (about Flournoy)

24, single, no family or parents. Was very lonely, supported Flournoy's plan.

Edmund Booth (about Flournoy)

A graduate of ASD and a successful educated deaf man. He owned a newspaper and was functioned easily in a bicultural state. He was active in the American Deaf community and had a deaf wife. Rejected Flournoy's plan.

What group asked AGB to chair the committee on hereditary deafness? Did he accept?

American Breeders Association (ABA). He declines, but still contributed to their movement.

Why did the idea of sending deaf children to Europe for their education begin to lose its appeal?

American nationalism- sending to Europe seemed "unpatriotic".

Who was Amos Kendall? Why did he decide to establish a school for the deaf and blind? What did he personally contribute to the endeavor?

Amos was a wealthy Washingtonian and philanthropist and was an influential friend of Andrew Jackson. When he became the legal guardian of five deaf orphans he decided to establish a school for them and blind children. He used his political influence to: 1. Convince Congress to allocate $150 per year for each indigent deaf or blind pupil 2. Convince Congress to incorporate in the District of Columbia an "Institution for the instruction of the Deaf and Dumb and the Blind" 3. Convince Congress to permit the school to accept students from all over the United States. He also donated land and at his own expense built a large brick building for the school.

What was the condition of the schools' printing offices during the late 19th and early 20th centuries?

As schools established newspapers and gained large readership, their printing departments/office became the crown jewel and source of pride for their school.

What was one of the things the California Association of the Deaf (CAD) accomplished or fought for?

CAD challenged legislation that banned deaf drivers, raised funds for a State Home for the Aged Deaf, prevented closing of local boarding schools.

While deaf people are commonly placed in the large category labeled 'disabled,' they differ in an important way. What is this difference? What is the one thing that they have in common with others in this category?

Commonality: their differences from the majority are caused by disease, trauma, or unusual genes. Difference: deaf people differ from others in the disabled category in that they tend to invent languages and cultures distinct from the hearing societies surrounding them.

Why was the deaf community able to defend their rights against eugenics more successfully than those who were mentally ill or mentally disabled?

Deaf people did not fit into the standard eugenic model of "perpetrators" for several reasons and thus made it difficult for people like AGB to prove and accomplish their agenda (sterilization or other extreme measures) in regards to eugenics and the deaf.

Explain what the words dissident and disenfranchised mean. How did the Deaf community press fit with other forms of dissident and disenfranchised media?

Dissident: A person/group that oppose official policy, in opposition to official policy Disenfranchised: Deprived of power, rights, marginalized Had a ready audience, hearing parents

What issue did the culturally deaf people and the oralist people work together on?

Driving rights laws

Who chaired that that first NAD meeting?

Edmund Booth

Why did Flournoy want a deaf state? What were his goals?

Flournoy was vocal in his desires for a completely separate deaf state where there where no hearing people (even the offspring would be shipped out to others outside of the community). He felt frustrated by the hearing society and wanted a place where the deaf would be in complete control of their destiny. He campaigned aggressively for this. In december of 1855 he started dialogues with several influential men to convince them of his idea of a deaf state. While there were a few who liked his idea, most were content and happily bilingual and had no desire to leave their homes and families.

John Carlin (about Flournoy)

Graduated from the Pennsylvania Institution and was sometimes a teacher and artist. He was a snob and a frustrated man. He was a bit of a contradiction. He was contemptuous of deaf people and sign language but he spent most of his life among deaf people and had a deaf wife. He worked hard on helping deaf people learn English and argued for the establishment of an institution of higher education. He was awarded the first honorary degree by Gallaudet College. Rejected Flournoy's plan.

Laurent Clerc (about Flournoy)

He was the most famous and respected deaf person in nineteenth-century America. He did propose the idea of a "headquarters" for the deaf and dumb but he felt that exclusiveness was undesirable. He felt having hearing people around was good for situations such as sickness and fire and safety.

Describe the Deaf-Mutes Union League of New York. What was the great irony about this club?

In spite of the oralist goals of the deaf identifying themselves as hearing and assimilating into the hearing world these oral deaf were just like all the other deaf people....they banded together as a group of deaf men with similar experiences and maintained life long ties with each other.

What were the names of two of the deaf men who spoke at the inauguration ceremony?

Laurent Clerc and John Carlin

Which state school started the first school newspaper?

North Carolina Institution for the Deaf and Blind

What were AGB's three preventative measures to prevent deaf intermarriage?

Preventative measures: a. Eliminate residential schools and replace them with day schools. b. Proscribe the use of sign language in the education of deaf pupils. c. Prohibit deaf adults from being teachers and replace them with hearing.

Why were the Ohio Motor Club and the California Auto Association created?

Some states tried to ban deaf drivers.

Discuss the issue of peddlers. Why were they a concern for the Deaf community?

The Deaf community fought actively against peddlers because they feared it would impact how mainstream American society viewed them ( and fuel an already prejudiced and discriminatory bias against deaf people) and destroy their efforts to proving to others that they were "normal" citizens capable of working, being independent and contributing to society. They often decried the common notion that they deserved charity and pity. The Deaf community campaigned against impostors aggressively from 1911 ( NAD Impostor Bureau) till about the 1940's. After that they focused on other more pressing issues. They were very vocal in their desires for these impostors to be outlawed and punished. The impostors were often "caught" by deaf people who would sign to them and force them to admit they couldn't sign and were in fact hearing.

Why did the editors of the printing presses sometimes experience conflict with what they felt about issues and with what they actually printed?

The Little Paper Family provided a forum for the Deaf to express, discuss and debate their ideas and opinions. When oralism took over many of the schools and replaced the Deaf superintendents and board members, it created conflict for some of the Deaf editors. Sometimes they were threatened with loss of employment if they published opinions contrary to the boards' or superintendents'.

Which organization allowed hearing people membership 84 years after it was established?

The NAD

How did fighting these legal issues help the Deaf community as a whole?

These legal issues helped the deaf community to come together as a stronger,more unified group of people. They were able to see more clearly their identity and culture goals. They continued to work together and to expand their network and created a group of new leaders who would eventually lead them through the Civil Rights era.

What made the organizations created during this time unique to previous ones?

These were groups of rather than for deaf people. Now they were creating their own associations, funding them, and in charge of them without hearing people.

What were the goals (aspirations) of the NAD?

They aspired to eliminate employment, educational, and legal discrimination against Deaf citizens.

With what group of peopled did the eugenics researchers classify the deaf?

They often classified the deaf with the mentally disabled along with other socially "undesirable" people such as criminals, alcoholics, and paupers.

How did the American deaf experience contrast with the experience of deaf people in other countries?

This American deaf experience contrasted sharply with the experience of deaf people in other countries where most organizations were established by hearing people for deaf people. This paternalism focused on the expectations and needs of the hearing people.

What event led to the founding of the Cleveland Association of the Deaf in Ohio?

Was founded in 1901 after a deaf person was killed after being hit by a car. They participated in activism to protect the welfare of the deaf in their city. Included aid for its unemployed and injured members.

What were some factors that made it difficult for the deaf people to achieve full assimilation into American society during the late 19th century?

While Deaf people felt like they were successfully "assimilating" into the American society they also were adamant about maintaining their separate cultural identity and sign language. This created a conflict between the deaf community and mainstream society who felt they could not been seen as truly American citizens. Thus they could only achieve limited success as full American citizens.

Who is William W. Turner? How did he feel about Flournoy's ideas? What were his arguments about them? ( I am looking for two main ones here)

William W. Turner-a hearing man who taught at the ASD. He was sympathetic to Flournoy but did not support it. Some reasons he gave: • felt it would be impossible to convince deaf people to leave the communities in which they were already established- • the deaf would be unwilling to leave their families and friends • children...most deaf parents have hearing children and the idea of forcing them to leave the community..."If our children hear, let them go to other states." was unacceptable

What is the difference between congenital deafness and hereditary deafness?

a. CONGENITAL (existing since birth, not resulting in genes but results from conditions of birth) b. HEREDITARY (carried in the genes)

What are "oral failures"? How did the Deaf community sometimes feel about them?

these are labels within the community that described deaf people who were not only unsuccessful in the oral programs but also educationally stunted. These students were often "dumped" or expelled from schools because the administrators felt they were too backward to educate in the oral tradition. This resulted in them not only being denied a language (sign language) but also an eduction because of their inability to articulate and learn speech. The Deaf community constantly criticized these oralist practices.

Why did the schools need to be residential?

wide geographical area with low instances of deafness, can't commute daily

Identify and discuss one parallel between the deaf and other minority groups that was discussed in the reading "A Fair Chance in the Race of Life."

• Assimilation of immigrant groups (English only —"Anglo-conformity") and the assimilation of deaf people (Oralism only—"hearing conformity") in schools. • The American Indian Policy—The Indian Emancipation Act or The Dawes Act of 1887—cease to treat Indian tribes as foreign nations and assimilate into mainstream society through missionary efforts on the reservations. Place them on reservations and "force" them to become white and civilized. The idea was to break down the tribal allegiances, lose their "Indianess" and turn them into farmers and workers.This conflicted with their way of life and culture. This failed for most Native Americans. Only a few benefitted from this policy. Most could not or would not assimilate. This is true for Deaf people. The oralist philosophy benefitted a few deaf people. Most Deaf people could not or would not assimilate. • Schools for African Americans and schools for deaf children. Schools for African Americans were founded by white people associated with the abolitionist movement and the Protestant missionary associations. In the early years and up till the 1920's white people taught and held leadership positions in these schools. Finally after student demonstrations and disruptions at Howard University they finally got their first black president in 1926. Fisk University didn't get their first black president till 1946. The parallel to Gallaudet University's DPN is obvious.

What were Jacob Van Nostrand's arguments for further education for the deaf beyond the state residential schools?

• Deaf children reached a plateau in their development due to limited intellectual growth; there were very few "high class" opportunities. • Lack of motivation • Since there were no reasons to excel (college acceptance and entrance), they did not exert themselves to do their best or succeed academically.

Social Fabric of Americans: 1817—1860

• Deafness was described as an affliction that isolated the individual from the Christian community. The tragedy was that they lived beyond the reach of the gospel. • Evangelical, romantic movement that emphasized moral regeneration and salvation. The primary goal of the evangelical reformer was to educate and convert people thus bringing about a reformation of society through moral reform. • saw deaf people not only as individuals but also as a collective, a people that was in need of missionary guidance. • sign language solved the primary problem facing deaf people..that they lived beyond the reach of the gospel...it brought light to the deaf. • communication between the teacher and the student was not sufficient..a language was needed with which "the deaf-mute can intelligibly conduct his private devotions and join in social religious exercises with his fellow pupils" • a community is bound together by its religion • metaphors of deafness were ones of spiritual darkness • deafness an affliction and a blessing • the isolation (separation from the gospel, light and truth of God) of deaf people was a problem that had been solved through sign language

Give two examples from this chapter of minorities that tried to separate themselves physically from the majority and create exclusive communities of their own.

• English Puritans-they and many like them fled religious oppression in Europe and came to American to create exclusive communities of their own. • Latter-day Saints/Mormons-fled persecution and moved west to Utah to create a zion here.

What are some factors that lead to the demise of the eugenics movement?

• Improved economic conditions • the rise of behaviorist theory • religious opposition • extreme racism of some eugenics (KKK, Nazi's) • broad intellectual opposition from scientists and scholars

From 1880 until the 1960s, the NAD faced many problems and challenges within their organization. Identify them.

• Lack of fair representation of all deaf people. Most of the officers were the educated elite, comparatively greater economic wealth and "privileged". Up until 1964 all of its presidents were late-deafened and could speak. They often held political and social views that conflicted with those of the average Deaf citizens. They often neglected the needs of the less educated working class. They were even paternalistic towards them.This created strife and conflicts. • The inability of the NAD to establish close affiliation with the state associations. Many were wary of uniting with the NAD. One reason was the fear of losing control and power over their state associations. Many members could not attend the conventions which were only held every two to three years due to difficulties of travel. Getting feedback on initiatives and guidelines were often difficult as well. • Money. Many people balked at the idea of paying double fees to belong to a state and a national organization. This created limited funds since most people preferred their state associations. The NAD resorted to publishing in other journals. This meant that many within the deaf community did not access its information. • High turnover of its administrators. • The greatest challenges they faced was its actual mission...they confronted the most contentious and formidable issues of the day... oralism, job discrimination, lack of vocational training, driving restrictions, and outlandish "cures". They were up against a very powerful majority with plenty of resources to obtain their own goals and means. None of the solutions to these problems were simple. • Discrimination of race and gender was also a problem. From 1925-1953 racial barriers prevented black people from joining the NAD.

Social fabric of Americans: 1860—1960s.

• The metaphor of deafness was described as "foreign enclaves within American society. An undesirable state of being and separated from the national American community • emphasis shifted from the reform of the individual to the creation of national unity and social order • homogeneity in language and culture • assimilation was the goal of highest importance • widespread fears of unchecked immigration and multi ethnic cities • a sense that divisions or particularism within the nation were dangerous and ought to be suppressed • "foreignness" meant ominous connotations • " no gesturer can become an American"..when sign language is the primary language; "the gesturer is, and always will remain, a foreigner" • the use of sign language or any language other than English in public schools was seen as contrary to the spirit and practice of American Institutions. • nativism was never far from the surface of American life...this led to restrictions in immigration, limits on hiring foreigners, and proscription of languages other than English in the schools. • the image of an insular, inbred, and proliferating deaf culture was a potent weapon for the oralist cause.

Deaf people occupy a unique position in their native language use and in how their language and culture is passed down. Identify the two characteristics in reference to this that make them unique.

• The only cultural group where cultural information and language has been predominately passed down from child to child rather than adult to child. • The only culture in which the native language of the children is different from the language spoken by their parents

Name one well-known cultural icon the NAD helped to fund and create.

• The statue of Gallaudet and Alice at the National Deaf-Mute College(Gallaudet University) • Memorial to Abbe Charles Michel de l'Epee

What were some of the fundamental issues debated from the mid 19th century to the 1920s?

• What distinguished... Americans from non-Americans civilized people from "savages" humans from animals men from women. • What purposes should education serve. • What "nature" and "normality" meant and how they were related to one another.

Who is Janius Wilson. Briefly discuss his story.

• born around 1908 in North Carolina • age 7 entered the residential program in the Colored Department of the NCSBD • learned and used a sign dialect- "Raleigh sign language"-very different from "white" ASL • rudimentary written English skills and no speech skills • 1924-at age 16 was separated from classmates on a field trip and disappeared for two days • was sent back home due to "unsatisfactory conduct and progress"-this led to dramatic change • no one was really prepared to deal with him at home so in 1925 his uncle falsely accused Junius of attempted rape to "put him away" • appeared before a lunacy jury to determine competency-a jury comprised of all white, hearing men, no mention is made of his deafness, no members of the deaf community were there to defend him • condemned to indefinite imprisonment in the State Hospital for the Colored Insane (Cherry Hospital) • conditions there were likely bad..rodents, caged inmates, locked up, etc. • underwent sterilization • in spite of evidence of false accusation that led to dismissing his case, declared sane by a doctor after his legal guardian filed a civil suit, he remained incarcerated for 76 years. • loved working on puzzles, watched television and was described as gentle and childlike • died 2001 • racism as well as audism was a factor

Why did many of the alumni of residential schools return there? How did this impact deaf Americans?

• companionship • jobs • culture

Laurent Clerc

• deaf • entered the Paris Institution at age 12 • age 30-brilliant teacher and very ambitious • some concerns about leaving Paris- different culture, limited English, different religion (a Catholic!) • influential as a fundraiser in America due to his intelligence and success as an educated deaf person, making him a perfect role model

Who was John J. Flournoy? Describe his personality, background, and behavior.

• deaf and had a deaf brother • came from a wealthy family-Georgia slaveholder • briefly attended ASD & University of Georgia • committed himself to the South Carolina state mental institution and then later released himself • rarely cut hair or shaved beard • wore a rubber raincoat at all seasons (imagine the hot and humid southern weather!) • rode on a small donkey • prolific writer but often wordy and extremely complex and difficult to follow • sought jobs within the government that would give him the prestige and status he desired but was repeatedly turned down • well educated and creative • a peculiar and bitter man-felt that most hearing people did not look favorably on deaf people • came from a rigid society characterized by slavery and dominated by a narrow self-conscious and defensive plantation mentality • had no children

Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet

• hearing • eldest of 12 children • fervently religious-ordained a Congregational minister in 1814 • graduated from Yale as first in his class • sickly..illness prevented him from being able to be a full time minister so moved back home where his family was neighbors of the Cogswells.

Why was the deaf community able to successfully fight and protect some of their rights in spite of the mainstream societies' view of them as dependent and objects of charity?

• smaller group compared to the larger disability(undesirable) group • productivity of its members as workers and citizens • advocacy of powerful medical specialists and educators • growing recognition of Mendelian genetics • the realization that deafness is a physical rather than a mental condition

What were some of the factors that influenced the proliferation of Deaf clubs and associations across America?

• solve social ills and show citizenship • technological changes such as the telephone, radio, talkies (movies that replaced the silent films) that excluded deaf people from mainstream activities • media rarely showed Deaf people and when they did it was either unrealistic or negative

Mason Cogswell

•prominent New Englander • deaf daughter-Alice • well respected and politically connected • sought a social solution to the problem of educating the deaf as opposed to the traditional view of "not responsible for another man's child" or private enterprise • influential in having a census done to determine the number of deaf people in Connecticut. • helped raised funds to send Gallaudet to Europe • hearing