Attitude
The person paid $1 will experience ____ dissonance because it is not enough to justify their actions- their attitude about the behavior will therefore _____- they will come to believe that the task was actually _____
The person paid $1 will experience more dissonance because it is not enough to justify their actions- their attitude about the behavior will therefore change- they will come to believe that the task was actually enjoyable
how are implicit measures of attitude beneficial?
they help overcome desirability bias- because people aren't consciously aware of how their attitude is being measured- true attitude are revealed rather than social desirability
If a tuition increase is set to start the following year, freshmen will be more inclined to protest compared to graduating seniors. Why? What does this show?
- Attitudes align with behavior when and attitude is personally relevant.
When an attitude is personally relevant, how is behavior impacted?
- Behavior will be in line with an attitude when it is personally relevant - relevant to self then attitude is more salient - Ex) a tuition increase for the following year will elicit a greater response for freshmen compared to graduating seniors because tuition increase is relevant to freshmen for the next 3 years while seniors will be gone by the time the tuition increase occurs.
When students were forced to sleep on a cot they were more likely to advocate for better sleeping arrangements and protest compared to those who were not sleeping on the cots.
- Behavior will match an attitudes when it is formed through active experience
You move to LA because you loved visiting there and want to live in a warmer climate. After a while you start to hate the traffic and smelly city but continue to tell yourself and others that you never wanted to own a home anyway and you love listening to audiobooks on your long commutes in traffic. What is this an example of?
- Cognitive dissonance- you try to restore consistency with your cognitions by justifying your choice to yourself and friends - People experience dissonance when thoughts, feelings, and actions are inconsistent- to reduce dissonance, people try to bring their cognitions in line, or adjust an attitude to align with behavior
What is consumptive behavior? What type of attitude is it more likely to be impacted by?
- Consumptive behavior is intrinsically motivated and is and end in itself - think of eating as a consumptive behavior- you feel the urge to eat from within and it is an end in itself- you eat and feel good - An affective attitude (the emotional reaction one has to the attitude) is a better indicator for consumptive behavior
Parents who work tirelessly to take care of children are sleep-deprived and worn out. They still say that nothing in life brings greater pleasure than having children. What does this demonstrate?
- Effort justification- they justify their efforts to taking care of children which can be unpleasant and say it is all worth it
according to Festinger and Aronson, under what two conditions does dissonance occur?
- Festinger: holding two or more inconsistent cognitions - Aronson: performing an action that is discrepant from one's customary, typically positive self-concept (violates self-concept when we do something we wouldn't normally do)
How can paying more attention to an attitude help predict behavior?
- If an attitude is salient- more noticeable it is better able to predict behavior - It can make people privately reflective o If people notice an attitude they will reflect more carefully on that attitude and therefore the attitude will be more likely to match their behavior
Trick to figure out if a system is in balance:
- If the sum of the negative and positive relationships is -1 then it is out of balance If the sum is a positive number then balanced
How can forming at attitude through active experience make behaviors line up with the attitude?
- If you go through an experience that directly pertains to having a specific attitude your behaviors will follow in line - Ex) people who were forced to sleep on a cot in college were more likely advocate for better sleeping arrangements - People who were directly impacted will do something - if you directly experienced it, it is more relevant to the self and therefore is more salient
Behavior aligns with an attitude when the cognitive and affective components of attitude match. Explain:
- If your thoughts (cognitive) and affective match, then behavior will match - Ex) ask yourself- is a bear dangerous? Am I afraid? Do I run? If yes to all then all match
What is instrumental behavior? What type of attitude is it more likely to be impacted by?
- Instrumental behavior is extrinsically motivated and is means to some other end - think of getting a good grade- you have to study to do this, so studying is a means to some other end - Cognitive attitude (thoughts and feelings about the attitude) is a better predictor
When appropriate measures are used, attitudes can predict behavior. What does this mean?
- Measure at the same level of specificity o Asking do you like Michigan football or do you enjoy traveling far distances to Michigan football games to determine who is more likely to attend the Peach Bull. The more specific the question is about the attitude the better it will predict behavior - Use multiple act criterion o Measure across many attitudes and behaviors o Ex) see if someone goes to many games, if they have a heavy course load, if they like to travel, have enough money, and love Michigan- if they check all the boxes they may be more likely to attend the Peach Bull game
cognitive dissonance theory
- People are troubled by inconsistency among their thoughts, sentiments, and actions- they will expend psychological energy to restore consistency. - Dissonance is when we experience inconsistency between two cognitions - We can also be troubled by inconsistency between a cognition and our behavior- this will cause us to change one of the two
terror management theory
- People deal with the anxiety of an inevitable death by striving for symbolic immortality through preserving valued cultural worldviews and believing they have lived up to their standards - They believe that after life they will go on living in some other form and so are eager to uphold institutions and ideals that will live on after they die- they connect themselves to broader world views and cultural institutions
We believe the world should be fair yet are constantly shown evidence that it is not in fact fair- this causes a lot of dissonance. So, what do people do to restore balance?
- People keep their attitude consistent by seeing the sociopolitical system as desirable, fair, and legitimate this is the system justification theory
when we do something out of character this can produce dissonance. How can we restore balance in this situation?
- Practice self-affirmation- affirm other important attitudes of your identity like your values - Ex)...this happened but I'm still a good person
insufficient justification
- Reduction of dissonance by internally justifying behavior when the external justification is insufficient - Can change either your attitude or behavior - Ex) in the $1 condition the money wasn't a large enough external justification for the behavior so people changed their attitude about the task
What factors help explain why attitudes don't always do a good job of prediction behavior?
- Situational factors- aspects of a situation make it difficult to express one's attitude - Attitude strength and consistency can vary: o If the attitude is strong and consistent we will follow through o Specificity and fit are important- general attitudes don't do a good job of prediction behavior
When you asses true attitude vs social desirability this is a better predictor of behavior. Explain:
- Sometimes we are hesitant to express our true beliefs - We may report different attitudes if asked privately - Ex) in the bogus pipeline exp. People were hooked up to a lie detector and researchers could tell when they lied about certain attitudes/behaviors
How is studying an example of conflict between affective and cognitive attitudes?
- Studying may not be intrinsically motivated and is not a end in itself (so not consumptive)- instead we may study to achieve a better grade which is a means to a some other end so is more of an instrumental behavior so is more heavily impacted by cognitive attitude - Cognitive attitude- I don't want to study, but if I study I can get a good grade in this class
The bogus pipeline experiment showed that ___ attitude is not always expressed because we are concerned about ____ ____. If an attitude is assessed as ____, then it is more likely to predict behavior.
- The bogus pipeline experiment showed that true attitude is not always expressed because we are concerned about social desirability. If an attitude is assessed as true then it is more likely to predict behavior.
Someone who was paid $1 vs $20 dollars will experience more or less dissonance for lying to a stranger? Why? Explain
- The person paid $1 will experience more dissonance because it is not enough to justify their actions- their attitude about the behavior will therefore change- they will come to believe that the task was actually enjoyable o Because they couldn't change the condition (they already carried out the behavior) they had to change their attitude to reduce dissonance - The person paid 20 bucks will experience less dissonance because they can justify their actions by receiving the money- they still believe the task was mundane
- The person paid 20 bucks will experience ___ dissonance because they can justify their actions by receiving the money- they still believe the task was ____
- The person paid 20 bucks will experience less dissonance because they can justify their actions by receiving the money- they still believe the task was mundane
In mean girls, the system is in balance when Katy becomes friends with Janis and Damien because both Katy and Janis and Damien hate Regina. What happened when Katy became friends with Regina?
- The system went out of balance (-,+,+,= -1)
After making a choice between two objects or course of action, how do people reduce dissonance?
- They will find new attraction in the chosen alternative and recognize previously undetected flaws in the unchosen alternative
Balance theory
- We are happy as long as there is equilibrium between our attitudes and behavior - We don't like when things are off balance - this helps explain cognitive dissonance- dissonance causes us to adjust our behavior or conditions to restore balance
Are our attitude and behavior consistent? (why and when)
- What people say and what they do are very different- attitudes don't always line up with behavior we carry out. - Ex) LaPiere study found an inconsistency with behavior and attitudes of establishments and their views of Chinese and their inconsistency in kicking them out of said establishments - However, attitudes can predict behavior under specific circumstances
In studies where mortality is made more salient how do people react?
- When reminded of their mortality people are more committed to their ingroups and more hostile towards outgroups - They are more critical and more eager to uphold values- they are quick to punish people who deviate from their values
When placed in front of a mirror, students were less likely to cheat. Why?
- When they could see themselves their attitude about cheating was more salient- being more self-aware helped activate attitudes about themselves - Reflected on themselves may have caused them to think- "I am not someone who cheats." - this is an example of paying more attention to the attitude- if the attitude is made salient, they are less likely to cheat
3 ways to reduce dissonance:
1. Change the behavior 2. Change the cognition 3. Add new cognition to justify behavior
what two methods can we use to measure explicit attitudes
1- Likert scale 2- attitude centrality
under what circumstances does attitude predict behavior
1- When attention is focused on the attitude 2- When the attitude is formed by active experience 3- When the attitude is personally relevant 4- When the cognitive and affective components of attitude match 5- When appropriate measures are used (measure at the same level of specificity and use multiple act criterion) 6- When we assess a true attitude rather than social desirability
3 was to measure implicit attitudes
1- affective priming 2- implicit association test 3- physiological indicators
3 functions fo attitude
1- knowledge function 2- identity function 3- behavioral function
Implicit Association Test
A computer-driven assessment of implicit attitudes. The test uses reaction times to measure people's automatic associations between attitude objects and evaluative words. Easier pairings (and faster responses) are taken to indicate stronger unconscious associations.
ABCs of attitude
A- Affect (feelings) B- Behavior (our intentions and tendencies) C- Cognition (beliefs- the way we think)
ABCs of attitude for Beyonce
A- Affect- My feelings about Beyonce are that she is powerful and fierce B- Behavior- I tend to play her music often in the car C- Cognition- I think she is the best singer in the world
implicit attitudes
Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious attitudes that influence a person's feelings and behavior at an unconscious level
If you are see a bear, decide it is dangerous, decide you are afraid, your behavior that follows is probably that you will run away. What does this demonstrate?
Behavior aligns with an attitude when the cognitive and affective components of attitude match.
Making ___ decisions triggers ____, which in turn triggers a process of rationalization to make us ___ confident in the choices we make.
Making hard decisions triggers dissonance, which in turn triggers a process of rationalization to make us more confident in the choices we make.
self perception vs dissonance theory
Self perception is a theory of attitude formation § If you don't know how you feel about something, your behavior informs you o Dissonance is a theory of attitude change § You already have an attitude about something and the attitude changes
self-perception theory
The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs important in attitude formation
effort justification
When people engage in effort justification, they exert effort towards some goal and the goal turns out to be disappointing. They justify their expenditure of energy by deciding the goal is truly worthwhile
knowledge function of attitude
a. Attitudes help us form schemas that help us integrate new information and evaluate differences between related objects
identity function of attitude
a. Help us express who we are - "I'm the type of person who..." b. Convey your own values and self-concept
behavioral function of attitude
a. Helps guide our behavior to achieve goals and avoid negative outcomes b. Ex) if you have a better attitude about class you will be more likely to attend lecture and will do better on the exam
Attitudes come about due to these three things: ____- the feelings we have about the object, ____- our tendencies and intentions in response to the object, and ____- the way we think and our beliefs about that object.
affect, behavior, cognition
affective attitude vs cognitive attitude
affective component refers to the emotional reaction one has toward an attitude object. The cognitive component refers to the thoughts and beliefs one has about an attitude object.
define attitude
an evaluation, either positive or negative of a person, object, idea, event, etc
to understand your optical attitude, researchers ask you a series of questions about abortion, sex education in high school, same-sex marriage, stem-cell research, etc. After measuring a variety of attitudes within a domain they calculate how strongly each one is linked. this demonstrates
attitude centrality- a way to measure explicit attitudes
Cognitive dissonance is primarily a theory of ____ change
attitude change
explicit attitudes
attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report
Both Taylor and Katy feel very positively about a group of talented dancers and hope to recruit them for their concert tours. Unfortunately, the dancers can only perform on one of the concert tours. According to ______ Taylor and Katy will probably feel ______ towards each other.
balance theory negatively
if you have a better attitude about class, you are more likely to attend lecture and therefore will likely do better on the exam. what function of attitude does this demonstrate?
behavioral function- your attitude about class impacts your behavior- you like the class so you go to lecture and then you do well on the exams
• The aversive emotional state resulting from an inconsistency among one's thoughts, sentiments, and actions • Leads to efforts to restore consistency
cognitive dissonance
The tendency to reduce dissonance by justifying time, effort, or money devoted to something that turned out to be unpleasant or disappointing
effort justification
consciously endorse and can easily report
explicit attitudes
That's a lot of money! I must have done it for the $50. Conclusion: I don't like babysitting, I just like to make money! this is an example of a ____ attribution which leads to ____ ____
external attribution leads to over justification we blame our actions on external factors
What do we call it when someone exhibits the same behavior in a specific situation across time, but different behavior across other similar situations?
high consistency, high distinctiveness
the ____ ____ _____ can be used, it is argued, to reveal subconscious attitudes, not just for race but also for gender, age, and many other stereotypes--even when participants explicitly deny those beliefs. We can determine how strong an attitude is based on how quickly the target word is categorized.
implicit association test
attitudes that influence a person's feelings and behavior at an unconscious level
implicit attitudes
affective priming helps us determine ____ attitudes. when the target matches that attitude, the response is made ____ quickly.
implicit attitudes more quickly
holding two or more inconsistent _____ or devoting from behavior that is in line with one's typically positive ___-____ leads to ____
inconsistent cognitions self-concept dissonance
in the 1 dollar condition, people experience ____ ____- the money is not enough to justify their actions so they change their attitude
insufficient justification
I wouldn't do anything I didn't like for just $1! Babysitting wasn't so bad anyway, and I got to help out my neighbor... Conclusion: I like babysitting! this is an example of an ____ ____ which causes us to make ____ attributions about our behavior
insufficient justification we make internal attributions
Attitudes have 3 functions, ____, ____, and ____. Attitudes help us form schemas and integrate information, help us express who we are and develop our own values and self-concept, and finally can guide our actions so that we can achieve goals and avoid negative outcomes.
knowledge, identity and behavior
challenge with measuring explicit attitudes
measurements must be specific sometimes it is hard to measure specific attitudes using things like a likert scale or attitude centrality
when we say our compliance in a task was induced by the situation (external). we may justify lying by saying "they paid me 20 dollars"
over justification
People change their attitude to align with behavior because they observe their behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs. They infer their attitude from their behavior:
self-perception theory
define affective priming
participants perform a simple categorization task, such as judging whether words (e.g., "death", "happy") are good or bad. But unknown to the participant, each word is preceded by a subliminally presented word. The subliminal word (the prime) sometimes matches the emotional valence of the target word (e.g., "joy" primes "happy"), and sometimes does not (e.g., "joy" primes "death"). When the emotional valences of the prime and target match, words are categorized faster than when the emotional valences do not match. Presumably, this occurs because the prime automatically and subconsciously "activates" a particular attitude (like pleasantness or unpleasantness). When the target matches that attitude, the response is made more quickly.
spreading of alternatives
people rate the chosen option more favorably and the not chosen option less favorably - a way to reconcile post-decisional dissonance
people develop attitudes and opinions by observing their own behavior and drawing conclusions from it.
self-perception theory
what is post-decisional dissonance and when does it occur?
post-decisional distance occurs after having made a choice- we might ask ourself "Did I make the right choice" *important decisions *permanent decisions *equally attractive alternatives (could go either way) *less similar alternatives (so different it is hard to compare)
Maria is studying in the library and she sees an older woman walk by wearing reading glasses and carrying a big stack of books. Maria concludes that this woman is a librarian.What heuristic is Maria using?
representativeness
You are less likely to discuss a controversial topic at thanksgiving dinner. This demonstrates a _____ factor that influences behavior. Certain constraints make it difficult to express and attitude.
situational factor
what is a way to reconcile post-decisional dissonance?
spreading of alternatives - find new attraction in the chosen alternative (rate the chosen option more favorably) - recognize previously undetected flaws in the unchosen alternative (rate the second option less favorably) effort justification - it really wasn't that bad
strength and consistency of an attitude determine if attitudes do a good job of predicting behavior. how?
strong and consistent attitudes do a better job
Studies have shown that women say they deserve to earn less money compared to their male counterparts. Why might this be?
system justification theory- back up the system to avoid dissonance they defend their own disadvantage to support the sociopolitical system
- process people use to deal with the anxiety of knowing that they one day will die - Try to achieve symbolic mortality- even though they will be gone other things they leave behind will liver on- they will connect themselves to a boarder world view and cultural institutions
terror management theory
how doe specificity and fit affect how well attitudes predict behavior?
the more specific the attitude is to the behavior the better it predicts it general attitudes don't do a good job of prediction behavior
over justification effect
the tendency for people to view their behavior as caused by compelling external reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons people who were paid 20 dollars to lie downplay their intrinsic motivation and blame the external motivation of the money- they say "I did it for 20 dollars"
system justification theory
the theory that people are motivated to see the existing sociopolitical system as desirable, fair, and legitimate
physiological indicators are used to assess what type of attitudes. how does this work?
used in implicit attitude - use skin conductance to measure sweat and heart monitor to measure heart rate increased heart rate and sweaty palms are physiological indicators that can be measured to reveal attitudes about an object- this may indicate fear or anxiety we aren't always aware of our attitude, but our body might respond in a way to give clues to our attitude
likert scale
used to measure explicit attitudes: a numerical scale used to assess attitudes; includes a set of possible answers with labeled anchors on each extreme ex) 1= strongly agree and 7= strongly disagree
attitude centrality
used to measure explicit attitudes: how closely an attitude is correlated to attitudes about other issues measure a variety of attitudes within a domain to determine
Sheldon likes the planet Pluto and Tyson doesn't like Pluto. So, Sheldon decides he doesn't like Tyson. is this a system in balance?
yes- his attitudes about Pluto are balanced because he decides he doesn't like Tyson
Why don't our attitudes always predict our behavior?
• Instability of intentions- our intentions are not always constant • Intention-behavior incompatibility- intentions and behavior don't always match • Multi-dimensionality of attitudes- attitudes are multidimensional and complex
