Barron's APUSH Flash Cards

Five Power Treaty

1922 Committed the US, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy to restricting construction of new battleship class ships Pact gave Japan naval supremacy in the Pacific

The Spanish Armada

1588 Fleet assembled by King Philip II of Spain to invade England The Armada was defeated by skill of British military leaders and the rough seas England's victory was one of the greatest achievements of Queen Elizabeth I Established England as a sea power Marks the decline of the Spanish Empire

National Security Act

1947 Created the Central Intelligence Agency Created the National Security Council Reorganized the military under one Department of Defense head

Slave Codes

1650s-1860s A series of laws that limited slave rights Slave owners were given authority to impose harsh physical punishment and to control their slaves in any fashion they sought, without court intervention Prohibited slaves from owning weapons, becoming educated, meeting with other African Americans without permission, and testifying against whites in court Severely limited the rights of slaves

Truman Doctrine

1947 Proposal that the US must bolster the deeds of free people resisting Communism $400 million appropriated for aid to Greece and Turkey to fight Communism's spread Supported "containment" as a response to the Cold War

Elements of Slavery

1700s-1800s Slaves suffered varying degrees of repression, although most received adequate housing and diet Slaves did commit some violent uprisings Many slaves tried to run away into bordering free states Injustice created quiet revolt as slaves sabotaged their facilities, found ways to become unproductive for their masters, and ridiculed their owners Despite their repression, slaves created their own common culture

John Marshall

1755-1835 Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court (1801-1835) He was a Federalist installed by Adams His decisions defined and strengthened the powers of the judicial branch and asserted the power of judicial review over federal legislature His court made determinations that cemented a static view of contracts Court decisions advanced capitalism Significant Cases: Marbury v Madison, Fletcher v Peck, Dartmouth College v Woodward, McCulloch v Maryland, Gibbons v Ogden

Denmark Vesey

1767-1822 A slave who won enough money in a lottery to buy his own freedom Gained wealth and influence in South Carolina Accused of using church get-togethers to plan a violent slave revolt Vesey and 34 other slavers were hanged Historians doubt that this conspiracy was real

John Calhoun

1782-1850 Vice President to both John Q. Adams and to Adams' political rival, Andrew Jackson, who defeated Adams in 1828 Champion of states' rights Author of an essay, "The South Carolina Exposition and Protest" advocating nullification of Tariff of 1828 and asserting the right of the states to nullify federal laws Later as a senator he engaged Senator Daniel Webster in a debate over slavery and states' rights, demonstrating the ideas that would drive the country to the Civil War

Washington Irving

1783-1859 In his time, he was the best known native writer in the US and one of the first American writers to gain fame throughout Europe His satire is considered some of the first great comic literature written by an American Stories included Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow His writings reflected an increasing nationalism as the stories were based in American settings

John James Audubon

1785-1851 Romantic-era artist Member of Hudson River School, a group of landscape painters Demonstrated the emotion of nature, especially birds and animals In 1886 a nature organization took his name

James Fenimore Cooper

1789-1851 American novelist born in Burlington NJ Writing influenced by American frontier and landscapes Works include The Last Of The Mohicans (1826), The Water Witch (1830), and The American Democrat (1838) His work, along with that of writers like Washington Irving, helped form the foundation for distinctive American literature

Horace Mann

179-1859 American educator who was the first secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education Suggested reforms in education Made available high quality, no cost, nondenominational public schooling The system has lasted to present day, and as a result Mann has been called the father of the American public school

Southern Response to Slavery

1790-1860s Defense of slavery shifted from an early view of slavery as a "necessary evil" (1790) to a "positive good" (after 1840) Used scientific arguments, biblical texts, and historical examples to justify slavery As time passed, this defensive position and abolitionist sentiment increased in fervor Some Southerners, like George Fitzhugh, a Virginia lawyer, defended slavery by condemning Northern "wage slavery:; he used the idea of African American inferiority to suggest that whites were protecting slaves from a world of fierce competition in which, on their own, they would not survive

The Second Great Awakening and Protestant Revivalism

1790s-1840s A wave of religious fervor spread through a series of camp meeting revivals The "Burnt Over District," an area in upstate New York, was the center of the movement Protestant revivalism rejected the Calvinist doctrine of predestination and held instead that salvation was in the individual's hands Revivalism was a reaction to rationalism, emphasizing strong nationalism and the improvement of society through social reform Revivalism included participation by women and African Americans, demonstrating the influence and growth of democracy Created diversity in American religious sects and some anti-Catholic sentiment

Sam Houston

1793-1863 Leader of Texas independence Defeated Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto and claimed independence Houston asked both President Jackson and President Van Buren to recognize Texas as a state, which they denied out of fear that a new slave state would be formed

Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions

1798-1799 Response by Jeffersonian Republicans to the Alien and Sedition Acts Included text written by Jefferson and Madison Suggested that states should have the power within their territory to nullify federal law Stated that federal gov't had no right to exercise powers not specifically delegated to it The resolutions represented a future argument that would be used when secession and Civil War threatened the country Called into question the paradox of the Elastic Clause and the Tenth Amendment

The Napoleonic Wars

1799-1815 War between Napoleon's France and other European powers, led by Britain Both sides tried to prevent neutral powers, especially the US, from trading with their enemy American ships were seized by both sides and American sailors were "impressed" or forced into the British navy The US was angered by this violation of the "freedom of the seas" principle which holds that outside its territorial waters, a state may not claim sovereignty over the seas These violations would escalate and lead to the War of 1812

Nat Turner

1800-1831 Slave who led an insurrection in Southampton Virginia in 1831 Influential among local slaves as a preacher Believed it was his destiny to lead slaves to freedom Led approx 60 in revolt, first killing the family of his owner and then 55 whites in the neighborhood Revolt put down and Turner and conspirators were executed Led to stricter slave laws in South and an end to Southern organizations advocating abolition

Romanticism

1800s A belief in the innate goodness of man, nature, and traditional values, rooted in the turn-of-the-century Europe Emphasized emotions and feelings over rationality Reaction against the excesses of the Enlightenment led to a growing push for social reform

Population Growth and Change, Early 1800s

1800s Labor shortage meant more opportunity for work Influx of immigration included German skilled labor and Irish Catholics, who faced discrimination Growing population in the West and in rural areas Urbanization outgrew public services leading to inadequate security and clean water for city dwellers Race riots, religious riots, and street crime became part of city life

Texas, Leading to the Battle of the Alamo

1800s Mexico refused to sell Texas to the US which had given up its claims to Texas in the Adams-Onis treaty Texas had been a state in the Republic of Mexico since 1822 following a revolution against Spain Mexico offered land grants for immigration to the area, and many Americans responded and came to Texas increasing population and revenue in Texas Southerners moved to Mexico with interest in becoming slave masters, but the presence of slavery angered the Mexican gov't When population changed, Mexico's power began to erode Stephen Austin worked to first make Texas a Mexican state and later independent of Mexico

Slave Labor Roles

1800s On large farms, white overseers directed African AMerican drivers who supervised groups in the fields as they performed gang labor On smaller farms a slave was assigned specific tasks and then given the remainder of the day to himself House servants were spared physical labor, but they enjoyed less privacy and had direct responsibility to the master

Four Economic Classes in the South

1800s Planters: Owned large farms and groups of slaves, and exercised political and economic control with cotton exports Yeomen: The largest group, yeomen worked land independently, sometimes along with slaves, to produce their own foods, like corn Poor Whites: Lived in squalor that was often as bad as that of the slaves Slaves: Worked the land; it is noteworthy that three-fourths of whites in the South did not own slaves

Slaves in Southern Urban Areas

1800s Slaves served as factory workers or as construction laborers Some purchased their freedom with their savings or disappeared into society As sectional troubles rose, fewer slaves were able to buy freedom or work in urban areas

Irish and German Immigration

1800s The 1840s saw a dramatic increase in Irish immigration due to the potato famine in Ireland The poverty of the Irish immigrants led to settlement in eastern cities and competition for jobs 1850s had increases in German immigration because of the failed revolution in 1848 Many Germans settled in Wisconsin because they had money and other resources, which helped to cultivate the upper-midwest portion of the US The Five Points neighborhood of NYC included Irish immigrants, African Americans, and Anglo, Italian, and Jewish cultures, it encapsulated the melting-pot phenomenon in the US

Women in the Early 1800s

1800s Women participated in limited political activity that was mostly religious and reform in nature, such as abolition Employment was limited mostly to schoolteacher They still lived in a "cult of domesticity", in which a woman's role in marriage was to maintain the home for her husband and to raise the children A woman's property became her husband's In future years, the women's rights movement would rise to confront this "cult of domesticity"

Jim Crow Laws

1800s-1900s Laws separating whites and African Americans in public facilities and restricting their legal guarantees, such as the right to vote Often part of state statutes Support for these laws was provided in the Plessy v Ferguson case, demonstrating the limits of the 14th Amendment Name of the laws are said to be derived from a character in a minstrel song

Judiciary Act of 1801

1801 Created new judgeships to be filled by the president John Adams filled the vacancies with party supporters ("Midnight Judges") before he left office Led to bitter resentment by the incoming Jeffersonian Republican part Act would play a role in the case of Marbury v Madison

Thomas Jefferson

1801-1809 Third President Author of Declaration of Independence Before becoming President, he served as first Secretary of State First President in Washington DC Jefferson's taking of office was called the "Revolution of 1800" as it was the first time that the political parties changed (Federalist to Jeffersonian Republican), also because the running was brutal His embodiment of the Jeffersonian Republicans helped increase its strength while weak leadership in the Federalist Party led to that party's demise His administration was responsible for the Embargo of 1807 Presided over the Louisiana Purchase His politics were characterized by support of states' rights

Dorothea Dix

1802-1887 Social reformer who worked to help the mentally ill Northeastern jails housed both criminals and the mentally ill in the same facilities Dix became determined to change this Her memorandum to the Massachusetts state legislature in 1842 led to the establishment of state hospitals for the mentally ill

Ralph Waldo Emerson

1803 Transcendentalist essayist and lecturer Self Reliance (1841) one of his essays, promoted the virtue of independence Through the themes in his writing and through the independent lifestyle he lived, Emerson strongly influenced American thought and culture

Marbury v. Madison

1803 William Marbury had been commissioned justice of the peace in DC by President John Adams His commission was part of Adams "Midnight appointments" during his last days in office Marbury's commission was not delivered, so he sued President Jefferson's Secretary of State, James Madison Chief Justice John Marshall held that while Marbury was entitled to the commission, the statue that allowed Marbury's remedy was unconstitutional, as it granted the Supreme Court powers beyond what Constitution permitted This decision paved the way for judicial review, which gave courts the power to declare statues unconstitutional

Lewis and Clark Expedition

1803-1806 Expedition through the Louisiana Purchase and West Departed from St. Louis and explored areas like Missouri River, Yellowstone River, and the Rockies Led by Sacajawea, a Shoshone guide Opened up new territories for expanision

William Lloyd Garrison

1805-1879 His newspaper, The Liberator, espoused his views that slaves should be immediately emancipated Many other anti-slavery advocates of the 1830s and 1840s recommended a gradualist approach Because of his inflexible position an the fiery language he used in his paper opposition to his policy developed within abolitionist groups Garrison also advocated an unpopular position in favor of equal rights for women After the Civil War he promoted free trade, suffrage for women, and fair treatment for NA

Embargo of 1807

1807-1809 American declaration to keep its own ships from leaving port for any foreign destination Jefferson hoped to avoid contact with vessels of either of the warring sides of the Napoleonic Wars Led to economic depression in the US, angered Federalists (who were hit hard in Northeast commerce)

Non Intercourse Act

1809 Congress opened trade to all nations except France and Britain Trade boycott had little effect on curbing French and British aggression after the Napoleonic Wars Though the Embargo Act was a protective measure, the Non-Intercourse Act re-engaged the US in trade while not allying with either France or Britain Was repealed in 1810

James Madison

1809-1817 Fourth President Work before becoming president led him to be considered "Father of the Constitution" Participated in the writing of the Federalist Papers In Congress, he wrote the Virginia Plan Was a Republican president in a Federalist Congress Faced pressure from "War Hawks" like Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun to get involved in the Napoleonic Wars and end the damaging embargo Led the US into the War of 1812

John Brown

1809-1859 Brown and his sons killed 5 pro-slavery settlers in Kansas in an incident known as the "Pottawatamie Creek Massacre" (1856) He was supported by some Northern abolitionists in order to start a countrywide revolution He led followers to seize a federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, hoping to start the rebellion (1859) Brown was arrested and hanged Brown was often referred to as "God's Angry Man"

Fletcher v Peck

1810 Marshall Court decision First time state law was vioded on the grounds that it violated a principle in the US Constitution Georgia legislature had issued extensive land grants in a corrupt deal A legislative session repealed that action because of corruption Supreme Court decided that the original contract was valid despite corruption Reaffirmed sanctity of contracts

Expansion of Electorate 1810-1828

1810-1828 Most states eliminated the property qualifications for voting during this period African Americans were still excluded from polls across the South and most of the North Political parties established national nomination conventions

Tecumseh

1811 NA chief who was encouraged by British forces to fight against the pressured removal of NA from Western territories William Henry Harrison destroyed the united NA confederacy at Tippecanoe

Harriet Beecher Stowe

1811-1896 Worked with the Grimke sisters, Elizabeth Stanton, and other leaders to pursue activist goals Early activist in the feminist movement and author of Uncle Tom's Cabin (1851), a novel critical of slavery Uncle Tom's Cabin was denounced in the South and praised in the North; it turned many toward active opposition to slavery and helped bolster sympathy for abolition by Europeans who had read it

War of 1812 Events

1812 Early victories at sea by the US before it was overpowered by the British US Admiral Perry took Lake Erie with navy Opened the way for William Henry Harrison to invade Canada and defeat the British and NA forces Andrew Jackson led the American charge through the Southwest The Battle of New Orleans was a decisive conflict in which Andrew Jackson defeated the British; the battle was fought after signing of the Treaty Ghent

Causes of the War of 1812

1812-1815 British impressment of American sailors US suspected the British of encouraging NA rebellion "War Hawk" Congressional leaders (Henry Clay and John Calhoun) pressed for intervention American frontiersmen wanted more free land as the West was held by NA and British War Hawks wanted to annex Canada and Florida Despite the Embargo Act and Non Intercourse Act, hostilities could not be cooled Eventually US sided with France against Britain

Stephen Douglas

1813-1861 Senator from Illinois dubbed the "Little Giant" Was an expansionist and a supporter of the Mexican War Broke the Compromise of 1850 into smaller, more acceptable pieces of legislation and pushed it through using various allies in Congress Introduced the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854 During a Senate campaign in 1858, participated in debates against Abraham Lincoln (dubbed the Lincoln-Douglas Debates) He believed popular sovereignty was the appropriate way to handle the slavery question

Washington Burned

1814 During War of 1812 a British armada sailed up the Chesapeake Bay and burned down the White House Attack came in response of America burning Toronto The armada proceeded toward Baltimore; America's Fort McHenry held firm through bombardment which inspired Francis Scott Key's "Defence of Fort McHenry" later named "The Star-Spangled Banner"

Rush-Bagot Agreement

1817 The Treaty of Ghent which ended hostilities after the War of 1812, set the groundwork for this agreement by encouraging both sides to continue to study boundary issues between the US and Canada Rush-Bagot was an agreement between Britain and the US to stop maintaining fleets on the Great Lakes Served as the first "disarmament" agreement and laid foundation for future positive relations between Canada and US

James Monroe

1817-1825 Fifth President "Era of Good Feelings" marked by the domination of the Democratic-Republicans party and the decline of the Federalist Party Established the Monroe Doctrine as a wide-ranging policy for foreign affairs National identity grew, most notably through the westward movement of the country and various public works and projects The "Era" saw the beginnings of North-South tensions over slavery

Frederick Douglass

1817-1895 An escaped slave and outspoken abolitionist Escaped from his Maryland owner and published his own newspaper, North Star Favored the use of political methods of reform In the Civil War, he helped put together regiments of African Americans from Massachusetts and urged others to join the Union army Known as the father of American civil rights movement

Convention of 1818

1818 Provided for boundary between the US and Canada at the 49th parallel Allowed joint occupancy of Oregon Territory by Americans and Canadians Permitted American fishermen to fish in the waters of Newfoundland and Labrador

Adams-Onis Treaty

1819 Helped define the US-Mexico border The border that was under Spanish control had created conflict between the two countries Spain sold its remaining Florida territory to US and drew the boundary of Mexico to the Pacific US ceded its claims to Texas and Spain kept Florida and New Mexico US assumed $5 million in debts owed by Spain to American merchants Later, lands kept by Spain would become battlegrounds for American expansion

McCulloch v Maryland

1819 Marshall Court decision Determined that no state could control an agency of the federal gov't Maryland tried to levy a tax on a local branch of the US Bank to protect it's own state banks Supreme Court determined such state action violated Congress's "implied powers" to operate a national bank Use of judicial review over state law made this a division of powers case

Dartmouth College v Woodward

1819 Marshall Court decision Severely limited the power of state gov't to control corporations, which were emerging form of business New Hampshire legislature tired to change Dartmouth from a private to a public institution by having its charter revoked The Court ruled that the charter issued during colonial days still constituted a contract and could not be arbitrarily changed without the consent of both parties Reaffirmed sanctity of contracts

Walt Whitman

1819-1892 Northern Romantic era poet Wrote a volume of poems, Leaves of Grass (1855) Celebrated the importance of individualism and is considered the poet of American democracy

Popular Sovereignty

1840s Doctrine under which the status of slavery in the territories was to be determined by the settlers themselves Doctrine was first put forward by General Lewis Cass Promoted by Stephen A. Douglas Meant as a resolution to the looming crisis of the slavery question

Missouri Compromise

1820 Henry Clay's solution to deadlock over the issue of accepting proposed new state, Missouri At the time, the Senate was evenly divided between slave and free states A slave state of Missouri would tip the balance of power John Tallmadge added an antislavery amendment meant to prohibit the growth of slavery into Missouri and to free slaves already Missouri when they reached a certain age The Tallmadge Amendment caused the Senate to block the Missouri Compromise and sparked heated debate about the future of slavery The Tallmadge Amendment caused the Senate to block the Missouri Compromise and sparked heated debate about the future of slavery To settle the dispute, northern Massachusetts became a new free state (Maine) The legislative section prohibiting slavery in Missouri was replaced by a clause stating that all land of the Louisiana Purchase north of 30 60 30 north latitude would prohibit slavery

Mormonism

1820 Religion founded by Joseph Smith Jr. Smith claimed to have received sacred writings; he organized the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints Smith described a vision from God in which God declared specific tenets of Christianity to be abominations Because of these claims and unusual practices such as polygamy, Mormons were shunned Eventually, Mormons formed community near Great Salt Lake under Brigham Young's leadership Settlement became the State of Utah

Utopian Communities

1820-1850 Movement that copied early European efforts at utopianism Attempt by cooperative communities to improve life in the face of increasing industrialism Groups practiced social experiments that generally saw little success due to their radicalism Included attempts at sexual equality, racial equality, and socialism Two of these communities were Brook Farm and Oneida

Transcendentalism

1820-1850 Movement to transcend the bounds of intellect and to strive for emotional unity with God Believed that people were capable of unity with God without the help of the institutional church Saw church as reactionary and stifling to self-expression Included writers such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson

Antebellum Reform

1820-1860 Explosion in the number of colleges (Oberlin College in Ohio became the first co-ed college) Expansion of state-supported elementary schools and other public schooling, in part due to the leadership of Horace Mann Dorothea Dix led in the establishment of asylums for humane treatment of the mentally ill Prisons were also reformed

The Lowell System

1820s A popular way of staffing New England factories Young women were hired from the surrounding countryside, brought to town, and housed in dorms in mill towns for a short period The owners called these "factories in the garden" to spread the idea that these facilities would not replicate the dirty corrupt mills in English towns The rotating labor supply benefited owners, as no unions could be formed against them The system depended on technology to increase production

Monroe Doctrine

1823 Developed by President Monroe Held that US would not allow foreign powers to establish new colonies in the western hemisphere or allow existing colonies to be influenced by outside powers America feared international influence because of a period of worldwide revolutionary fervor after Napoleon's fall Another cause: Many Latin American countries were gaining independence from Spain, and the US thought that these colonies might be taken over by other European powers, threatening America The doctrine had a lasting impact beyond Monroe's time in office; other presidents, from Coolidge to Kennedy have invoked it to deal with their own foreign affairs issues

Corrupt Bargain of 1824

1824 Four presidential candidates: Henry Clay (Speaker of the House); John Quincy Adams (Secretary of State); Andrew Jackson (1812 war hero); and William Crawford (Secretary of Treasury) Jackson won the popular vote but did not win majority of the electoral vote, so the election went to the House of Representatives In the HoR vote, Henry Clay threw his support to John Quincy Adams, who would go on to win presidency Adams gave Clay the post of Secretary of State Accusations of a "corrupt Bargain" were made by Jackson, but they are considered largely untrue

Gibbons v Ogden

1824 Marshall Court decision Determined that only Congress may regulate interstate commerce, including navigation Ogden received a monopoly to operate a steamboat between New York and New Jersey; New York granted him the monopoly through Robert Fulton and Robert Livingston Gibbons received the same rights through Congress Supreme Court decided that the state monopoly was void Use of judicial review over state law made this a division of powers case

John Quincy Adams

1825-1829 Sixth President His supporters called themselves National Republicans (Jackson supporters labeled themselves Democratic-Republicans) Led an active federal gov't in areas like internal improvements and NA affairs His policies proved unpopular amidst increasing sectional interest and conflicts over states' rights After his presidency, he served in the House of Representatives, where he forced debates against slavery and against the Jacksonian policy of removing certain NA tribes

Hudson River School

1825-1875 Group of American landscape painters Part of increasing American nationalism following the War of 1812 The influence of the European Romantic movement led many American artists to paint their homeland Depicted important landscapes such as Niagara Falls, the Catskills, the Rocky Mountains, and the Hudson River Valley Artists include Thomas Doughty, Thomas Cole, George Inness, and S.F.B. Morse

Spoils Syster

1828 Andrew Jackson's method of turning over the civil servant jobs to new gov't officials "Rotation in office" was supposed to democratize gov't and lead to reform by allowing the common people to run the gov't This system had been in place long before Jackson, but his name is tied to it because he endorsed its usage In general, officials were replaced by those loyal to the new administration and they were not always qualified for the positions Over the span of several presidential terms, they system led to corruption and inefficiency It was ended with the passage of the Pendleton Act

"Tariff of Abominations"

1828 Tariff bill with higher import duties for many goods brought by southern planters John C. Calhoun, John Q. Adam's Vice President, anonymously protested his own leadership's bill, suggesting that a federal law harmful to an individual state could be declared void within that state This suggestion of nullification would be utilized by other states and would escalate hostilities, leading to the Civil War

Andrew Jackson

1829-1837 Seventh President Following the War of 1812, he invaded Spanish Florida to quell NA rebellions After the treaty for the War of 1812 had already been signed, he defeated a British force that had invaded New Orleans, safeguarding the Mississippi River Popular president due to his image as the self made westerner (dick irl tho) His form of leadership, known as Jacksonian Politics, called for strong executive, relied on the party system, and states' rights Implemented the Spoils System approach to civil service Signed the Indian Removal Act which provided for federal enforcement to remove NA tribes west of the Mississippi

Webster-Hayne Debate

1830 Debate in the Senate between Daniel Webster (MA) and Robert Hayne (SC) that focused on sectionalism and nullification Came after the Tariff of Abominations" incident At issue was the source of constitutional authority; was the union derived from an agreement between states or from the people who had sought a guarantee of freedom Webster stated, "Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable"

Abolitionism

1830s through Civil War Began with the idea of purchasing and transporting slaves to free states which had little success Anti slavery societies founded it and faced violent opposition The movement split into two: 1) radicals 2) petitioners of Congress Entered politics through the Liberty Party calling for non-expansion of slavery into new western territories The Liberty Party would eventually combine with the larger Free Soil Party

Biddle's Banks

1832 Andrew Jackson objected to the Bank of the US created by Alexander Hamilton Jackson felt that the Bank had great influence in national affairs and did not respond to the will of working and rural class people Henry Clay wanted the Bank to be a political issue for the upcoming presidential election in 1832 against Andrew Jackson Nicholas Biddle, chairman of the Bank, worked with Clay to re-charter the Bank four years earlier than it was due Jackson vetoed the measure, increasing his popularity

Tariff of 1832 and the Order of Nullification

1832 Tariff favored Northern interests at the expense of Southern ones Calhoun led a state convention calling for the Order of Nullification which declared that the tariff laws were void and that South Carolina would resist by force any attempt to collect the tariffs Jackson though a supporter of states rights defended the Union above all, and asked Congress to issue a new bill to give him authority to collect tariffs by force Jackson encouraged his allies to prepare a compromise bill so that the federal gov't would not lose its image of control and so that SC would back down from nullification Henry Clay presented this Compromise Tariff of 1833 and SC withdrew the Order, but tensions between the federal gov't and state gov'ts grew

Mark Twain (Samuel Langhorne Clemens)

1835-1910 American novelist who grew up in Hannibal, Missouri Early jobs as both a printer's apprentice and a riverboat pilot on the Mississippi River His novels include The Adventures of Tom Sawyer 1876, Huckleberry Finn 1885, and A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court 1889 Twain's writings portray the essence of life and speech during the era; his use of a distinctly American vernacular influenced future fiction writers

Andrew Carnegie

1835-1919 After making money through investments in a sleeping car company and oil, Andrew Carnegie moved on to a position in the War Department Later, he worked in the iron business and then moved into steel after learning the Bessemer Process, which formed steel from pig iron Grew Carnegie Steel Company through acquisitions Carnegie Steel Company was involved in the Homestead Strike with the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers Wrote the article "Gospel of Wealth" for the North American Review, which promoted the belief that the wealthy were just trustees of their money and that they must use their efforts to benefit society His philanthropic ventures included Carnegie Hall and public libraries

Gag Rule

1836-1844 Forbade discussion of the slavery question in the House of Representatives Stemmed from Southern members' fear of slave emancipation Led to an increased discussion by Southern conventions of ways to escape Northern economic and political hegemony

The Charles River Bridge Case

1837 Demonstrated that a contract could be broken to benefit the general welfare Jackson's chief justice, Roger Taney, held that a state could cancel grant money if the grant ceased to be in the interests of the community Served as a reversal of Dartmouth College v Woodward

Panic of 1837 and Specie Circular

1837 Recession caused by President Jackson's drastic movement of federal bank deposits to state and local banks (pet banks) Led to relaxed credit policies and inflation Jackson demanded a Specie Circular which required that land be paid for in hard money and not paper or credit Recession lasted into the 1840s

Martin Van Buren

1837-1841 Eighth President Democrat from NY who had served as Jackson's vice president after Calhoun left the position Established the independent treasury, a system maintaining gov't funds independently of the national banking systems; it existed in one form or another until 1921 Panic of 1837 hampered attempts to follow Jackson's policies, and he was unsuccessful in re-election

Marcus Alonzo Hanna

1837-1904 American capitalist dealing in coal, shipping, shipbuilding, banking and newspapers He was active in the Ohio Republican Party and helped elect William McKinley as governor in 1891 and 1893 As Chairman of the Republican National Committee, he assisted McKinley in winning the presidential election of 1896

JP Morgan

1837-1913 Wall Street banker whose company financed railroads, banks, and insurance companies Bought out Carnegie for $400 million Pledged money to help shore up the US banking system after the Panic of 1907 Philanthropist

Trail of Tears

1838-1839 Worcester v Georgia was a response to Jackson's Indian Removal Act Cherokees in Georgia claimed to be sovereign political entity NA were supported by Supreme Court, but Andrew Jackson refused to enforce the court's decision By this point, Cherokees had largely met the gov't demands to assimilate into Western'style democratic institutions Still, Cherokees were forced to give up lands to the east of the Mississippi and travel to an area in present-day Oklahoma The migrations effects were devastating as hunger, disease, and exhaustion killed 4,000 Cherokee

John D Rockefeller

1839-1937 Founder of Standard Oil Company Used such business practices as horizontal integration, trusts, and rebates to grow Standard Oil Also invested in banks, railroads, and timber Focused on philanthropy toward the end of his life, including the Rockefeller Foundation and the University of Chicago

Whig Party

1840s Group stemmed from the old Federalist Party, the old National Republican Party, and others who opposed Jackson Cultivating commercial and industrial development Encouraged banks and corporations Had a cautious approach to westward expansion Received support largely from Northern business and manufacturing interests and from large Southern planters Included Calhoun, Clay and Webster

Transportation in the 1840s and the 1850s

1840s and 1850s Tremendous expansion of railroad lines created a national market for goods Railroads such as the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, were developed to help link the Midwest to the East Coast Steamboats and clipper ships became more popular for travel

Know-Nothings

1840s-1850s A political movement that supported Americans and American ideals over what it saw as the influence of immigrants Also grew power from those dissatisfied with the perceived unresponsiveness of local leadership Influenced by German and Irish Catholic immigration during the period; Know-Nothings suspected the immigrants of anti-Americanism and feared the influence of the Pope in Rome The name of the movement came from its roots in secrecy; in its early days, members were supposed to answer that they did not know about the organization if asked by outsiders The movement grew in size and political representation in 1854 and 1855, but it was split by the slavery issue, and most members joined the Republican Party by the 1860 presidential election

The Underground Railroad and Harriet Tubman

1840s-1860s(Railroad); 1820-1913(Tubman) Method used to move slaves to free territory in the US and Canada Harriet Tubman was a slave smuggler and "conductor" of the Underground Railroad A freed slave herself, Tubman led over 300 to freedom The Underground Railroad led to tension between states

William Henry Harrison

1841 Ninth President A westerner who fought against NA Nicknamed "Old Tippecanoe" Vice President was John Tyler "Tippecanoe and Tyler too" Harrison died of pneumonia a month after inauguration

John Tyler

1841-1845 Tenth President Took office following the death of William Henry Harrison States' righter, Southerner, and strict constructionist Rejected the programs of the Whigs who had elected Harrison, which led them to turn against him Settled Webster-Ashburton Treaty between US and Britain Helped Texas achieve statehood in 1845

US British Tension and Webster-Ashburton Treaty

1842 American ship was burned by Canadian loyalists Canada and the US disputed the boundary of Maine British ships sometimes stopped American ships to suppress American slave smuggling The treaty settled the boundary of Maine and border disputes in the Great Lakes Created more cooperation between US and Britain in curbing the slave trade

Causes of Mexican War

1844-1846 The new Mexican republic would not address grievances of US citizens, who claimed property losses and personal injuries resulting from conflicts during the Mexican revolution Mexican and US were in a dispute over their border with the US saying it was the Rio Grande and Mexico insisting it was the Nueces River Due to sentiment arising from the idea of Manifest Destiny, there was an increased American interest in Mexican-held Western territory The US had aided Texas in its revolt against Mexican gov't and there was growing momentum toward a US annexation of TExas When the US Congress annexed Texas, Polk sent John Slidell to negotiate a settlement for that land, for California, and for western Mexico territory; the Mexican gov't rejected Slidell

James K. Polk

1845-1849 Eleventh President "Dark Horse" Democratic candidate who became president Big believer in Manifest Destiny and expansionism Nicknamed "Polk the Purposeful" for his focus on a set of specific goals during his presidency Introduced a new independent treasury system Lowered the high rates of tariffs with the Walker Tariff Settled Oregon boundary dispute with the Oregon Treaty (Treaty of WAshington 1846) at 49th parallel rather than 54 40 Acquired California Led US into the Mexican War

Wilmot Proviso

1846 Amendment to a Mexican War appropriations bill Proposed that slavery could not exist in any territory that might be acquired from Mexico The amendment was passed in the US House of Representatives several times, but it was ultimately defeated on each occasion because the South had greater power in the Senate Represented the looming question of slavery's future, which would be decided in the Civil War

Mexican War

1846-1848 John C. Fremont (US) won attacks on land and at sea in and near California Zachary Taylor defeated large forces in Mexico Mexico refused to negotiate, so President Polk ordered forces led by Winfield Scott into Mexico City Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 ended the war, giving the US land originally sought by Slidell, New Mexico, Arizona, California, Texas, and parts of Colorado, Utah and Nevada Border was set at Rio Grande River Raised questions of slavery in the new territory Henry David Thoreau and a young Whig, Abraham Lincoln, opposed the war

Mexican Cession and Slavery

1848 Argument existed about slavery in the newly acquired Mexican Cession States-righters believed that the territory was the property of all states and that the federal gov't had no right to prohibit property ownership in territories Many anti-slavery and federal gov't supporters contended that Congress had the power to make laws for the territories Argument in favor of federal power was based on the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 and the Missouri Compromise of 1820

Gold Rush

1848-1850s Miners who rushed to California after the discovery of gold were called "49-ers" Over 80,000 prospectors "rushed" to San Francisco The increased population led to California joining the Union as a free state Connected to the idea of Manifest Destiny

Free Soil/Free Labor

1848-1854 An anti-slavery idea that was less opposed to the institution of slavery than it was to the extension of slavery into the US Western territories Supporters wanted land to be available for white people to settle and to become financially independent without competition from slavery Free Soil Party created in 1848, drawing from anti-slavery Whigs and former Liberty Party members Opposed extension of slavery into new territories, supported national improvement programs, and promoted small tariffs to help raise revenue Zachary Taylor defeated free Soil candidate Martin Van Buren for president in 1848 Free Soil was mostly taken over by the Republicans in 1854

Zachary Taylor

1849-1850 Twelfth President Famous general in the Mexican War Whig President Opposed the spread of slavery Encouraged territories to organize and seek admission directly as states to avoid the issue of slavery Died in 1850 and was replaced by Millard Fillmore

African Americans in the North 1850

1850 Organized churches and groups 200,000 free African Americans lived in the North and West, although their lives were restricted by prejudicial laws Immigration and new sources of labor for employers threatened the economic security of northern African Americans

Fugitive Slave Act

1850 Part of the Compromise of 1850 This new Act reinvigorated enforcement of some guidelines that had already been established in the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793, which had been mostly ignored by Northern states Created federal commissioners who could pursue fugitive slaves in any state and paid $10 per returned slave African Americans living in the North and claimed by slave catchers were denied portions of legal due process Some Northern states passed personal-liberty laws that contradicted the Act Led to small riots in the North and increased the rift between the North and South

The South, 1850

1850 Plantation system: Cash crops grown by slave labor Agrarian slave labor was more profitable than using slaves in factories Capital funds were tied up in land and slaves, so little was left for investing in new growth or industry Value system put emphasis on leisure and elegance Unlike the North, the South remained agrarian and its population was less dense Due to the rise of cotton , the influence of the Gulf States in the South grew Cotton became the largest export of the US Slave importation continued through the 18-s into southwestern states, despite the federal outlaw Few immigrants went to the South

Compromise of 1850 (Omnibus Bill)

1850 Proposed by Henry Clay and handled by Stephen Douglas Douglas broke the legislation into various pieces, which helped assure its passage; this allowed northern and southern legislators to vote against just the parts they didn't like The Compromise led to sectional harmony for several years California admitted as a free state New Mexico and Utah territories would be decided by popular sovereignty Slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia Tough Fugitive Slave Act passed Federal payment to Texas ($10 million) for lost New Mexico territory

The North, 1850

1850 Wages were increasing and economy was growing Railroad competition began to harm the canal business Large numbers of Irish and Germans immigrated to the US Urbanization increased as the population grew, bringing problems such as slums, impure water, rats, and foul sewage

Millard Fillmore

1850-1853 Thirteenth President Became president after Zachary Taylor died As a congressmen, he revealed his opposition to both the expansion of slavery and various abolitionist activities, driving away supporters Supported the Compromise of 1850 Failed to obtain nomination in 1852, but was nominated by both the Whigs and the Know-Nothing movement in 1856

Franklin Pierce

1852-1856 Fourteenth President Democratic president from New Hampshire Supported Manifest Destiny despite Northern concerns that it would lead to the spread of slavery Signed the Kansas-Nebraska Act Sent Commodore Matthew Perry into Japan to open the country to diplomacy and commerce (Treaty of Kanagwa) Opened Canada to greater trade Pierce's diplomats failed in their attempts to purchase Cuba from Spain, leading to the drafting of the Ostend Manifesto

Ostend Manifesto

1854 Drafted by James Buchanan, John Mason, and Pierre Soule after Soule failed to purchase Cuba from Spain Suggested that the US should take Cuba from Spain by force if Spain refused to sell it Abolitionists saw Ostend as a plot to extend slavery Southerners supported the manifesto, as they had feared Cuba would be a free "black republic"

Kansas-Nebraska Act

1854 Legislation introduced by Stephen Douglas to organize the area west of Missouri and Iowa One goal was to facilitate the building of a transcontinental railroad that ran west from Chicago Called for two territories to be created (Kansas and Nebraska) and the issue of slavery to be decided by popular sovereignty The act revoked a provision of the Missouri Compromise, allowing everything above 36 30 to be free Kansas's status was impacted by fighting between pro- and anti- slavery groups who moved to the area The conflict was termed "Bleeding Kansas"

Creation of Lincoln's Republican Party

1854 The Democratic Party divided along North-South lines The Whig Party disintegrated, with its members either joining the Know-Nothings or the new Republican Party The Republican Party's unifying principle was that slavery should be banned from all the nation's territories and not permitted to spread any further to established states

Evolution of the Major Political Parties from Civil War to Modern Day

1854-Modern Day Key Moment: Passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act Parties: Lincoln's Republicans were concerned mainly with preventing the extension of slavery into the territories, while Democrats were split North-South over the issue Parties: Modern-day Republicans tend to emphasize business activity while modern-day Democrats support broad social programs

Eugene v Debs

1855-1926 Became president of American Railway Union in 1893 Led successful strikes against the Great Northern Railway and against the Pullman Palace Car Company Was a founder of the Social Democratic Party Ran for president as a Socialist candidate five times between 1900 and 1920

Frederick Winslow Taylor

1856-1915 Created the basis for the scientific management of business in his quest for efficiency Used shops and large plants as models and succeeded in spreading his ideas on efficiency to several industries Wrote books on the subject of scientific management

Booker T. Washington

1856-1915 The son of a slave and a white man Taught at Hampton Institute and , in 1881, helped organize a school for African Americans in Tuskegee Alabama The Tuskegee Institute emphasized industrial training to help African Americans gather wealth and become influential in society Claimed that it was a mistake for African Americans to push for social equality before they had become economically equal His ideas were denounced by some leaders in the African American community Lectured throughout the US and Europe and wrote various works, including his autobiography, Up From Slavery

Lecompton Constitution

1857 Document submitted by pro-slavery leaders in territorial Kansas that put no restrictions on slavery Free-soilers boycotted the constitutional convention in Lecompton because the document would not leave Kansas a free territory Though President Buchanan supported the constitution as the basis for Kansas' statehood, Congress voted against it The constitution was turned down and Kansas remained a territory

Causes and Impact of the Panic of 1857

1857 Failure of the Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Co. in NY Over speculation in railroads and lands Decrease in flow of European capital for US investments because of Europe's own wars Surplus of wheat hurt Northern farmers Panic spread to Europe, South America, and the Far East The Panic fueled sectional tensions as Northerners blamed it on the low tariff policies of the Southern-dominated Congress

James Buchanan

1857 Fifteenth President Presided over the country when the Dred Scott decision was announced Backed the Lecompton Constitution to appease the South Buchanan, still acting as president after Lincoln's election, denied the legal right of states to secede but believed that the federal gov't could not legally prevent them Before leaving office, Buchanan appointed Northerners to federal posts and helped to prepare Fort Sumter with reinforcements

Dred Scott v Sandford

1857 Supreme Court case involving a slave, Scott, who was taken by his master from Missouri, a slave state, to Illinois, a free state After Scott had been returned to Missouri, he sued for freedom for himself and his family, stating that by residing in a free state he had ended his slavery President Buchanan meant for the case's decision to serve as the basis for the slavery issue Pro-South Judge Taney ruled that Scott did not have the right of citizenship, which he would need to be able to bring forth a suit Ruled further that the Missouri Compromise itself was unconstitutional because Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the territories, as slaves were property The Scott decision would apply to all African Americans, who were regarded as inferior and, therefore, without rights

Lincoln-Douglas Debates

1858 Part of the Illinois senatorial campaign between Stephen Douglas and Abraham Lincoln, these debates centered on the issue of slavery Douglas maintained that popular sovereignty was supported by the basic elements of democracy Douglas offered the "Freeport Doctrine"; Despite the Dred Scott case, slavery could be prevented if people living in a territory refused to pass laws favorable to slavery Lincoln had a moral opposition to slavery's spread and demanded constitutional protection where it existed Lincoln lost the Senate election of Douglas, but he stepped into the national limelight

Election of 1860

1860 Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln Major planks of his campaign: containment of slavery and encouragement of transcontinental rail The Democratic vote was split between Douglas and several other strong candidates Lincoln won the election and the South began to secede thereafter

Transportation from 1860-1900

1860-1900 Railroads were given land grants by the gov't Railroad transportation provided opportunities for movement of goods and people to the West and raw materials to the East Affected population movements Made Chicago one of the most populous cities in the nation by 1900

Jane Addams

1860-1935 American social reformer Provided the services of the Hull House in Chicago (1889) to help poor immigrants settle Member of the "Social Gospel" movement, which applied lessons from the Bible to help solve problems of immigration and urbanization Won 1931 Nobel Peace Prize

Civil War Conscription

1860s Congress passed a federal conscription law in 1863 Rioting in the North took place, notably in NYC, when drafted individuals were permitted to avoid service by hiring a substitute or paying $300 The Confederacy's short supply of manpower meant an earlier draft, beginning in 1862 Southerners could also hire a substitute or purchase exemption

Radical Republicans

1860s Faction of the Republican Party that believed the Civil war was meant to stop slavery and emancipate all slaves Believed Congress should control Reconstruction and not the president Rejected the reentry of Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana into the Union, despite their qualification under the "10% Plan" They wanted the rebellious South to be dealt with in a harsher manner Ben Wade and Thad Stevens were among their members

Civil War Advantages for the North

1860s Greater population Better railroad lines and more established trade routes than the South More wealth Were able to use the moral issue of fighting slavery as motivation

Civil War Ships

1860s Ironclads were Civil War ships protected from cannon fire by iron plates bolted over the sloping wooden sides Confederates outfitted an old wooden warship, the Merrimack, with iron railroad rails and renamed it the Virginia; it achieved devastating results The Union's Monitor fought the Merrimack to a standstil

Civil War Advantages for the South

1860s Only needed to resist being conquered Vast in land size Troops would fight in their familiar home territory Highly qualified senior officers including Robert E Lee, Joseph Johnston, Albert Sidney Johnston, and Stonewall Jackson Inspired to protect their familiar institutions and culture

Anaconda Plan

1861 Civil War strategy planned by Northern General Winfield Scott to crush the Southern rebellion Called for a naval blockade to ship out European supplies and exports, a campaign to take the Mississippi River and, thereby, split the South, and a targeting of Southern cities in hopes that pro-Unionists would ride up in the South and overthrow the secession Both the blockade and the taking of the Mississippi were successful

Abraham Lincoln

1861-1865 Sixteenth President The Lincoln-Douglass Debates won him high national regard and, eventually, the Republican nomination for president Produced and led a Northern army to defend the Union against the secessionists Suspended habeas corpus during the Civil War, which was upheld by Congress Issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed slaves within the Confederacy Developed the "10% Plan" for Reconstruction Gave the Gettysburg Address on November 19, 1863, which began "Four score and seven years ago" He was assassinated while attending a play at Ford's Theatre in Washington The assassin, John Wilkes Booth, believed he was assisting the Southern cause

The Homestead Act

1862 Granted 160 acres of gov't lands to any person who could farm it for at least 5 years The gov't helped to settle the West with this provision This "free soil" proposal became law when the Southern Democrats were not part of Congress

Lincoln's "10% Plan"

1863 Lincoln believed that seceded states should be restored to the Union quickly and easily, with "malice toward none, with charity for all" Lincoln's "10% Plan" allowed Southerners, excluding high-ranking confederate officers and military leaders, to take an oath promising future loyalty to the Union and an end to slavery When 10 % of those registered to vote in 1860 took the oath, a loyal state gov't could be formed This plan was not accepted by Congress

Henry Ford

1863-1947 His Model T introduced in 1908 was the first inexpensive, mass-produced automobile Use of the moving assembly line heavily influence American manufacturing He paid workers $5 per day, more than doubling the average autoworkers wage He was strongly anti-union

William Randolph Hearst

1863-1951 Inherited the San Francisco Chronicle Built a media empire, including newspapers, magazines, radio stations, and movie studios His "yellow journalism", or writing that dealt with sensational news, helped lead the US into the Spanish-American War

Wade-Davis Bill

1864 A proposal to reunite the country by Senators Wade and Davis Required that 50% of a state's white male voters take a loyalty oath to be readmitted to the Union Demanded stronger efforts on behalf of states to emancipate slaves Lincoln "pocket vetoed" the bill in favor of his "10% Plan"

Sherman's March to the Sea

1864 General William Tecumseh Sherman led Union troops through Georgia Sherman and Union Commander, Ulysses S. Grant, believed in a "total war" that would break the South's psychological capacity to fight, Sherman's army sought to eliminate civilian support of Southern troops Sherman captured and burned Atlanta in September of 1864 The purpose of destroying Atlanta was to lower Southern morale and diminish supplies Sherman led troops to Savannah, then on to South and North Carolina

Northern Election of 1864

1864 Lincoln ran against General McClellan, who claimed that the war was a failure and called for a peace settlement Lincoln ran on the ticket of national unity with Andrew Johnson, a loyalist from Tennessee Sherman's taking of Atlanta helped Lincoln win the election Those sympathetic to the Southern cause were labeled "Copperheads"

Freedman's Bureau

1865 Congressional support agency providing food, clothing, and education for freed slaves Ex-slave states were divided into districts that were managed by assistant commissioners Despite its benefits, the Bureau failed to establish the freed slaves as landowners It organized the African American vote for the Republican Party, creating great animosity toward the bureau in the South

Andrew Johnson

1865-1869 Seventeenth President Vice President who took over presidency after Lincoln's assassination He initially followed Lincoln's policies but gradually became more conservative, giving amnesty to former Confederate officials and opposing legislation that dealt with former slaves His veto of the Civil Rights Act was overridden by Congress, which decreased his political power Johnson's opposition to the Radical Republicans and his violation of the Tenure of Office Act led to his impeachment by the House The Senate was organized as a court to hear the impeachment charges, but it came one vote short of the constitutional two-thirds required for removal

Civil War Amendments

1865-1870 13th Amendment 1865: Abolished slavery in the US 14th Amendment 1868: African Americans became citizens and no state could deny life, liberty, or property without due process of law 15th Amendment 1970: No state could deny the right to vote on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude

Reconstruction

1865-1877 Period following the Civil War in which the US tried to transform the organization and society of former Confederate states Determined how the South would take over its own governance In 1867, Congress put the South under the army's control to oversee elections, ensure the rights of freed slaves, and restrict Confederate leaders from gaining power New Republican state gov'ts offered a variety of reconstruction programs, but former Confederates suspicious of these efforts claimed corruption within state leadership; some turned to violent opposition Reconstruction concluded with the Compromise of 1877 and the end of federal control in the South; former Confederate states began enacting Jim Crow laws and disenfranchising many African Americans

"Seward's Folly"

1867 Derisive title of Secretary of State William Seward's decision to purchase Alaska for $7.2 million from Russia Congress agreed to the purchase, as Russia had been pro-North in the Civil War Most members thought the purchase to be foolhardy since the land was in such a remote location Russia was willing to sell Alaska bc Russia was overextended abroad and feared the loss of Alaska in a future war

Credit Mobilier Scandal

1867-1872 Stockholders of the Union Pacific Railroad created a dummy company, Credit Mobilier The company was supposed to complete the transcontinental railroad, but instead it stole millions of dollars from the gov't Blame for the scandal fell on Grant and the cabinet

WEB DuBois

1868-1963 Civil rights leader and author Called for full equality of African Americans, which included social, civil, political, and economic equality Opposed Booker T Washington's "gradual approach" to equality Through higher education, DuBois wanted to develop leaders from the most able 10% of African Americans "The Talented 10th" Co-founded the Niagara Movement, which became the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

First Transcontinental Railroad

1869 Completed with Golden Spike at Promontory Point, Utah Marked the meeting of the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific railroads During construction, the Union Pacific used Irish labor and the Central Pacific used Chinese labor The connection of the railroads opened national markets and met growing economic needs

Ulysses S. Grant

1869-1877 Eighteenth President Fought in the Mexican War, captured Vicksburg as a Union general, and accepted General Lee's surrender Appointed Secretary of War by Andrew Johnson in 1867; disagreed with Johnson's policies and won election through support of Radical Republicans Despite his personal honesty and honor, his administration was marred by scandals such as Credit Mobilier and the Whiskey Ring

Whiskey Ring Fraud

1870s One of the scandals of Grant's administration Liquor taxes were increased to aid in paying off the cost of the Civil War Distillers and treasury officials conspired to defraud the gov't by giving out cheap tax stamps, robbing the gov't of millions in excise tax

Gilded Age

1870s-1890s Phrase coined by Mark Twain to describe the new industrial era America emerged as the world's leading industrial and agricultural producer Profits became increasingly centralized in the hands of fewer people

Panic of 1873

1873 Economic depression during Grant's second term Over-expansive, unregulated business during the post-Civil War years, the failure of American investment banking firms, and economic downturns in Europe all contributed to the panic Led to the retirement of greenbacks and a return to the gold standard

Compromise of 1877

1877 Compromise came after the disputed presidential election of 1876 between Hayes and Tilden Tilden won the popular vote but neither candidate won the electoral vote, because the electoral votes in three states were in dispute The Democrats agreed to give Hayes the presidency Hayes promised to show consideration for Southern interests, end Reconstruction, aid Southern industrialization, and withdraw remaining forces from the South This settlement left the freed African Americans in the South without support form the Republican Party

The Great Railroad Strike of 1877

1877 Pay cuts caused labor strikes to spread through the country Workers of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad went on strike over a second pay cut President Hayes used federal troops to restore order after workers were killed

Rutherford B. Hayes

1877-1881 Nineteenth President Former Ohio governor who was the Republican presidential nominee in 1876 Won election through the Compromise of 1877 During his term, he removed federal troops from the South Dealt with railroad strike in 1877

Upton Sinclair

1878-1968 Novelist and socialist Used his writings to expose issues in US society, such as the need for food inspection laws, the oppressive effect of capitalism on education and culture His book The Jungle (1906) a graphic novel about the Chicago stockyards, led to food inspection reforms and the Meat Inspection Act of 1906 Lost bid to become governor of California in 1934 Won Pulitzer Price in 1942

Modern Navy

1880s Construction of the new steel ships led the US to take the lead in the world naval rankings US Naval War College was established on October 6, 1884 Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840-1914) was a US naval officer, President of Newport War College, and author who pushed for imperialism and growth of the US Navy Repair and coaling stations helped expand the Navy's effectiveness

Half Breeds, Stalwarts, and Mugwumps

1880s Faction of the Republican Party in 1880s Half-Breeds: Supported civil service reform and merit appointments to gov't Stalwarts: Opposed civil service reform and supported the protective tariff Mugwumps: Group that left Republican Party to become Democrats; this group heavily favored service reform and mistrusted James Blaine as the presidential nominee because it suspected his involvement in past corruption The election of 1880 united Garfield, a Half-Breed, and Vice President Chester Arthur, a Stalwart

Captains of Industry or Robber Barons

1880s Leaders of large, efficient corporations Often gained wealth through questionable business practices Monopolies by these large companies led to demands by small businessmen and laborers for gov't regulation John D Rockefeller's tactics were exposed in Ida Tarbell's History of the Standard Oil Company, published in 1904

Social Darwinism

1880s Theory that wealth was based on the survival of the fittest; associated with Charles Darwin's work Wealthy industrial leaders used the doctrines to justify vast differences in classes Supporters included Herbert Spencer and William Graham Sumner

James Garfield

1881 Twentieth President Former Ohio Congressmen and Union General Charles Guiteau, a disappointed office seeker, shot and killed Garfield His assassination spurred the passage of the Pendleton Act

Chester Arthur

1881-1885 Twenty-first President Assumed the office when President Garfield was assassination by Charles Guiteau Worked to outlaw polygamy in Utah and to strengthen the Navy Supported the Pendleton Act, which established open competitive exams for civil service jobs and officially ended the Spoils System that had been popular under Andrew Jackson

Chinese Exclusion Act

1882 Only Legislation passed to limit immigration of any one group of people Passed in response to the Chinese who settled in California after building the railroads

Eleanor Roosevelt

1884-1962 Wife of FDR Strong supporter of civil rights, women's rights, and world peace Resigned from Daughters of the American Revolution after they refused to allow Marian Anderson, an African American, to sing at Independence Hall Had a long list of lady lovers. Like, LONG. Read the letters. Served as delegate to the UN from 1945-1953

Grover Cleveland

1885-1889 and 1893-1897 Twenty second and twenty fourth President The first Democrat elected after the Civil War He was the only president elected to two non-consecutive terms He vetoed many private elected to two non-consecutive terms He vetoed many private pension bills to Civil War veterans who submitted fraudulent claims Signed the Interstate Commerce Act Sent in federal troops to enforce an injunction against striking railroad workers in Chicago

Wabash Case

1886 Case challenging legislation enacted by the State of Illinois against railroads The state was trying to appease the demands of farmers for lower railroad rates The Supreme Court determined that states had no power to regulate interstate commerce The case undid an earlier victory for states established in the Munn v Illinois case 1877, which had allowed for regulation

American Federation of Labor (AFL)

1886 Combination of national craft unions representing labor interests in wages, hours, and safety Individuals were members of their local unions, which in turn, were members of the AFL Rather than revolutionary changes, they sought a better working life; their philosophy was "pure and simple unionism" First president was Samuel Gompers

Interstate Commerce Act

1887 Established the interstate Commerce Commission in part to monitor discrimination within the railroad industry Prohibited rebates and pools and required railroads to publish their rates Also prohibited unfair discrimination against shippers and outlawed the practice of charging more for short hauls than long hauls In general, the Act opened competition, the goal of which was to preserve equality and spur innovation

Dawes Severalty Act

1887 Legislation encouraging the breakup of Native American tribes in hopes of assimilating them into American society Helen Hunt Jackson's A Century of Dishonor was a catalyst, as it depicted injustices to Native Americans Distributed Native America reservation lands among individual members of the tribe to form a system of agriculture more similar to the white man's Gave each head of a NA family 160 acres of farmland or 320 acres of grazing land Effect was to nearly destroy the reservation system, as the remaining tribal lands were opened up for whites

Benjamin Harrison

1889-1893 Twenty-third President Former senator and lawyer He was nominated for the presidency of the eighth ballot at the 1888 Republican Convention Defeated Grover Cleveland, despite receiving fewer popular votes Submitted to the Senate a treaty to annex Hawaii, although President Cleveland later withdrew it Signed many appropriations bills for naval improvement and internal improvements

Sherman Antitrust Act

1890 Based on Congress's power to regulate interstate commerce Declared every contract, combination, or conspiracy in restraint of interstate trade to be illegal Corporate monopolies were exposed to federal prosecution if they were found to conspire in restraining trade The Supreme Court applied the act to both labor unions and corporations

Populist Party

1890 Consisted mostly of farmers Members who met in Nebraska wrote their "Omaha Platform" The demands of the platform included free and unlimited coinage of silver, a graduated income tax, and gov't ownership of the telephone, telegraph, and railroad industries Many of these ideas were later adopted by the Progressive Party

Battle of Wounded Knee

1890 Sioux natives wished to practice a dance that they believed would free their lands, rid them of whites, and lead to prosperity, but this plan frightened white settlers Federal army believed Chief Sitting Bull was organizing a rebellion, and acting on the settlers' fear and their suspicions, the army captured the chief In a sudden exchange of gunfire between the tribe and the army, Chief Sitting Bull and others were killed The remainder of the tribe fled to a camp near Wounded Knee Creek When the army reached this camp, a shot was fired, and in reaction, the army killed two hundred men, women, and children in what is considered the last battle of the Indian Wars

Progressivism

1890-1914 Social, political, and economic reform that came as an American response to problems caused by industrialization, urbanization, and immigration Democratic reforms were made throughout states and the national gov't Reforms led to the 16th, 17th, and 19th Amendments

Homestead Strike

1892 Iron and steel workers' strike against Carnegie Steel Company in Pittsburgh to protest salary reductions Henry Clay Frick hired Pinkerton security guards to protect Carnegie's plant, buy fighting resulted in deaths among both the protesters and the guards The Pennsylvania State Militia was brought in to take control

Cross of Gold Speech

1896 Address given by William Jennings Bryan, the Democratic presidential nominee, during the national convention of the Democratic Party The speech criticized the gold standard and supported the coinage of silver Bryan's beliefs were popular with debt-ridden farmers The last words of his speech, and the most famous, were "You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold"

Plessy v Ferguson

1896 Homer Plessy refused to leave a railroad car restricted only to whites Supreme Court upheld the Louisiana state law that required "separate but equal" facilities The majority stated that the 14th Amendment protected only political equality and not social equality Justice Harlan's dissent argued that "...all citizens are equal before the law," laying the foundation for Brown v Board of Education of Topeka, which would overturn "separate buy equal"

William McKinley

1897-1901 Twenty-fifth President Former Republican congressmen from Ohio Businesses rallied to support him against his opponent, William Jennings Bryan While Bryan toured the country, McKinley stayed at home and hosted important visitors, building an honest, "presidential" image Defeated William Jennings Bryan for office in 1896 McKinley's election over Bryan influenced future political races by setting up interest groups and alliances that lasted for over a decade McKinley was reelected in 1900, but Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist, assassinated him one year into his second term

Spanish-American War

1898 Cuba resented Spain's control which led to rebellion Spain responded with the dispatch of General Valeriano Weyler, who confined civilians to brutal camps "Yellow Journalism" in the US labeled him "Butcher Weyler", increasing American support against Spain The US sent the battleship Maine to Havana to protect American interests, which included sugar, the Maine is blown up American fought Spain in the Philippines and in Cuba The Treaty of Paris gave Cuba its independence; US gained Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines while Spain received $20 million from US for the Philippines

Teller Amendment

1898 The Teller Amendment promised that when the US overthrew Spanish rule in Cuba, US would give Cuba independence After the Spanish-American War, the Platt Amendment overrode the Teller Amendment, and Cuba came under the control of the US

Open Door Policy

1898 The US foreign policy for its dealings with China The US had become a major commercial power in Asia after acquiring the Philippine Islands Europe and Japan made moves to take over portions of China, threatening US interests there Under President McKinley's direction, Secretary of State John Hay sent messages to the major powers in Europe and Japan, asking them to state publicly that hey would not interfere with open trade in China Hay announced agreement by all parties in July 1900 The policy served as a guiding principle for US foreign affairs in China through the early 1900s

Puerto Rico and the United States

1900 (Foraker) and 1917 (citizenship) Congress passed the Foraker Act, which gave Puerto Rico limited popular gov't American citizenship was granted to Puerto Ricans

Muckrakers

1900-1912 American journalists, novelists, and critics who exposed corruption, especially in business and politics President Theodore Roosevelt is said to have given the muckrakers their name Famous muckrakers included Upton Sinclair (Meat Packing Industry), Ida Tarbell (Standard Oil Company/Rockefellers), Lincoln Steffens (Corruption of American Cities), Frank Norris (Monopolies and Railroads), and Samuel Hopkins Adams (Public Health) Led to increased support for the progressive movement

Platt Amendment

1901 Rider attached to Army appropriations bill It was written into the constitution of Cuba by the US and, in effect, it made Cuba a US protectorate It permitted the US to intervene to preserve Cuba's "independence", but in reality it allowed US to protect its own interested in Cuba US kept land for naval bases on Cuba; Guantanamo Bay would play a part in later Cuba-US conflicts

Insular Cases

1901-1904 A series of court cases held to determine if the "Constitution followed the flag" At state was whether people in areas controlled by US were given rights as citizens The court determined that those living in new territories were not automatically granted the rights of US citizens

Theodore Roosevelt

1901-1909 Twenty-sixth President Roosevelt had to deal with ill health and became an advocate for similarly disadvantaged people Roosevelt was part of the Rough Rider Regiment during the Spanish-American conflict, where he became a war hero As Prez he became a trust buster; used the Sherman Antitrust Act to dissolve trusts that restrained interstate and foreign trade He won the antitrust case against Northern Securities Company His style of diplomacy was to "speak softly and carry a big stick"; he protected US interests by ensuring the construction of the Panama Canal and the US authority in Latin America Roosevelt served as a middleman in conflicts between Russia and Japan; he forged the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 He supported conservation (not preservation) of national resources

Charles Lindbergh

1902-1974 American pilot who made the first non-stop solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean Flew his plane, The Spirit of St. Louis, from NY to Paris Most famous speaker for the America First Committee 1930s, which opposed American intervention in the European (WWII) Was a noted Nazi sympathizer

Rachel Carson

1907-1964 American writer and marine biologist Wrote Silent Spring 1962, a study on dangerous insecticides Helped initiate the environment movement

Muller v Oregon

1908 Oregon established a law that limited women to ten hours of work in factories and laundries Muller, a laundry owner, challenged the legality of the law, arguing that it violated the "liberty to contract" Louis Brandeis, one of the attorneys arguing the case, used extensive sociological evidence in his brief (The Brandeis Brief), which served as a model for later social reformers The Supreme Court held that the law was constitutional

Richard Wright

1908-1960 African American author who wrote about racial oppression His novels included Uncle Tom's Children (1938), Native Son (1940), and Black Boy (1945) He joined the Communist Party for a brief time in the early 1930s

William Howard Taft

1909-1913 Twenty seventh President After serving as Secretary of War under Theodore Roosevelt, he was elected over William Jennings Bryan He prosecuted trusts under Sherman Antitrust Act His policy of "Dollar Diplomacy" called for acting in foreign affairs to achieve a financial result on behalf of one's country His administration created the Department of Labor and established the parcel-post system President Theodore Roosevelt's relationship with Taft deteriorated, leading to Roosevelt's opposition of Taft's reelection He became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court after serving as president

The Great Migration

1910s-1940s The movement of African Americans from the South to the industrial centers of the Northeast and the Midwest Causes for the migration included decreased cotton prices, the lack of immigrant workers in the North, increased manufacturing as a result of the war, and the strengthening of the Ku Klux Klan The African American population in such cities as Detroit, Chicago, and New York grew during this period The migration led to higher wages, more educational opportunities, ad better standards of life for many African Americans

Federal Reserve Act of 1913

1913 Created the Federal Reserve Bank Response to the Panic of 1907 and to the concerns of business There was a need for a stable currency supply that could grow and shrink with business demands Several measures competed for designing this central reserve, each offering control to a different group President Wilson worked diligently to create and secure passage of the Act It divided the nation into separate regions with federal reserve banks in each that would serve as "banker's banks" The Federal Reserve Board oversaw the system and regulated it by raising or lowering the interest rates that each federal reserve bank would charge

Watchful Waiting

1913-1914 Policy by Woodrow Wilson of rejecting alliances with leaders who took control through force until a determination of their interests could be made Wilson implemented this policy by refusing to accept the leadership of Victoriano Huerta when he took control of Mexico through violent revolution Policy ended when the US sent forces to retaliate against Mexico, which had arrested American sailors in its borders

Woodrow Wilson

1913-1921 Twenty-eighth President Before his presidency and political work, he served as an academic and President of Princeton University His legislation lowered tariffs, created a graduated federal income tax, and established the Federal Trade Commission to control unfair business practices He initiated progressive reform that prohibited child labor and limited railroad workers to am eight hour day He led the US into WWI His 14 Points outlines the settlement WWI He was a noted racist who segregated the federal gov't and praised Birth of a Nation, a controversial movie negatively depicting African Americans

Rosa Parks

1913-2005 African American woman who refused to giver her bus seat to a white in Alabama (1955) This was an organized event with Dr. Martin Luther King Jr based off of an actual event with a young single mother, but King decided they couldn't use that girl as a hero so they had Parks reenact the incident and get arrested Dr. King organized a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, leading to desegregation in the US and strengthening support for the civil rights movement

World War I Causes and Major Players

1914 Cause: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary by a Serbian nationalist Cause: Growing nationalism in Austria-Hungary and France Cause: Colonial expansion in Africa and China Cause: Military buildup Major Players for the Allies (Triple Entente): Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Belgium, Japan, and US Major Players for the Central Powers (Triple Alliance): Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria

Clayton Antitrust Act

1914 Further outlined regulations against monopolies and other unfair business practices Meant as update to the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 Price discrimination that was destructive to competition was declared illegal Declared interlocking board of directors of direct competitors illegal Established Federal Trade Commission to investigate and prosecute instances of unfair competition Served as the grounds for many suits against big corporations Exempted labor unions engaged in legal activities

Lusitania and Neutrality

1915 At the outset of WWI, Germany began the use of submarines and announced a blockade of the Allied forces The Lusitania was a British passenger liner attacked by German submarines While unarmed, the Lusitania did carry munitions for the Allies US citizens traveling aboard the Lusitania were killed Wilson protested but remained neutral, in line with the 1914 Proclamation of Neutrality One other liner with Americans, the Sussex, was sunk, and then the Germans gave a pledge to stop attacks on unarmed vessels

Labor Acts, 1915-1916

1915-1916 La Follette Seamen's Act 1915: Required safety and sanitation measures for commercial ships and regulated wages, food, and hours of sailors Adamson Act 1916: Employees of railroads who were engaged in interstate commerce were given an eight hour work day and overtime pay of time-and-a-half Keating-Own Child Labor Act 1916: Forbade shipment of products that had involved child labor in their manufacture; in Hammer v Dagenhart 1918, the Supreme Court declared it unconstitutional because Congress had interfered with the power of states

Louis Brandeis

1916 Nomination Nominated by Woodrow Wilson to the Supreme Court Considered an advocate of social justice First Jewish Judge Prior to his place on the Supreme Court, he was known for his "Brandeis Brief" in Muller v Oregon

Committee on Public Information

1917 Formed by President Wilson Established voluntary censorship of the press and created a propaganda campaign for the country's support of WWI Portrayed Germans as barbaric and urged all citizens to spy on neighbors with foreign names Encouraged reporting of suspicious activities to the Justice Department Provided speeches to volunteers, The Four Minute Men, who gave talks on the American war effort during the changing of reels in movie theaters across the US Headed by George Creel Fostered "100% American" jingoism

Unlimited Submarine Warfare

1917 Proclamation by Germany that it would sink all ships, without warning, that entered a large war zone off the coasts of Allied Nations Germany realized that it might draw the US into WWI Germany believed that cutting Allied supplies would allow Germany to win the war before a sizable response by America America broke diplomatic relations with Germany

Zimmerman Telegram

1917 Telegram from German Foreign Secretary Zimmerman to German minister in Mexico that was intercepted by the British Proposed that Mexico attack the US in the event that America entered WWI Germany would return lost territories of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona to Mexico in victory Telegram was released publicly and ensured American support for war against Germany

American Protective League

1917 Volunteer organization that claimed approval of the Justice Department for pressuring support of war Humiliated those accused of not buying war bonds Persecuted those of German descent Encouraged the banning of German culture in everything from product names to consumption, including "pretzels" and "German Measles"

Reasons for the US Entry into WWI

1917 Zimmerman telegram showed that Germany was untrustworthy and would come after the US Armed neutrality could not protect shipping Germany had broken the Sussex Pledge, which protected certain ships from German warfare After Russia's revolution, the democratic Russian gov't made it an acceptable ally to the US America could hasten end of the war and ensure a role in designing peace Sinking of the Lusitania and other ships by German submarines angered the US US was already backing Allies with supplies In his war message, Wilson said that, "the world must be made safe for democracy"

Espionage and Sedition Acts

1917 and 1918 Fines and imprisonment for persons who made false statements that aided the enemy, hindered the draft, or incited military rebellion Forbade criticism of the gov't, flag, or uniform Led to imprisonment of major figures The Supreme Court upheld the acts, allowing the gov't to limit free speech when words represented clear and present danger, especially in times of war

Women and Minorities in WWI

1917-1919 Women served as clerks or in medical units 400,000 African American men were drafted or enlisted African Americans were kept in segregated units and generally used in labor battalions or in support activities, though some units saw combat

Fourteen Points

1918 Specific peace plan presented by Wilson in an address to Congress Called for open (rather than secret) peace treaties Promoted free trade, transportation along the seas, and arms reduction Recommended a general association of nations to preserve the peace Reactions in Europe were mixed as some countries wanted to punish Germany, and they found the terms in Fourteen Points too accommodating American citizens were also mixed in their support because they feared future international entanglement In the end, the Treaty of Versailles went against many of the Fourteen Points Growing isolationist sentiment, which was reflected in America's reaction to the Fourteen Points, would later slow the Us decision to enter WWII

United States Home Front During WWI

1918 Wilson controlled raw materials, production, prices, and labor relations to ensure supplies for war He appointed Herbert Hoover as head of food administration Wilson oversaw the use of fuel, railroads, and maritime shipping He resolved labor disputes through offers of employee benefits

US v Schenck

1919 During WWI, Charles Schenk created a pamphlet opposing the military draft, he was convicted of attempting to obstruct the military under the Espionage Act The Supreme Court determined that speech may be suppressed if it creates a clear and present danger (one cannot yell "fire" in a crowded theater) In the following years, the "clear and present danger" test was limited to violent actions rather than the support of these ideas

Wilson's Treaty and Henry Cabot Lodge

1919 Republican Senator Lodge led opposition against Paris Peace Treaty because of war entanglement with other members (Article X) On national speaking tour to push for League of Nations, Wilson collapsed after a speech Wilson returned to DC and suffered a severe stroke The president never fully recovered, but he wrote to Democrats to oppose treaty changes by Lodge By not compromising, the treaty was defeated and the US did not join the League, a joint resolution enacted peace instead

Warren G Harding

1921-1923 Twenty ninth President Nominated by the Republican Party as a dark horse candidate Represented opposition to the League of Nations, low taxes, high tariffs, immigration restriction, and aid to farmers Was pro civil rights for all Americans Promised return to normalcy Pardoned Eugene v Debs Gave US steel workers the eight-hour day Died suddenly during cross-country tour and was succeeding by Calvin Coolidge

Prohibition

1919 Temperance movements began to grow in the early 1800s Carry Nation, a member of the Women's Christian Temperance Union, used rocks, hammers, and hatchets to destroy liquor stores and saloons 18th Amendment to Constitution prohibited manufacture, sale, transport, or import of liquor Volstead Act defined alcoholic beverages and imposed criminal penalties for violations of the 18th Amendment Prohibition led to bootlegging , corruption of gov't officials, and speakeasies Al Capone was one of the most famous bootlegging gangsters In 1933, the 21st Amendment, which repeals Prohibition, was ratified

Red Scare and the Palmer Raids

1919 US worker strikes seemed to be harbingers of revolution to many in the country Fear of revolution was fed by anti-German hysteria and the success of the Bolshevik Revolution Bombs sent anonymously through the mail to prominent American leaders encouraged fear Attorney General Palmer was a target of a failed mail bomb Four thousand were arrested as "Communists" and illegal aliens, but only 556 actually were Palmer announced threat of large Communist riots on May Day of 1920, but none materialized Palmer was discredited and the Red Scare passed

Major Strikes After WWI

1919-1920s A Boston police force attempted to unionize, and Governor Calvin Coolidge fired them to recruit a new force Seattle had a general strike in 1919 The AFL attempted to organize steel industry, but the strike was broken after violence and the use of federal troops United Mine Workers struck and gained minor wage increases

Results of WWI

1919-1920s American emerged as the political and economic leader of the world In US, European demand for its goods led to inflation; this strengthened American economy but increased prices Workers in America led several major strikes because of these increased prices European states went into decline following WWI Germany was devastated by the conflict

Jackie Robinson

1919-1972 Baseball player who became a symbol of civil rights when he broke the Major League's color barrier in 1947 Recruited from the Kansas City Monarchs, a team in the Negro Leagues, to play with the Brooklyn Dodgers

Women's Suffrage

1920 The 19th Amendment provided for women's suffrage, which had been defeated earlier by the Senate It was ratified by states in 1920 Feminists who supported suffrage beginning in the 1860s included Susan B Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Carrie Chapman Catt

Sacco and Vanzetti

1920 Two gunmen robbed a factory and killed two men in Massachusetts Sacco and Vanzetti, Italian immigrants and anarchists, were tried for the murders Judge Thayer favored prosecution and pushed for execution Despite years of protesting that they had not received a fair trial, the men were executed in 1927, reflection anti-immigrant sentiments in the US

Rise in the Standard of Living During the 1920s

1920s Advances like indoor plumbing, hot water, central heating, home appliances, and fresher foods emerged Many did not have the money to benefit from the advances Credit became available to allow payment in installments Sales grew out of advertising through new media, such as radio

Shift in the Popular Culture 1920s

1920s Change from entertainment through home and small social groups to commercial, profit-making activities Movies attracted audiences, and Hollywood became the movie center of America Professional athletics grew in participation and popularity, especially baseball, boxing, and football Tabloids and magazines increased in popularity, including the New York Daily News and Readers Digest

Industrial Changes in 1920s and Effects

1920s Change from steam to electric power allowed more intricate designs, replacing human laborers Scientific management strategies were employed, leading to the more efficient use of workers Major research and development projects reduced production costs and products Expanding industries included automobile, electricity, chemicals, film, radio, commercial aviation, and printing This led to overproduction by the late 1920s

Marcus Garvey

1920s Native of Jamaica Advocated African American racial pride and separatism rather than integration Pushed for a return to Africa Developed a following and sold stock in a steamship line to take migrants to Africa Convicted of fraud after the line went bankrupt

Automobile: Economic and Social Effects

1920s Stimulated steel, rubber, glass, gasoline, and highway construction industries Created a nation of paved roads The new need for paved roads led to employment for many Helped increase freedom for young people while lessening parental control Tourism grew and rural areas became less isolated

Harlem Renaissance

1920s Term used to describe the growth of African American literature and arts The center of this movement was Harlem NY where many African Americans moved during the early 1900s Southern African Americans brought jazz to Harlem and influenced the music scene while, at the same time, writing, sculpting, and photography grew as art forms Writers from the period included Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and Claude McKay Musicians from this time included Duke Ellington, Bessie Smith, and Louis Armstrong The Great Depression led to its decline

Reconstruction Finance Corporation

1920s-1930s Chartered by Congress and Hoover to loan money to railroads and financial institutions Meant to keep basic institutions in business Accused of assisting the wealthy

Foreign Economies and the Great Depression

1920s-1930s Within months of Hoovers election the stock market crashed, leading the nation into the Great Depression Decline in the American economy meant less money spent on loans and products from other countries Foreign powers were not able to pay debts back to the US American exports dropped and the Depression spread

Teapot Dome Scandal

1921 Bribery Scandal involving President Harding's Secretary of the Interior, Albert Fall Fall secured naval oil reserves in his jurisdiction He leased reserves to Teapot Dome, Wyoming, to two major business owners in exchange for cash payouts The businessmen were acquitted, but Fall was imprisoned for bribery, making him the first cabinet member to go to jail

Emergency Quota Act

1921 One of a series of acts by Congress that limited immigration Immigration was limited by nationality to three percent of the number of foreign born persons from that nation living in the United States in 1910 Designation restricted only certain nationalities and religious groups In effect, targeted Italians, Greeks, Poles, and Eastern Europeans Jews

Fordney-McCumber Tariff

1922 Increased tariff schedules Tariffs were raised on farm produce to equalize American and foreign production Gave the president the power to reduce or increase tariffs by fifty percent based on advice from the Tariff Commission Connected to American feelings toward isolationism

Dawes Plan

1924 Debt restructuring plan for Germany after WWI American banks made loans to Germany, Germany paid reparations to Allies, and Allies paid back the US gov't Cycle based on loans from American banks The plan would play a part in the development of the Great Depression

Creationism and the Scopes Trial

1925 Fundamentalist Protestants supported Creationsim as a way to prohibit the teaching of evolution in schools They hoped to protect belief in the literal understanding of the Bible John Scopes, a young biology teacher, broke the law by teaching Darwinism and served as a test case for the ACLU Darwinism was a concept of evolution created by Charles Robert Darwin and written about in Origin of the Species Clarence Darrow defended Scopes, and William Jennings Bryan defended the State of Tennessee Judge refused to allow expert witness testimony Scopes was convicted and fined $100, which was later dropped Some states passed anti-evolution laws

Calvin Coolidge

1925-1929 Thirtieth President Republican candidate who came to office first after Harding's death and then after a landslide victory Avoided responsibility for most of Harding's cabinet scandals Reputation for honesty Believed in leading through inactivity Stated, "The chief business of the American people is business"

Malcolm X

1925-1965 African American advocate and leader who moved away from Martin Luther King's non-violent methods of civil disobedience While in prison, he became a Black Muslim and later a minister in the Nation of Islam The leader of the Black Muslims, Elijah Muhammad, suspended Malcolm X when he made derogatory remarks about Kennedy's assassination Malcolm X formed a new organization, the Muslim Mosque After a pilgrimage to Mecca, he converted to Orthodox Islam and began publicly accepting the idea of cooperation between African Americans and whites He was assassinated in NYC during a speech; assailants were said to be with the Black Muslim group, but this has never been confirmed

Robert F Kennedy

1925-1968 Brother of President JFK Served as Attorney General under President Kennedy Elected as senator from NY in 1964 Pushed for desegregation and election regulation Presidential candidate in 1968 He was assassinated in California by Sirhan Sirhan in June 1968

Cesar Chavez

1927-1993 Migrant farmer who founded the National Farm Workers Association His goal was to defeat persecution throughout the migrant worker system Used strikes, picketing, and marches to help protect workers

Kellogg-Briand Pact

1928 Also known as the Pact of Paris Fifteen-nation pact agreed that all conflicts should be settled by peaceful means and that war was to be renounced The US Congress demanded a right of self-defense and that America should not have to act against countries that broke the treaty The pact lacked effectiveness as it failed to provide enforcement measures

"Hoovervilles"

1929-1930s Term used to describe makeshift shacks that housed groups of homeless people Used in open areas near cities during the Depression Named after Herbert Hoover to mock his presidency

Herbert Hoover

1929-1933 Thirty-first President Coolidge did not seek nomination in 1928, leaving Hoover to run against Alfred E. Smith, Governor of NY, a Catholic anti-prohibitionist He had become a multimillionaire in the mining industry Hoover had served as Secretary of Commerce and head of the Food Administration A conservative economic philosophy and continuation of Prohibition won the election for Hoover He used the phrase "rugged individualism" which called for people to succeed on their own with minimal help from the gov't Hoover became the scapegoat for the Depression and was soundly defeated by FDR in 1932

Martin Luther King Jr.

1929-1968 Civil rights leader and Chairman of Southern Christian Leadership Conference (CSCLC) Believed in non-violent civil disobedience, though he did believe that riots were the "language of the unheard" Key member of the 1963 March on Washington, a response to a civil rights bill by President Kennedy being stalled in Congress At the March on Washington, King delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech Opposed the war in Vietnam Assassinated by James Earl Ray in 1968

Hawley-Smoot Tariff

1930 Brought tariff to the highest level in its history In retaliation, foreign countries set tariffs on American goods, creating a decline in exports and further deepening the economic depression This was another expression of isolationism

Charles Evans Hughes

1930-1941 Eleventh Chief Justice of the Supreme Court Had also served as Associate Justice of the Supreme Court (1910-1916) and US Secretary of State (1921-1925) As Chief Justice, he often voted to uphold FDR's New Deal legislation, although he wrote the opinion in Schechter v US 1935 finding the NRA unconstitutional

Father Charles E Coughlin

1930s A Catholic priest who headed the National Union for Social Justice, which denounced FDR's New Deal policies Held a weekly radio show and discussed politics and finance Proposed to his many listeners an ambiguous currency program, but found popularity most through anti-Semitic rhetoric

Dust Bowl

1930s Areas of American prairies states that experienced ecological damage due to huge clouds of soil Mismanagement of grazing land and severe winds swept unprotected soil into dust storms Led to both economic and health hardships for many

FDR's Good Neighbor Policy

1930s Foreign policy doctrine adopted by FDR for the US Withdrew marines from Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and other areas America stayed out of the Cuban revolution American settled with Mexico on American properties in that country

Hitler and Germany's Actions Leading to WWII

1930s Hitler's rise to power in 1933 led to the persecution of German Jews Germany and Austria became unified Germany and Britain signed the Munich Pact, authorizing Germany to force the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia Germany took over the rest of Czechoslovakia The Nazi's systemically eliminated the civil and human rights of Jews and other "undesirables" under their control Germany signed a non-aggression pact with Russia, agreeing to divide Poland The Nazis built death camps to attain "the final solution of the Jewish question," resulting in the murder of 6 million Jews and more than 5 million others Germany invaded Poland Britain and France declared war

The Bonus Army

1932 A group of 14,000 unemployed veterans of WWI who marched on Washington They sought their bonus' from their time in WWI early Hoover had the Senate kill a bill that would have provided additional payment for the veterans, and half of the veterans took the gov't offer of transportation back home The remaining veterans took shelter in shacks near the Anacostia River to draw attention to their cause Hoover called in the Army and had the remainder of the vets removed from Washington The event caused the impression that Hoover did not care about the plight of the poor

Hoover-Stimson Doctrine

1932 Henry L Stimson, secretary of state under Hoover, sent identical notes to China and Japan, which became known as the Hoover-Stimson Doctine The notes were a reaction to Japan's movement into Manchuria They states that the US would not recognize any treaty or agreement that would limit China's territory, encroach on US rights in China, upset the political situation in China, or hinder the Open Door Policy

Banking Failures

1933 Banks were unable to collect on loans because of the Great Depression Banks could not return money to depositors, leading to bank closures On March 5, 1933, FDR reacted by closing all banks and instituting the Emergency Banking Act, which gave him the power to reorganize insolvent national banks

First New Deal Programs

1933 Civilian Conservation Corp (CCC) 1933: Provided work for young men through projects such as road construction and flood control National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) 1933: Created National Recovery Administration, which prepared codes for fair competition Public Works Administration (PWA) 1933: Constructed roads, schools, dams, bridges, and other projects to aid the economy through increasing jobs Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) 1933: Encouraged farmers to decrease their production, thereby increasing their profits

Muscle Shoals and the Tennessee Valley Authority

1933 Muscle Shoals was the location of a dam and two nitrate plants built by the gov't during WWI President Coolidge vetoed the Senate's plan to lease the property to the private sector The facility became the center of the Tennessee Valley Authority in 1933, giving FDR a chance to do his first large-scale experiment with regional planning TVA built a series of dams to provide electricity and flood control Dams gave economic and environmental boosts to an area in need of rehabilitation

National Industrial Recovery Act

1933 The National Industrial Recovery Act, or NIRA, was passed on the last of the "Hundred Days" as the pillar of Roosevelt's assistance program Goal of NIRA was to help businesses self-regulate and to aid in employment Section 7a protected union's right to collective bargaining NIRA created the National Recovery Administration NRA which oversaw the creation of fair competition codes NRA codes abolished child labor, created minimus wages, and capped hours for workers In Schechter v United States 1935, the Supreme Court overturned NIRA, holding that it granted the prez too much leeway and that these powers should be in the hands of the states

First New Deal

1933-1934 First phase of FDR's domestic reform program Aimed to provide recovery and relief through public works, business and agricultural regulation, and stabilizing prices Agencies such as the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Civilian Conservation Corps, and National Recovery Administration were founded Economy improved to a degree as unemployment decreased Criticized by conservatives for going too far in the use of deficit spending and for spending on relief Attacked by liberals for being in favor of business

FDR's Banking Acts, the Gold Standard, and the SEC

1933-1934 The Emergency Banking Relief Act was the first act of FDR's Hundred Days; it provided funds to open some banks and it combined and liquidated others The Glass-Steagall Banking Act insured deposits in commercial banks, created the FDIC, and separated commercial and investment banking to reduce risk FDR removed gold from circulation; resulting devaluation of the dollor helped raise prices and assisted US exports The Securities and Exchange Commission was created as a watchdog for the stock exchange and securites

Fireside Chats

1933-1945 FDR method of addressing the nation through radio Created assurance among the public in the strength of the banks he was opening Led to people depositing money again

Franklin Delano Roosevelt

1933-1945 Thirty-second President With the slogan "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself" he encouraged new hope for emerging from the Great Depression At age 39, he contracted polio and lost partial use of his legs Led Congress through the "Hundred Days" Focused on economic and agricultural recovery and support for the unemployed and elderly Attempted to enlarge the Supreme Court and put in place justices that would support his legislation, but he failed Mobilized the US for entry into WWII

Share Our Wealth Society

1934 Group founded by Louisiana Senator Huey "Kingfish" Long Long, a populist, criticized FDR for not doing more to help those on the lower end of the scale Proposed a radical taxation plan on the wealthy to make "every man a king" When Long was assassinated the society lost its drive

Bureau of Indian Affairs

1934 Led by commissioner John Collier Returned ownership of certain lands to tribes, established tribal gov'ts and provided economic relief Created a program of work projects for reservations

Indian Reorganization Act

1934 Reversed the Dawes Severalty Act Attempted to restore the tribal basis of NA life Tribal life was to be recognized as normal

Ralph Nader

1934-Present Political activist and advocate for consumers His book Unsafe At Any Speed (1965) shed light on poor safety standards for automobiles, leading Congress to pass auto safety measures Unsuccessfully ran as a third-party candidate for the US presidency in 1996, 2000, and 2004

Isolationism and the Neutrality Acts of 1935

1935 America became isolationist after WWI, mainly because its citizens had felt the harsh effects of the conflict Isolationist acts include the rejection of the Treaty of Versailles and the imposition of higher tariffs Neutrality Acts: In the event of war American exports of military components were to be stalled for 6 months, which would stop ships that were leaving the US from transporting arms to combatants

Harry S Truman

1945-1953 Thirty-third President Became president in 1945 after FDR died Decided to drop atomic bombs on Japan Banned racial discrimination in federal hiring and armed forces Truman Doctrine instituted the policy of "containment" against Communism Re-elected against Thomas Dewey in 1948

Second New Deal Programs

1935 Works Progress Administration (WPA): provided jobs and income for unemployed; projects were in construction and community development and were labor-intensive to cut equipment costs Wagner Act/National Labor Relations Act: clarified the rights of workers and created a board of oversight for relations between management and labor; workers were permitted to bargain collectively Social Security Act: created to protect older workers; funds came from taxes on money earned by employees and paid equally by the employer, and this money supported unemployment programs and offered states matching funds for social services

Second New Deal

1935-1941 Like the First New Deal, it offered sweeping economic changes to aid in relief and recovery While the First New Deal emphasized central planning, the Second New Deal pushed programs to aid particular groups, such as labor organizations The US tax structure was finessed through various revenue acts Some New Deal acts were declared unconstitutional in 1935

FDR's Court Packing Scheme

1937 Bill proposed by Roosevelt allowing the president to appoint a new federal judge for those who did not retire by a certain age Offered by Roosevelt after he received overwhelming support from the voting public Served as Roosevelt's reaction to the Supreme Court, which had declared much of the New Deal unconstitutional Huge reaction by both Democrats and Republicans against this show of power Roosevelt lost the bill and some influence over Congress Later FDR proposals, like Social Security, were upheld by the Supreme Court

Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)

1938 Association of laborers from industries including steel and auto Organized in reaction to the AFL, which represented primarily craft unions Headed by John L Lewis Originally a committee within the AFL 1935 before becoming independent in 1938 United with AFL in 1955

Fair Labor Standards Act

1938 Minimum wage law Established a rising minimum wage and reduction of the work week Provided time-and-a-half for work over that period of time

FDR Election to a Third Term

1940 Broke the precedent set by Washington Agreed to accept the nomination When faced by his opponent with charges of warmongering, told voters that he would not enter the war Lost many supporters because of his choice to run again, but he won by a narrow margin over Wendell Willkie

Economic Measures Against Japan

1940-1941 Japan used the Vichy gov't to expand into French Indochina Japan wanted to build bases in the area America responded by holding Japanese funds and creating embargos Led to failed negotiations between the US and Japan over Japan's presence in China

American Women During WWII

1940s 216,000 women served in the armed forces in non-combat duties WAACS (Army), WAVES (Navy), and SPARS (Coast Guard) were forces made up of women Women also served as defense plant workers The women who worked in the manufacturing plants during WWII were symbolized by the icon "Rosie the Riveter" a feminist image that represented the growth of women's economic power

Growth of the Suburbs

1940s-1950s After WWII, people began to move away from cities, leading to suburban growth Causes of this migration included the mass production of automobiles, the growth of the road system, gov't policies, including the Federal Housing Administration (FHA), and better living conditions As African Americans began to move to northern cities, whites began to move to the suburbs ("white flight") Suburban developments included Levittown, a planned community which offered inexpensive houses built by Levitt & Sons

Braceros

1942 An agreement between the US and Mexico brought thousands of Mexican agricultural workers, or braceros, to the US Braceros were prevalent in the South and the West They became part of the American agricultural economy after WWII

Battles of the Coral Sea and Midway

1942 Battle of the Coral Sea (May 1942): American carriers sent planes against the Japanese troops, forcing them to turn back from an invasion of Australia Battle of Midway (June 1942): American planes destroyed Japanese carriers as they moved toward the American-owned Midway Islands, becoming a defining movement in the Pacific front

Japanese Internment Camps

1942 FDR authorized the evacuation of all Japanese from the West Coast into relocation centers The gov't interned around 120,000 Japanese-Americans, two-thirds of them native-born US citizens The move came with public fear of Japanese sabotage following Pearl Harbor and was in some part due to racial discrimination (Did they lock away German citizens? No, because Germans are white) In 1988, Congress voted to pay compensation to each surviving internee

US Domestic Measures of WWII

1942-1943 War Production Board regulated raw materials Prices and wages were frozen Income tax was extended to more people The United States sold Liberty Bonds The gov't had the power to take over businesses closed by strikes

Manhattan Project, Enola Gay, and Hiroshima/Nagasaki

1942-1945 Manhattan Project (1942-1945): described operations by Army engineers to design an atomic bomb; J. Robert Oppenheimer directed the group at Los Alamos, New Mexico Enola Gay (August 6, 1945): a plane that carried the atomic bomb into Hiroshima, Japan, killing 40,000 people immediately Nagaski (August 9, 1945): a second atomic bomb dropped here The decision to drop the bombs was controversial, as some argued that the Japanese were essentially beaten and were willing to surrender but that the US insisted on an unconditional surrender

Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act

1943 Congress was concerned about the loss of production due to labor strikes The Act authorized the federal gov't to seize and operate industries stopped by strikes

Korematsu v US

1944 Fred Korematsu was arrested and convicted after failing to comply with a military order to move to a Japanese relocation center The Supreme Court upheld his conviction based on war powers; the gov't need to protect against espionage outweighed Korematsu's rights Justice Frank Murphy, in his dissent, stated the decision was the "legalization of racism"

GI Bill

1944 Signed by FDR and passed to give educational benefits to those who had served in the Armed Forces during WWII Bill was created to help members of the Armed Forces adjust to civilian life, afford a higher education, buy a house, and restore lost educational opportunities The GI Bill also promoted volunteerism for the Armed Forces and led to a better educated population

Taft-Hartley Act

1947 Purpose was to reduce management-labor disputes and to reduce unfair labor practices Passed over Truman's veto Required sixty-day notice be given by employers to terminate a contract Federal gov't could take legal action to delay for eighty days any strike that threatened the public's health or safety Provided a cooling-off period for unions and management Act slowed unionization throughout the country, especially in the South Part of the anti-Communist crusade

Fair Deal

1948 Proposal by Truman to extend the New Deal for the new era Increased the minimum wage to $0.75/hour Social Security was enlarged to cover more people Called for low cost housing projects and slum cleanup

Soviet Spies in the US

1949&1950 Alger Hiss: Former State Department official who was convicted of supplying info to the Soviets Alger Hiss: Implicated by Whittaker Chambers during testimony the House Committee on Un-American Activities Alger Hiss: Richard Nixon gained national exposure during his investigation into Hiss Julius and Ethel Rosenberg: First people in America to be executed for espionage; said to have given atomic info to the Soviets Julius and Ethel Rosenberg: Some argued that the Rosenbergs could not receive a fair trial because of the political sentiment of the time

Korean War

1950-1953 Korea was taken from Japan at the end of WWII and divided at the thirty-eighth parallel; the northern half was controlled by the Soviet Union and the southern half was occupied by the US North Korea invaded South Korea and the UN sent in troops General MacArthur led forces and pushed the North Koreans back across the thirty-eighth parallel China, recently Communist, sent in troops to fight the UN in Korea Truman disagreed with both MacArthur's desire to start an all-out war against China and with his foreign policy statements; Truman removed him from command Cease-fire was called and armistice was signed in July 1953

Beat Generation

1950s Group of artists and writers who rejected traditional artistic and social forms Influences included psychedelic drugs and Eastern beliefs, such as Zen Buddhism Members rejected regular work and preferred communal living Many members were located around San Francisco Writers of the generation included Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, and Lawrence Ferlinghetti

Rock and Roll

1950s Music genre that originated in the US Combined rhythm and blues, gospel, jazz, and country-and-western music Alan Freed, a Cleveland disc jockey, coined the phrase "rock n roll" and produced the first rock and roll concert Early artists included Elvis Presley, The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, Chuck Berry, and Buddy Holly

Civil Rights Organizations

1950s-1960s Congress of Racial Equality (CORE): Founded by James Farmer in Chicago and advocated non-violence CORE: Sponsored the 1961 Freedom Rides in the South, breaking segregation rules on buses and eventually changing said rules Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC): Founded in 1961 to support sit ins Stokely Carmichael, a leader of SNCC and the Black Panther Party, called for "Black Power," which urged independence and solidarity among African Americans; he worked separately from civil rights organizations Carmichael: "The position of women in the movement is prone" ^Huge sexist

Civil Rights Movement Incidents

1950s-1960s Emmett Till, a teenage African American, was killed b two white men after supposedly whistling at one of their wives; the two men were acquitted In 1960, four African American students in Greensboro, North Carolina, sat at the Woolworth's "Whites Only" lunch counter and refused to leave until they were served, sparking sit ins throughout the South An explosion at the Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama killed four black girls 1963 During a voter registration drive in Mississippi, two white college students and a local African American were murdered; civil rights legislation was enacted as a result In 1965, a group marched from Selma, Alabama, to Birmingham, Alabama, for voting rights; the 1965 Voting Rights Act was signed soon thereafter

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

1950s-1960s Formed in 1910 by a group of whites and African Americans, including WEB DuBois, to stop racial discrimination Supported sit-ins as a form of protest against segregation as well as other methods of non-violent protest Disapproved of the more radical groups such as SNCC and the Black Panthers Because of its mission, methods, and organization, the NAACP remains a force in social issues and political affairs

Television

1950s-1960s Invented in the 1930s FDR was the first president to appear on TV; he gave a speech in 1939 at the New York World's Fair, where television was being officially introduced to the mass public Seminal shows during the 1950s and 1960s included The Honeymooners, I Love Lucy, and The Ed Sullivan Show By 1960, over 40 million homes had televisions

Domino Theory

1950s-1980s Guiding principle of US foreign policy during the Cold War era Stated publicly by President Eisenhower in 1954 Belief that if one area was overtaken by communism, nearby nations would follow Used as a motivation for the US intervention in foreign affairs and conflicts throughout the world

Dwight Eisenhower

1953-1961 Thirty-fourth President Became Allied military commander during WWII and led forces in North Africa, Italy, and England Became Republican president after defeating Adlai Stevenson Signed the truce in 1953 to end Korean War Completed integration of military forces Sent troops into Little Rock, Arkansas, to ensure desegregation Gave momentum to the desegregation movement Warned the US about the "military-industrial complex" which refers to the relationship between the gov't, the military, and the defense industry

The Warren Court

1953-1969 Reference to Supreme Court of the US when Earl Warren was Chief Justice Court expanded civil rights, civil liberties, and federal power Brown v Board of Education 1954 found laws establishing segregation in public schools unconstitutional, which helped open the path to integration in other parts of American society Engel v Vitale 1962 found it unconstitutional for public schools to have an official prayer Gideon v Wainwright 1963 provided criminal defendants with counsel even if they couldn't afford it Griswold v Connecticut 1965 established a general right to privacy

Brown v Board of Education of Topeka

1954 Supreme Court case that challenged "separate but equal" ruling established in Plessy v Ferguson The Court led by Chief Justice Earl Warren, held that separate was inherently unequal and instructed states to integrate Massive Southern resistance slowed the advance of integration Federal troops were used to help nine black students attend an all-white school in Little Rock, despite mobs and the Arkansas National Guard

Geneva Accords

1954 The foreign ministers of 19 nations, including the US, decided to divide Vietnam at 17 north latitude The North would be Nationalist led by Ho Chi Minh, while the South would be a Western -influenced republic Provided for free elections within two years to reunite the two Vietnams

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)

1954-1977 Created to oppose the spread of Communism in Southeast Asia after France's withdrawal from Indochina Original members included the US, Britain, France, Pakistan, Thailand, and the Philippines The Organization was meant to justify and American presence in Vietnam, though some members did not support America in this effort Dismantled in 1977

Suez Canal Crisis

1956 International waterway through the Isthmus of Suez Egypt had been receiving aid from the Soviets, leading Eisenhower to promise money to Egypt to curtail the Soviets Eventually, Eisenhower took back his offer and Egypt attempted to nationalize the Canal Britain, France, and Israel invaded to gain control of the Canal Fearing escalation, Eisenhower forced France, Britain, and Israel to withdraw

Interstate Highway Act (Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956)

1956 Under the Act, the interstate highway system was expanded to 41,000 miles Signed by President Eisenhower Federal gov't was to pay 90% of the cost of the expansion $25 billion was authorized from 1957 to 1969; $114 billion was eventually expended over 35 years Besides allowing motorists to travel easily throughout the country, the expanded highway system also allowed for troop movement and evacuation routes

Little Rock Crisis

1957 Brown v Board of Education 1954 called for desegregation of schools In 1957 the NAACP registered nine African American students to attend the previously all-white Little Rock Central High Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus used the Arkansas National Guard to try and block the students from entering school on September 4, 1957 President Eisenhower intervened with federal troops, and the students attended their first day on September 25, 1957

Eisenhower Doctrine

1957 Created as a partial reaction to the Suez Canal crisis The doctrine committed forces and economic aid to the Middle East to stop Communist threats Some nations, including Egypt and Syria, denounced the doctrine

Civil Rights Act of 1957

1957 First civil rights act since Reconstruction Stimulated by Brown v Board of Education of Topeka and civil rights activism Created a panel to ensure that voting rights of African Americans were not violated

Fidel Castro

1959 Communist-friendly leader of Cuba Took power in Cuba after overthrowing Fulgencio Batista in 1959 Signed agreements with Soviets for trade The US broke diplomatic and trade relations with Cuba

Election of 1960

1960 Richard Nixon, Eisenhower's former vice president, was nominated by the Republicans Senator John F. Kennedy was nominated by Democrats Kennedy's Catholicism was a campaign issue because of fears that Catholic leaders would influence him The four presidential debates were televised and watched by approximately 75 million Americans Nixon's negative appearance on television affected voters' perception of him and aided Kennedy in the election

U-2 Spy Plane

1960 Soviets shot down a US U-2 reconnaissance plane in Soviet airspace Eisenhower admitted to spying on the Soviets The pilot, Francis Gay Powers, survived and served eighteen months in a Soviet jail

Counterculture Movement

1960s Began at Berkeley with free speech movement Beliefs included women's liberation, anti-materialism, and opposition to the war in Vietnam Experimented with drugs and sex Young people who favored the counterculture were called "hippies" The Woodstock Music and Art Festival in NY (1969) marked the culmination of the counterculture movement

Women's Liberation Movement

1960s Spurred by increasing employment opportunities and increasing numbers of educated women The Movement questioned "traditional" definitions of women's roles There became increased opportunities for women in work, education, and business Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination by employers on the basis of gender National Organization for Women (NOW) was founded in 1966 to create equality between the sexes

Henry Kissinger

1960s-1970s National Security Adviser and Secretary of State under Nixon Pursued relations with China Played significant role in SALT Negotiated talks after Six-Day War between Arab countries and Israel

Rise of the New Right

1960s-1980s Barry Goldwater, a US Senator and Republican presidential nominee in 1964, sparked the resurgence of the conservative movement Ronald Reagan, California governor and US president, was known for his conservative policies, including "Reaganomics" and standing firm against the Soviet Union, which he dubbed "The Evil Empire" Moral Majority movement was led by evangelical Christians, including Jerry Falwell, and focused on a conservative agenda and "traditional" values Abortion became an important topic during this time; fundamentalist Protestants and Catholics joined forces

Alliance for Progress

1961 The Alliance was a "Marshall Plan" for Latin America Its purpose was to provide economic aid to help the region resist Communism The results of the Alliance were disappointing to those who supported it

John F Kennedy

1961-1963 Thirty-fifth President Democrat and first Catholic president Basically was the person who made being Catholic "cool" Domestic program (New Frontier) included tax reforms, educational aid, and emphasis on the space program Raised minimum wage Approved the Bay of Pigs invasion Established the Peace Corps in 1961 as an agency to send American volunteers to developing countries Successfully led America through the Cuban Missile Crisis He was assassinated in Dallas on November 22, 1963, by Lee Harvey Oswald

Engel v Vitale

1962 Supreme Court held that a prayer created by the New York State Board of Regents was unconstitutional Even though this payer was "non-denominational", the Court held that state-sponsored prayer of any type went against the First Amendment's establishment of religion clause

Baker v Carr

1962 Tennessee had failed to reapportion its state legislature for 60 years despite growth and population movement Charles Baker, a Tennessee voter, brought suit against the state, arguing a violation of the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment Baker claimed that his vote had been diluted The Supreme Court held that political question would be heard, opening the way for numerous voting suits

Betty Friedan

1963 Author and activist Published The Feminine Mystique in 1963, which attacked the belief that a woman's sole satisfaction comes through homemaking Friedan was one of the founders of the National Organization of Women (NOW), which helped advance women's rights and causes

Gideon v Wainwright, Escobedo v Illinois, and Miranda v Arizona

1963, 1964, and 1966 respectively Gideon: The Supreme Court held that all persons charged with a felony (later expanded to other charged) must be provided legal counsel Escobedo: The Supreme Court founded that the police must honor a person's request to have an attorney present during interrogation Miranda: The Supreme Court determined that an arrested person had the right to remain silent, the right to be told that whatever he said could be used against him, the right to be represented by an attorney, the right to have a lawyer even if he could not afford one, and the right to one phone call to obtain a lawyer

Lyndon B Johnson

1963-1969 Thirty-sixth President Became president after JFK's assassination Previously served as a Democratic senator from Texas, where he was both the whip and floor leader Promoted Kennedy's agenda through Congress, including a tax cut and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 Elected in 1964 Called for war against poverty and promoted social and economic welfare legislation (his Great Society program)

Heart of Atlanta Motel v US

1964 A motel operator refused to serve an African American customer The Supreme Court upheld the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which outlawed discrimination in schools, places of work, voting sites, public accommodations, and public areas

Civil Rights Act of 1964

1964 Passed by LBJ, who followed Kennedy's political agenda The March on Washington in 1963 aided passage of the Act The Act strengthened voting rights protection Prohibited discrimination in places of public accommodations (including stores, restaurants, and hotels) Required the federal gov't to withdraw support from any state or program that discrimination Established the Equal Employment Commission to oversee hiring practices

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

1964 The North Vietnamese supposedly fired on American ships in the Gulf of Tonkin Congress passed a resolution allowing President Johnson to use military action in Vietnam Johnson retaliated against the Viet Cong with bombing attacks in the North followed by ground troops

Voting Rights Act of 1965

1965 Signed into law by LBJ Resulted after demonstrations against the measures used to prevent African Americans from voting; these measures included violence Voters could no longer be forced to take literacy tests Provided federal registration of African American voters in areas that had less than 50% of eligible voters registered

Black Panthers

1966 Founded in 1966 by Huey P Newton and Bobby Seale in California Initially focused on the protection of African American neighborhoods from police brutality, but its goals changed over the years Provided a variety of social programs within the African American community, such as a free lunches for children Its political objectives were often hindered by the confrontational and sometimes violent means A split in party ideology over how to achieve these objectives led to its decline

American Indian Movement

1968 Supported Native American civil rights and recognition of past treaties within the US Militants associated with the organization staged an occupation of the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, arguing that treaties had been ignored

Richard M Nixon

1969-1974 Thirty-seventh President Prior to becoming president in 1969, Nixon served as US representative, senator, and VP Nixon oversaw "Vietnamization" which called for the training of South Vietnamese troops to assume responsibility for military actions He began to remove US troops in phases from South Vietnam Ended the draft Opened China for trade Reduced tension with USSR with the SALT agreements Resigned following Watergate scandal, becoming the first president to do so Credited with aiding detente, the easing of strained relations between the US and the USSR

Kent State

1970 Site of a university protest against the Vietnam War and the Cambodian conflict The Ohio National Guard killed four students during the event and wounded many others Led to other uprising on college campuses, including Jackson State, where two students were killed

Furman v Georgia

1972 Supreme Court ruled that the death penalty was unconstitutional unless fairly applied Subsequent Supreme Court decisions have allowed the death penalty in certain circumstances

SALT I & II

1972 (I) & 1979 (II) Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty SALT I: Agreement signed by US and the Soviets to stop building nuclear ballistic missiles for five years SALT II: Signed by Carter and Brezhnev; it reduced and limited number of missile launchers and bombers These treaties helped to reduce tension between in US and USSR

Saturday Night Massacre

1973 Followed Nixon's refusal to give his tapes to Archibald Cox, the gov'ts special prosecutor Nixon ordered Attorney General Elliot Richardson to fire Cox from this appointment Rather than fire Cox, Richardson quit Eventually, the tapes surfaced and Nixon resigned in August 1974

War Powers Act

1973 Required the President to report to Congress within forty-eight hours of committing US troops or substantially increasing troops in foreign conflicts Congressional approval was necessary for any military commitment of troops for more than ninety days The requirement was enacted by Congress over Nixon's veto

Roe v Wade

1973 Supreme Court decision that ruled first trimester abortions were permitted All state laws prohibiting such abortions were made unconstitutional The decision was based on a woman's right to privacy Led to criticism from Roman Catholics and right-to-life groups

Gerald Ford

1974-1977 Thirty eighth President Became vice president after Spiro Agnew resigned as a result of an investigation into financial irregularities Took office after Nixon's resignation Pardoned Nixon, though the former president had not been charged with anything His rise to power represented the first use of the Twenty-fifth Amendment which provided for action in case of a vice presidential vacancy

Jimmy Carter

1977-1981 Thirty-ninth President Defeated Gerald Ford for presidency Wanted to make a "responsible gov't" Reduced unemployment and eased the energy crisis Negotiated the Camp David Accords, in which Israel returned land in the Sinai Peninsula in exchange for Egyptian recognition of Israel's rights Iran's holding of American hostages, along with inflation, led to his loss to Ronald Reagan in 1980 Both during his tenure in office and since his loss to Reagan, Carter has worked for improvements in human rights, including tying foreign aid to their protection

Bakke v Regents of the University of California

1978 The Supreme Court upheld the university's use of race in its admissions decisions The Court also found that Bakke, a white, should have been admitted to the university's medical school This finding banned the use of racial quotas

Three Mile Island

1979 A nuclear power plant located south of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, overheated, causing part of its uranium core to melt The overheating was caused by human, design, and mechanical errors Radioactive water and gases were released Led to a slowdown in the construction of other reactors and changes in the Nuclear Regulatory Commission Americans became more aware of environmental concerns

American Hostages in Iran

1979 American had supported the Shah of Iran, who lost power after a coup by the Ayatollah Khomeini Supporters of Khomeini were anti-American because of this support of the Shah Carter allowed the Shah to receive medical attention in US, upsetting Iranians Iranian revolutionaries stormed the American embassy in Iran and took hostages Carter froze Iranian assets in the US and sent ships within striking distance An accord was finally signed and the revolutionaries freed the hostages on Reagan's inauguration day

Savings and Loan Scandal

1980s The lax regulation of the savings and loan industry led to poor investments and high insolvency The economic environment following Black Monday worsened the savings and loan financial disaster As the federal gov't guaranteed deposits up to $100,000 it made a $166 billion rescue appropriation The scandal is representative of the effects of poor governmental regulation

Ronald Reagan

1981-1989 Fortieth President Defeated Carter after carrying a large majority Increased military spending, including the Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars Program), which was a space-based defense system Succeeded in getting a tremendous tax cut, aiming to increase investments and improve the job market (Reaganomics) After first increasing the number of nuclear weapons, Reagan worked with Gorbachev toward the reduction of nuclear weapons Won re-election over Democratic nominees Walter Mondale and Geraldine Ferraro

Mikhail Gorbachev

1985-1991 Soviet political leader Worked with Reagan to reduce nuclear weapons Removed Soviet troops from Afghanistan Worked to liberalize repressive atmosphere of country under governmental policies of "glasnost" (openness) and "perestroika" (restructuring) Key player in the fall of communism in Russia

Iran-Contra Affair

1986 Scandal involving CIA, National Security Council, and the Reagan administration US sold weapons to Iranians friendly to America in order to encourage them to free hostages Profits from sales of weapons funded Nicaraguan revolutionaries fighting the Sandinista gov't Congress had approved neither the sale nor the funding, and hearings led to convictions of Oliver North, Robert McFarlane, and John Poindexter For many, the hearings echoed the Watergate scandal; American citizens became increasingly skeptical of their gov't

George Bush

1989-1993 Forty-first President Prior to becoming president, he served as a congressman, director of the CIA, UN Ambassador, and vice president to Ronald Reagan Sent troops to overthrow Manuel Noriega in Panama Led the US to success in the Gulf War, forcing Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait

START

1990 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty Signed by Mikhail Gorbachev and George Bush Cut the nuclear weapons arsenals of both nations by 30% START was a landmark agreement in the easing of American-Soviet tensions

Effects of the Collapse of Soviet Union

1990s Break up of nations created new foreign policy challenges in Europe and Asia as well as a proliferation of weaponry Provided new opportunities for US trade Left former Soviet territories with challenges in political stability and corruption

Persian Gulf War

1991 Saddam Hussein, dictator and leader of Iraq, invaded Kuwait on August 2, 1990 American interests in oil were threatened After Iraq failed to meet the deadline for peaceful withdrawal, the US launched Operation Desert Storm on January 18, 1991 Air strikes were followed by a ground war Multi-national forces defeated Iraqi troops and liberated Kuwait Through under heavy embargos, Saddam was left in power, which would lead to a second war with Iraq in the George W. Bush presidency

Branch Davidian Incident

1993 Apocalyptic Christian group founded during the 1930s David Koresh and his followers lived at a compound outside Waco, Texas A shootout occurred between the FBI, ATF, and Branch Davidians as a warrant for illegal weapons and child abuse was attempted to be served Four federal agents and five Branch Davidians were killed A fifty-one day standoff occurred, ending with the burning of the compound and the death of Koresh and the rest of his followers

Bill Clinton

1993-2001 Forty-second President Former law professor, attorney general of Arkansas, and governor of Arkansas Achieved gun control measures, a strong economy, acts supporting time off for family leave, and welfare reform Led the US into joining the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), lifting trade barriers between the US, Canada, and Mexico Became the second president to be impeached by the House of Representatives after an extra-martial affair with Monica Lewinsky (FYI watch her TED talk it really gives some perspective ya know)

Oklahoma City Bombing

1995 Timothy McVeigh destroyed the Oklahoma City Federal Building with a fertilizer bomb 168 people were killed in the destruction caused by the explosion McVeigh was executed by lethal injection in 2001

George W. Bush

2001-2009 Forty-third President Former Texas governor sworn into office in 2001 Won presidential race after the Democratic nominee and former vice president, Al Gore, conceded following a voting ordeal in Florida Gore had more popular votes than Bush but fewer electoral votes Passed initiatives in attempts to improve education (No Child Left Behind Act) His declaration against terrorism led to the invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq Son of former president, George bush Re-elected in 2004 (TBH how did we make the same mistake twice. Like really)

Wars in Iraq and Afghanistan

2001-Present War in Afghanistan began on October 7, 2001, as US and UK forces responded to the September 11, 2001 attacks on US Objectives include ending the safe haven of Al Qaeda fighters and ending the Taliban's reign War in Iraq began on March 20, 2003 with an invasion by multinational forces War based on US and UK claims that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction, which posed threats to them and their allies US continues to fight in Iraq to support democracy and human rights and to end the threat of "terrorism" (however, over 50% over terrorism in America is by white supremacist groups, fyi)

Barack Obama

2009-Present Forty-fourth President Member of the Democratic Party First African American to be elected President Signed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act in February 2009

Battles of Concord and Lexington

April 1775 Concord: Site suspected by British General Gage of housing a stockpile of colonial weaponry Paul Revere, William Dawes, and others detected movement of British troops toward Concord and warned militia and gathered Minutemen at Lexington Lexington: Militia and Royal infantry fought, and colonial troops withdrew

Bay of Pigs

April 1961 Attempted invasion of Cuba by CIA-trained Cuban refugees Goal was to overthrow Fidel Castro, Cuba's Communist-friendly leader The invasion failed after Kennedy refused air support JFK assumed responsibility for the invasion

Conclusion of the Civil War

April 9, 1865 With his forces surrounded, General Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House in Virginia Lee's surrender caused the remaining Confederate soldiers to lay down their arms By the end of the conflict, the country had sustained over 600,000 casualties

Watts Riots

August 1965 Six day riot in Watts, a depressed African American section of LA Causes included a drunk driving arrest of a young African American and claims of police brutality Thirty four deaths and over $200 million worth of property damage resulted Sparked other riots throughout the country

Hurricane Katrina

August 29, 2005 A large hurricane that caused major destruction and loss of life along the Gulf Coast of the US The levee system in New Orleans, Louisiana flooded due to catastrophic failure; water covered the city and nearby areas for weeks, and more than 1500 people died The federal gov't was widely blamed for its slow response to the crisis, and the federal, state, and local gov't were criticized for their lack of communication Issues of race, poverty, and political power were debated nationwide as news of the tragedy spread The levee failures led to investigations of the US Army Corps of Engineers, which had designed and built them, and into local levee boards that managed the system

Black Codes

Began 1865 Restrictions by Southern states on former slaves Designed to replicate the conditions of slavery in post-Civil War South Various codes prohibited meetings without a white present, while others established segregated public facilities Led to Radical Republican opposition and exclusion of Southern representation in Congress

Cold War

Began 1946 War of words caused by differences in economic and political beliefs between the US and USSR No actual fighting took place Churchill commented that an "Iron Curtain" had been dropped between Western Europe and Soviet's Eastern Europe

Secession

Began in December 1860 Response to the election of the Abraham Lincoln, who sought to contain slavery South Carolina voted to secede on December 30, 1860 Over the following two months, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas seceded The remaining states-Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina-seceded after the fall of Fort Sumter These states declared themselves the Confederate States of America and elected Jefferson Davis as president, adopting a constitution that permitted slavery rights and sovereignty of states

Vietnam War: Causes

Beginning 1954 Vietnam was divided into the Communist North, led by Ho Chi Minh, and the South, supported by the US The Viet Cong (Communist guerillas) attempted to overthrow Saigon, South Vietnam's capital South Vietnam asked President Kennedy for aid to fend off the Communists

James Meredith

Born 1933 James Meredith obtained a federal court order to allow him to enroll at the University of Mississippi in 1962 On several occasions, he was barred from enrolling Federal marshals were called in to aid him in enrolling and attending classes

Battle of Bunker Hill

Bunker Hill was an American post overlooking Boston The strong hold allowed Americans to contain General Gage and his troops The colonists twice turned back a British frontal assault, and they held off the British until Bunker Hill ran out of ammo and was overrun American strong defense led to strengthened morale

Georgia

Chartered 1732 James Oglethorpe an English philanthropist and soldier chartered the colony Settlers included those who paid their own way to receive the best land grants Some settlers were financed by the colony's board of trustees, including bands of prisoners from British jails After wars between the European empires began, the colony served as a buffer between South Carolina and Spain's Florida Elaborate and detailed regulations resulted in very little settlement Slavery was outlawed, used as a way of second chances

The Hundred Days

Commenced on March 9, 1933 President Roosevelt called a special session of Congress to deal with the weak American baking system Congress passed an emergency act to deal with banking and then continued the session to handle the problems of unemployment and falling farm prices This special session became known as the Hundred Days It launched the First New Deal

Pentagon Papers

Completed 1969, Published 1971 Defense Department papers that discussed America's involvement in Southeast Asia Discussed how the gov't had falsely portrayed its intentions during the Vietnam War in the 1960s The New York Times received the papers from Daniel Ellsberg, who had studied defense policies; the Times began publishing articles about the study in June 1971 The US tried to stop the Times by arguing national security, but the Supreme Court allowed publication based on freedom of the press Set a precedent for future conflicts in the press over security versus liberty

Connecticut

Corporate colony 1662 Thomas Hooker led Puritans to settle in Connecticut River Valley after religious disagreements in Massachusetts In 1639 the colony formed a set of laws known as Fundamental Orders, provided for a gov by those permitted to vote Corporate colony established and recognized by England, and the charter was founded on the Orders Order are an important example of growth in political democracy

Battle of the Bulge

December 1944 German counterattack that pushed the Allies back into Belgium Last stand of Hitler's armies Eventually the Allies returned to Germany, leading to its surrender on May 7, 1945

Pearl Harbor

December 7, 1941 Hawaiian base for the American Pacific fleet and site of massive sneak attack by the Japanese Carrier-based aircraft attacked American ships, meeting little defense The Japanese destroyed all US aircraft, major battleships, and naval crafts at the base, and they killed 2,323 military personnel FDR asked Congress to declare war on Japan, calling the attack "a date which will live in infamy"

King Cotton in the Early 1800s

Early 1800s (NOT BEFORE) The new invention of the cotton gin separated the seeds from the fibers New states (Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas) began producing cotton Led to a boom in the cotton market, and its global effects crowned the staple as "King Cotton" The need for cotton encouraged westward expansion

Alexis de Tocqueville

Early 1830s French civil servant who traveled to and wrote about the US Wrote Democracy in America reflecting his interest in the American democratic process and appreciation of US civil society Assessed the American attempt to have both liberty and equality Provided an outsider's objective view of the Age of Jackson

Ashcan School (New York Realists)

Early 1900s Group of artists who painted realistic scenes Focused on subjects of everyday life, titles such as The Wrestlers and Sixth Avenue Members included George Luks, George Bellows, John Sloan, Robert Henri, Everett Shinn, and Arthur B Davies

Ku Klux Klan in the Eary 1900s

Early 1900s Main purpose was to intimidate African Americans, who experienced an apparent rise in status due to WWI Also opposed Catholics, Jews, and immigrants Klan hired advertising experts to expand the organization Charged initiation fees and sold memorabilia The Ku Klux Klan had membership of five million before its decline after 1925

Radio

Early 1900s The first human voice was broadcast in 1906 and the first musical broadcast was in 1910 Woodrow Wilson was the first president to broadcast KDKA was the first radio station in the US (Pittsburgh) commencing broadcast in 1920 It helped to break down regionalism and provided news and entertainment

Joseph McCarthy

Early 1950s Republican senator from Wisconsin who claimed to have detailed info on Communists within the State Department 1950 Was never able to prove Communists were within the State Department or any other gov't agency In 1954, the Army accused McCarthy of attempting to gain preferential treatment for one of his consultants, and McCarthy accused the Army of keeping him from finding more Communists A televised Army-McCarthy hearing was held, and McCarthy came off in a negative light, leading to Congress condemning his conduct

Emancipation Proclamation

Effective January 1, 1863 Declared all slaves to be free in areas under rebel control, thus exempting conquered areas of the South Lincoln was criticized for not abolishing slavery everywhere Led to slaves in South leaving their plantations Increased morale in North Partly designed to keep England from joining the war on the side of the South Changes perception of the war from a conflict to preserve the Union to a war to end slavery

Berlin Wall

Erected in 1961 Barrier erected by the East German gov't to separate East and West Berlin East Berlin was under Communist control, while West Berlin remained under Western control (American, British, and French) Meant to stop defections and travel of East Berliners "Fell" in 1989

Knights of Labor

Established 1869 Militant organization seeking solutions to labor problems Allowed skilled and unskilled workers (along with women and African Americans) to join Wanted an 8 hour work day, termination of child labor, equal pay for equal work, and the elimination of private banks Under Terrence Powderly's leadership, the Knights reached a membership of over 700,000 Downfall caused by emergence of the AFL, mismanagement and financial losses from unsuccessful strikes

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

Established 1949 Original members included the US, Britain, France, Italy, and Portugal Allowed for collective self-defense against the Soviet threat in the North Atlantic region Since its creation, it has influenced economic and social cooperation between member nations The fall of the Soviet Union has led to NATO expanding membership and moving toward peacekeeping throughout the world Headquartered in Brussels, Belgium

United Nations

Established Summer 1945 Created at the San Francisco conference Representation body of nations that wished to resolve global issues Composed of a General Assembly and a Security Council All members sit on General Assembly and form policy Security Council has eleven members, five permanent and six additional that rotate Permanent members are the US, Britain, France, Russia, and China

Yalta Conference

February 1945 Meeting of the Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin) to talk about post-WWII plans Germany was to be divided into American, British, French, and Soviet zones Germany was to be divided into American, British, French, and Soviet zones Poland's boundaries would be revised and free elections would be established Russia would help by attacking Japan three months after Germany's collapse in exchange for the Sakhalin and Kurile Islands Agreement was made to hold a conference in San Francisco to form a peacekeeping organization (UN)

Battle of the Alamo

Febuary 24-March 6, 1836 During Texas' Revolution against Mexico, Fort Alamo was attacked by the Mexican Army and 187 members of the Texas garrison were killed Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, a Mexican military and political leader, was victorious "Remember the Alamo" was the garrison's battle cry in its fight for independence

Transportation Revolution

First half of 1800s Innovations included new construction of roads, additions of canals, and the expansion of the railroads Robert Fulton built the modern-day steamboat, transforming river transportation Henry Clay promoted internal improvements to help develop transportation The transportation revolution cheapened the market for trade and encouraged population movement west of the Appalachian Mountains

Postdam Conference

July 17-August 2, 1945 Attended by Truman, Stalin, Churchill, and Churchill's replacement, Clement Attlee Agreed upon a policy for the occupation of both Germany and Japan Decided German reparations Demanded that Japan surrender or be destroyed

Common Sense

January 1776 Pamphlet published by Thomas Paine that called for immediate independence from Britain It was sold throughout the colonies Helped weaken resistance in Continental Congress toward independence

The Treaty of Versailles

January 1919 A result of the Paris Peace Conference It formed the League of Nations to protect territorial integrity and political independence of all members Germany was held responsible for war (war guilt clause), required to pay heavily for damages (reparations), and limited to a small defensive force New nations' boundaries were drawn, including Yugoslavia, Austria, Hungary, and Poland German colonies were made mandates of the League and under trusteeship of the Allies

Tet Offensive

January 1968 North Vietnam violated a truce during Tet (New Year), attacking cities throughout South Vietnam Despite initiating the fighting, the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong were defeated and suffered heavy casualties The offensive surprised US and American public because it showed that the communists were able to launch an organized attack

Battle of Gettysburg

July 1-3, 1863 Lee invaded Pennsylvania from Virginia, pursued by Northern General Meade Lee was defeated and retreated to Virginia The bloodiest, most decisive battle of the Civil War Farthest northern advance of the Confederacy

The Virginia Plan & The New Jersey Plan

July 1787 Virginia Plan: Presented by Edmund Randolph and written by James Madison, called for a bicameral legislature based on a state's population, and it suggested that both the chief executive and judiciary should be chosen by legislature New Jersey Plan: Presented by William Patterson, it called for a unicameral legislature with equal representation for each state The plans were united in the Great Compromise by Henry Clay They formed the basis of the modern American legislative structure

Moon Landing

July 20, 1969 Neil Armstrong became the first man to walk on the Earth's moon Armstrong made the famous statement, "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind" Armstrong's fellow astronauts were Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins

Watergate Scandal

June 17, 1972 CRP/CREEP (Committee for the Re-election of the President) attempted to spy on Democrats at their headquarters in the Watergate Hotel Men with connections to CRP/CREEP were arrested and convicted Nixon stated that the burglars had no connection to his administration James McCord, one of the convicted burglars, claimed a Republican cover-up An investigation uncovered wire taps, presidential tapes, and further evidence of espionage Robert Woodward and Carl Bernstein, writers for The Washington Post, helped reveal the details behind the break-in This deception at the highest political level caused many Americans to become disenchanted with the gov't

Marshall Plan

June 1947 Recovery program paid by America and Allies to rebuild Europe Helped support a strong European economy and stable politics to resist Communism Defined by Secretary of State George Marshall and signed by President Truman America provided over $15 billion in aid to Europe

Berlin Airlift

June 1948 Allies designated Western Germany to be free from Communism Soviets blocked both land and water access to West Berlin in the hopes that the Allies would abandon West Berlin US lifted supplies for more than 10 months into the city, forcing the Soviets to remove blockade in 1949

D-Day

June 6, 1944 Dwight Eisenhower, Commander-in-Chief of Allied forces, ordered an invasion at Normandy, France The operation involved over 4,500 vessels American troops commanded by George S. Patton weakened the German troops in France

Evolution of the Major Political Parties to pre-Civil War

Key Moment: Debate over the adoption of a federal constitution Parties: Federalists and Anti-Federalists, who disagreed about the power and influence of the central gov't Evolutionary Point: After the Constitution was adopted, the Jeffersonian Republicans absorbed the Anti-Federalists and by 1800 the Federalists had declined Key Moment: Disagreement over John Q. Adam's defeat of Andrew Jackson Parties: Democratic-Republicans and the Whig Party, which was a combination of those who opposed President Jackson's policies and those who had supported John Q. Adams Evolutionary Point: After the death of Whig President William Henry Harrison, parties focused more on issues of sectional unrest

Sputnik

Launched October 4, 1957 Soviet satellite launched into space First unmanned spacecraft to escape Earth's gravity Caused concern in US because Americans realized they were not as technologically advanced as Soviets Led to an increased emphasis on science education in the US

Lend-Lease Act

March 1941 American proposal to aid the British, who had little cash for supplies Offered to give the British American supplies in exchange for payment after the war Payment could be made in material goods and services Put the US on the side of the Allies The US began a program of cash and carry (1939), in which British and French ships could come into US ports and buy anything that they could carry

Boston Massacre

March 5, 1770 Occurred when the British attempted to enforce the Townshend Acts British soldiers killed 5 Bostonians including Crispus Attucks, an American patriot and former slave John Adams provided legal defense for the soldiers Though the British soldiers acted likely from self-defense, anti-Royal leaders used propaganda (Paul Revere) to spur action in the colonies

Second Continental Congress

May 1775 Colonial representative meeting in Philadelphia, over which John Hancock presided The group was torn between declaring independence and remaining under British power Moderates forced the adoption of the Olive Branch Petition, a letter to King George II appealing one last time for a resolution to all disputes; the king refused to receive it The Congress sent George Washington to command the army around Boston American ports were opened in defiance of the Navigation Acts The Congress wrote the Declaration of Independence

Haymarket Square Riot

May 4th 1886 Large rally in Haymarket Square in Chicago shortly after striking began at McCormick Harvesting Machine Co Police were attempting to disperse the crowd when a bomb exploded Eleven were killed and over 100 were injured Eight anarchists were put on trial and four were executed Incident was used to discredit the Knights of Labor

V-E Day and V-J Day

May 8, 1945 and August 15, 1945 V-E Day, or Victory in Europe Day, was the day the Allies announced Germany's surrender in Europe V-J Day, or Victory in Japan Day, was the day the Allies announced Japan's surrender to end WWII

Teheran Conference

November 28-December 1, 1943 Meeting of the Big Three: Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin Agreement that Russia would attack Germany from the east as the Allies would attack from the west First time Roosevelt met Stalin

Stamp Act Congress

October 1765 Delegates of 7 colonies met in NY to discuss plans for defense Adopted the Declaration of Rights and Grievances, which stated that freeborn Englishmen could not be taxed without consent

Black Monday (Stock Market Crash)

October 19, 1987 The Dow Jones dropped 22.6% the largest single-day drop since 1914 Causes included trade deficits, computerized trading, and American criticism of West Germany's economic policies The crash later affected the insurance industry and was a cause of the savings and loan crisis

Stock Market Crash of 1929

October 1929 Investors began to panic during late October 1929, creating tremendous losses in the stock market On October 24, 1929 (Black Thursday), the Dow Jones Industrial Average dropped 50% over 13 million shares of stock were traded On October 29, 1929 (Black Tuesday), over 16 million shares of stock were traded The crash led to the Great Depression

Cuban Missile Crisis

October 1962 An American spy plane discovered Soviet missile sites being placed in Cuba In response, President Kennedy blockaded Cuba and demanded that the Soviets remove the missile bases and all long-range weapons Kennedy declared that any missile attack on the US would result in retaliation against the USSR Khrushchev removed the missile sites; the US lifted on the blockade and removed its intermediate-range ballistic missiles from Turkey Led to Nuclear Test Ban (1963), in which the US, Britain, and the USSR agreed not to perform nuclear tests in the atmosphere or underwater

Manifest Destiny

Phrase coined in 1844 Belief that America was destined to expand to the Pacific, and possibly into Canada and Mexico John O'Sullivan, an American journalist, wrote an article pushing for the annexation of Texas and coined the phrase "Manifest Destiny" Came out of post-1812 War nationalism, the reform impulse of the 1830s, and the need for new resources Those Whigs who supported Manifest Destiny favored more peaceful means, while other Whigs feared American expansion because it might raise the slavery issue in new territories Manifest Destiny was an engine of both discovery and destruction, while it helped America push westward, the ideas behind Manifest Destiny fueled the Mexican War and the displacement of NA

After the War of 1812

Post 1814 Increased American nationalism Created high foreign demand for cotton, grain, and tobacco The country turned from its agrarian origins toward industrialization Led to a depression in 1819 due to influx of British goods; Bank of the United States respond by tightening credit to slow inflation

Carpetbaggers and Scalawags

Post Civil War-Reconstruction Carpetbaggers: Derogatory Southern name for Northerners who came to the South to participate in Reconstruction gov't Name came from the cloth bags of possessions many of them used to travel South Scalawags: Derogatory name for Southerners working for or supporting the federal gov't during Reconstruction Some of these Southerners had opposed the war from the beginning, while others helped Reconstruction for financial gain Partially in response to Reconstruction, a group of Southern whites formed the Ku Klux Klan, which targeted carpetbaggers, scalawags, African Americans, and others with aggressive and sometimes violent acts

Agriculture by 1850

Pre-1850 Agricultural tech increased harvest sizes, saved on labor, and made selling farm goods to international markets possible Demand for agricultural land grew Railroad was used to help transport goods John Deere, a US manufacturer, pioneered the steel-plow industry Cyrus McCormack invented the mechanical reaper

Industry by 1850

Pre-1850 Mostly located in the North Industry's value surpassed agriculture US tech exceeded Europe in areas like rubber, coal power, mass production, and the telegraph Cheap immigrant labor threatened the established workers' jobs

The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783

Published 1890 Written by Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840-19140, a naval officer and historian Further encourage those in favor of American imperialism and seaward expansion Themes in the book were used as partial justification for the US taking of the Philippines

Louisiana Purchase

Purchased for 15 million from France Jefferson was concerned about the constitutionality of purchasing land without having this authority granted by the Constitution, so he employed the presidential power of treaty-making to make the purchase US territory was doubled Removed France from western boarders Farmers could now sell their goods down the Mississippi River and through New Orleans The expansion westward created more states with Jeffersonian Republican representation to the point that the Federalists became a marginalized party Opened land to agrarian expansion, helping fulfill one of the tenets of Jefferson's social ideology

Articles of Confederation

Ratified 1781 Framework for an American national gov't in which states were given the most power Permitted the federal gov't to make war, offer treaties, and create new states There was no federal power to levy taxes, raise troops, or regulate commerce Congressional revision of the articles created a weak gov't

Seventeenth Amendment

Ratified 1913 A progressive initiative that allowed for each state to elect two senators for 6 year terms by popular vote Restated the first paragraph of Article 1, section 3 of the Constitution by replacing "chosen by Legislature thereof" with "elected by the people thereof" Allowed citizens to have a more active participation in gov't

Twenty-sixth Amendment

Ratified 1971 Ratified in response to Vietnam War Gave the right to vote to citizens eighteen and older By November 1971, eleven million Americans between eighteen and twenty one were eligible to vote

Hawaii

Republic founded in 1894 American sugar planters worked in Hawaii and expanded American-Hawaiian sugar trade Queen Liliuokalani opposed foreigners, which alienated Americans Revolution against the queen occurred in 1893 with the encouragement of the American leaders Feeling that most islanders did not support this revolution, Grover Cleveland unsuccessfully attempted to restore Queen Liliuokalani Sandford Dole, son of American missionaries in Hawaii, shepherded the process of annexing Hawaii Dole became Hawaii's first governor when the US annexed it on July 7 1898

September 11, 2001

September 11, 2001 Day of attacks by terrorist cells connected to the Al Qaeda network, which was led by Osama bin Laden, a Saudi dissident Al Qaeda operatives hijacked two airliners and crashed them into New York's World Trade Center, destroying the buildings and killing thousands Another hijacked plane hit the Pentagon in Washington, DC A final hijacked plane was diverted from its mission, crashing in Pennsylvania As a result of the attacks, Congress passed the USA Patriot Act, which broadened gov't authority to gather intelligence and further defined crimes that were punishable as terrorism Attacks led to the invasion of Afghanistan

Battle of Antietam

September 17, 1862 A Civil War Battle that offered the North an opportunity to defeat General Lee and shorten the war Northern General George McClellan had discovered detailed plans for Lee's entire operation in a discarded cigar, but ignored the opportunity because of over-cautiousness Lee's army was forced to retreat to Virginia after a bloody battle at Antietam McClellan's failure to pursue Lee led Lincoln to remove him from command

Selective Service and Training Act

September 1940 United States' first peacetime draft Men between ages 21 and 35 were signed into service, and a group of them was chosen for a year of training in the military

First Continental Congress

September-October 1774 Meeting in Philadelphia of colonial representatives to denounce the Intolerable Acts and to petition the British Parliament A few radicals discussed breaking from England Continental Association created, forbade importation of British goods Agreed to convene a Second Continental Congress in May 1775

The Constitution of the United States

Signed 17, 1787, ratified June 21, 1788 Drafted at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787 Included preamble and 7 articles Created stronger federal gov't Bill of Rights constitutes the first ten amendments and it protects individual rights and freedoms

Henry David Thoreau

Transcendental writer Walden (1854) repudiated the repression of society and preached non-violent civil disobedience He protested unjust laws, slavery, and the Mexican War To demonstrate against these issues, Thoreau refused to pay his poll tax and was forced to spend one night in jail Thoreau's ideology was reflected in future advocates like Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr.

Roger Williams and Rhode Island

Williams 1603-1683; Rhode Island 1644 Williams was a Puritan preacher who fled Massachusetts because he was too extreme Bought land from NA and founded Providence in 1636 Made up of Providence, Portsmouth, and others Colony granted COMPLETE religious toleration Populated with exiles and troublemakers "Rogue's Island" Suffered constant political turmoil

Treaty of Tordesillas

1493 Commitment between Spain and Portugal Created Papal of Demarcation, dividing the New World Portugal got East, Spain got West Portugal also got easternmost part of Brazil Papal Line affected colonization in Africa and Asia

Dutch West India Company

1500s and 1600s The joint stock company that ran the colonies in Fort Orange and New Amsterdam Carried on a profitable fur trade with Native American Iroquois Patroon System: large estates given to wealthy men who transported at least 50 families to New Netherland

New Spain

1400s-1500s Spain's tightly controlled empire in New World North and Central America, Caribbean, East Indies To deal with labor shortages, Spaniards developed a system of large manors (encomiendas) using Native Americans as slaves When Native Americans started dying from disease, Spain imported African slaves

Christopher Columbus

1451-1506 Italian born navigator who found fame landing in the Americas October 12, 1492 Set sail on behalf of Spain with Nina, Pinta, Santa Maria Originally set to find a water route to Asia Convinced himself that he had found the waterway and that he was in China, or the Indies Returned to Spain with gold, more explorers follow Was actually a murderous, ruthless, dick, but we love him anyway apparently

Amerigo Vespucci

1454-1512 Italian member of a Portuguese expedition Explored South America 1497 Mistakenly thought to have "found" the New World before Columbus, the cartographer named the continent after Vespucci instead

English Puritanism

1500s-1600s Movement by those who wish to "reform" the Church of England Though Henry VIII separated his Church of England from papal authority, it still had a lot of catholic practices Puritans wanted to "purify" the Church away from Catholicism Puritans are like Calvinists, believe in predestination and authority of Scripture over papal authority Puritanism echoes throughout American culture with ideas of self-reliance, moral fortitude, and intellectualism

Mercantilism

1500s-1700s Prevailing economic philosophy that says that colonies exist to serve the mother country Founded on the belief that the world's wealth was limited and that one countries gain was another's loss The goal was to export more than import, a favorable balance of trade; the difference would be made up in their possession of gold and silver to make a nation strong economically and militarily Mercantilists believed economic activity should be regulated by gov

Queen Elizabeth I

1533-1603 Protestant successor to Queen Mary of England Popular leader and the first woman to successfully hold the throne Invested in English raids on the Spanish New World; Spain responded with Spanish Armada Established Protestantism in England and encouraged English business

John Rolfe

1585-1622 English colonist in Jamestown, Virginia Married Pocahontas Created process for curing tobacco, basically saves Jamestown, makes it an economic success

Sir Walter Raleigh

1587 Selected Roanoke Island for the first English Settlement Returned to England to secure additional supplies, but the colony was deserted upon return Raleigh abandoned his attempts to colonize Virginia after this Held back by a lack of financial resources and the war with Spain, English colonization in America was impeded for fifteen years

St. Augustine, Florida

1598 French Protestants (Huguenots) went to the New World to worship freely Spain, which oversaw Florida, reacted violently to the Huguenots, seeing them as trespassers and heretics to the Catholic Church Spain sent military to the settlement and massacred the inhabitants Considered the first permanent European settlement in the US

Joint-Stock Company

1600s A type of business structure used by colonial explorers to raise money for their expeditions These private trading companies sold shares to investors who provided start-up funding In return for risking an investment, investors were paid based on the profits of the expedition Many modern business structures base off these principles

Black Slaves in the 1600s

1600s Because black slaves were only a small percentage of the population, they began almost at the same level as indentured servants Later in the century, increased importation and population of blacks in the southern colonies began Slaves, called "chattel", came to be seen as lifelong property whose status was inherited by their children

Types of Colonies in the New World

1600s Charter Colony: colonists are basically members of a corporation, and electors among the colonists control the gov based on an agreed-upon charter Royal Colony: has a governor selected by England's king; the governor served in the leadership role and chose lower ranking officials Proprietary Colony: owned by individuals with direct responsibility to the king; proprietor's select the governer

Triangular Trade (Atlantic Trade)

1600s Created as a result of mercantilism European merchants purchased African slaves with goods manufactured in Europe or imported from Asian colonies These merchants sold slaves in the Caribbean for commodities (sugar, cotton, tobacco) Caribbean commodities were later sold in Europe and North America Trade thrived because each partner could get the resources it wanted by exchanging resources that it had available

Indentured Servitude

1600s Poor workers, convicted criminals, and debtors received immigration passage and fees in return for a number of years at labor on behalf of a planter or company Servants enter contracts voluntarily and kept some rights Servants had little control over conditions of work, very harsh and brutal treatment Predominant system of labor until Bacon's Rebellion, too much risk, slave labor was safer

Early American Literature and Art

1600s-1700s Early writings promoted the benefits of colonization to both Europeans and the colonists, authors included John Smith and William Penn Religious issues and the Great Awakening provided materia for written works by John Winthrop, Edward Winslow, Roger Williams, Jonathan Edwards, and George Whitefield The political issues of revolution influenced writing in the mid 1700s including works by Samuel Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Paine Post-war writings such as the Federalist Papers explored the system of American values and gov't structure The first American novel, published in 1789 was William Hill Brown's The Power Of Sympathy Art copied European styles by featured portraits of important Americans; famous artists included John Trumbull, Charles Peale, Benjamin West, and John Copley Gilbert Stuart painted the portrait of George Washington that is now on the $1 bill

Jamestown

1607 Named for James I, who granted charters for colonies in New World Virginia Company of London settled here, the first permanent English settlement Swampy location led to disease and contamination of water Despite its location and hostile relations NA, John Smith's harsh, charismatic leadership stopped the colony from collapsing First slave ship arrives in 1619 in a British settlement

"Starving Time"

1609-1610 Period of starvation endured by Jamestown colonists Colonists depended on trade with NA for food Series of conflicts limited the colonists ability to trade with NA for supplies and to farm their own food Large number of colonists died, others tried to flee to England Boats arriving with supplies form England intercepted escaping colonists and forced them back Additional support form England, new industries, new trade partnerships all helped the settlement's survival

Headright System

1618 System used by Virginia Company to attract colonists Promised parcels of land (50 acres) to get people to immigrate to America Also gave 50 acres for each servant brought over This system solidified the use of indentured servitude for the time being

House of Burgesses

1619 Representative assembly in Virginia Election to a seat was limited to voters of the colony, which was at first all free men, but later the man had to own at least 50 acres First representative house in America Instituted the private ownership of land but maintained the rights of colonists

The Separatists and Plymouth

1620 Separatists were Puritans who believed the Church of England was beyond saving, felt that they must completely break away Suffered harassment from gov and fled to Holland, then America Traveled on the Mayflower and became known as Pilgrims Set sail from Plymouth, England in September 1620 and landed in Provincetown Harbor Formed the Mayflower Compact, a gov guided by the majority was made William Bradford (1590-1657) served as Plymouth Colony's first governer

Massachusetts Bay Company

1629 Joint stock company chartered by a group of Puritans escaping King James I Led by John Winthrop who says that the colony ought to be a model of Christian society "we are a city on a hill..." Organized their venture and did not undergo "starving time" that plagued first year colonies Government included a governor and a representative assembly

Delaware

1631 Dutch patroons established the first settlement in Delaware, destroyed by NA Dutch West India Company and Dutchmen, including Peter Minuit, began to trade and settle in Delaware during mid 1630s 1674, Delaware became English owned

Maryland

1632 Maryland became the first proprietary colony to serve as sanctuary for English Catholics George Calvert (Lord Baltimore) applied for the charter Calvert's son, Caecilius, established a representative assembly Maryland passed the Act of Toleration in 1649, guaranteeing religious freedom to all Christians

John Locke and Natural Law

1632-1704 Locke was a major English political philosopher of the Enlightenment Isaac Newton theorized Natural Law in the realm of science, Locke followed for the human realm Prior to Locke, there was a theory of social contract in which people would accept certain restrictions on themselves to benefit society Locke's assertion of Natural Law changed the perspective of the social contract: if life, liberty and property were not protected, governments could be over thrown justly Locke's ideas indirectly became theory for America while writing the Declaration of Independence

Anne Hutchinson

1638 Claimed to have revelations from God that superseded the Bible, contrary to Puritan doctrine Accused of antinomian teachings (antinomianism is the belief that salvation is attained through faith and divine grace and not through strict adherence to rules and moral laws) Tried and Banished from Massachusetts Bay Colony Founded Portsmouth in Aquidneck region in 1638 now known as Rhode Island

English Civil War

1641-1651 Conflict between King Charles I and Parliament Charles claimed rule by divine right, Parliament argued that they had rights separate from the king Parliament was Puritan and backed by merchants and lesser land owners Charles was backed by wealthy nobles Parliament's victory in 1651 resulted in the trial and execution of Charles I and exile of Charles II English monarchy was replaced with Commonwealth of England (1649-1653) and then the Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell (1653-1659)

William Penn

1644-1718 Founded Pennsylvania as a refuge for fellow Quakers Advertised the colony in Europe and offered generous terms on land Guaranteed a representative assembly and full religious freedom Settlers flocked to Pennsylvania from all over Europe

Effects of the Navigation Acts

1650-1673 Boosted the prosperity of New Englanders, who engaged in large-scale shipbuilding Hurt the residents of the Chesapeake by driving down the price of tobacco Transferred wealth from America to Britain by increasing the prices Americans had to pay for British goods and lowering prices Americans received for the goods they produced Mercantilism helped bring wars between England and Holland in late 1600s

Navigation Acts

1650-1673 Dictated that certain goods shipped from a New World port were to go only to Britain or other New World ports Served as a foundation of England's worldwide commercial system; came out of the economic philosophy of mercantilism Though it was meant to benefit the British Empire, its provisions helped some New World colonies at the expense of others Intended as a weapon against England's rival, Holland Led to increased tension between Britain and the colonies

The Carolinas

1663 King Charles II rewarded loyal noblemen with these lands after the Puritan revolution Proprietors planned a hierarchical society Experimented with silk manufacturing and crops such as rice and indigo, but proved unworkable Large groups came from Barbados, the slavery was very harsh North Carolina became separate in 1712 Rebellion against proprietors in 1719 led to royal intervention, and both North and South became royal colonies in 1729

New York and New Jersey

1664 Last Dutch governor of New York was Peter Stuyvesant After the British conquered the Dutch lands in America, Charles II gave title to lands to his brother James, Duke of York James opposed representative assemblies Residents continued to call for self-government until James relented, only to break the promise when he became James II, King of England The region of New Jersey was ruled as a separate proprietary colony, eventually becoming royal

Bacon's Rebellion

1676 Virginia's Royal governor, William Berkeley, received strict instructions to run the colony for the benefit of Britain Nathaniel Bacon was a leader of colonial frontiersmen in Virginia Bacon objected to the rights granted to Virginia's wealthy inner circle and angered by Governor Berkeley's inability to protect Virginia from attacks by NA Bacon commanded 2 unauthorized raids on NA tribes, increasing his popularity, Berkeley had him arrested Soon after, Bacon gathered his forces, opposed the Royal governor, and set fire to Jamestown to defend his forces' position Berkeley ended the rebellion with British military After this rebellion, colonies turned away from indentured servants toward slave labor

Benjamin Franklin

1706-1790 Was a colonial writer, scientist, diplomat, printer, and philosopher Published the Pennsylvania Gazette and wrote Poor Richard's Almanac Served in the Second Continental Congress and was a drafter and signer of the Declaration of Independence

New Hampshire

1677 King Charles II established it as a Royal Colony The colony remained economically dependent on Massachusetts, and Britain continued to appoint a single person to rule both colonies until 1741 Weeks before the signing of the Declaration of Independence by the Second Continental Congress, New Hampshire established a temporary constitution for itself that proclaimed its independence from Britain

Quakers

1680 Believed that human religious institutions were unnecessary Thought they could receive revelation directly from God and held little importance on the Bible Were pacifists and declined to show deference to their alleged social superiors Their aggressiveness in denouncing established institutions brought trouble in Britain and America Opposed slavery and favored decent treatment of NA Elements of this culture play a role in independence and social equality

Dominion of New England

1686-1689 An administrative body created by King James II that oversaw British colonies in the New England region Put in place to implement the Navigation Acts and to assist the colonies in defending themselves against hostile French and Native American forces The Dominion Governor-in-Chief, Edmund Andros, outlawed town meetings, disputed titles, to certain colonial lands, and proselytized on behalf of the Church of England New England colonists had originally been in favor of some sort of voluntary association, but the Dominion was very unpopular because of these types of impositions

Half-Way Covenant

1690s Decision by Puritan colony churches to allow the grandchildren of those who did not have the personal experience of conversion to participate in select church affairs Previously, only the children of those who had experienced conversion could participate Reflected the decline of zealous piety among New Englanders

William Pitt

1708-1778 Britain's capable and energetic prime minister during French and Indian War After several humiliating defeats, he led Britain to virtually destroy the French empire in North America by focusing on Canada The Treaty of Paris of 1763 ended hostilities

Salem Witch Trials

1692 Several young girls in Salem Village claimed to be tormented by the occult activities of certain neighbors Some twenty persons were executed Puritan ministers finally intervened to stop the executions Why did this happen? It could be: political/class divisions in the town, economic stress for providing family, biased view that women would likely follow evil, boredom and the ignoring of children, LSD fungus The Crucible by Arthur Miller is a retelling of this as commentary of Joseph McCarthy in the 50s

John Peter Zenger

1697-1746 German American newspaper publisher and printer His acquittal of libel charges in New York City (1735) established a legal precedent for freedom of the press The Supreme Court under Chief Justice Warren (1953-1969) would later reinvigorate free press rights The case of New York Times v Sullivan (1964) strengthened the protection of the press against libel cases brought by public figures

The Enlightment

1700s Connects to the idea of Deism, that the universe was created by God and abandoned, no supernatural controls would be exerted and all things were explainable by reason Enlightenment philosophy dictated that human reason was adequate to solve mankinds problems and less faith was needed in the central role of God as an active force in the universe Idea moved from Europe to become the New World's seed of culture, intellectualism, and society Some important Enlightenment writers are Isaac Newton (Principia Mathematica 1687), John Locke (Essay Concerning Human Understanding 1689), and Rene Descartes ("I think therefore I am")

Jonathan Edwards

1703-1758 Preacher of the Great Awakening who emphasized personal religious experience, predestination, and dependence of man upon God and divine grace One of his widely read sermons was "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God"

Impact of the French and Indian War on British Colonial Policy

1712-1770 Britain set out to solve the large national debt incurred by recent conflicts Created a series of acts that raised taxes on American goods Proclamation of 1763, Sugar Act (1763), Stamp Act (1765), and Quartering Act (1765)

The First Great Awakening

1720s-1740s A series of emotional religious revivals that occurred throughout the colonies (New England) Preachers spread a message of personal repentance and emphasized faith as a way to avoid hell Suggested an equality between God and Bible George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards became the most dynamic preachers Caused conflict about those who argued on religion, it helped build connections between the colonies More denominations of Christianity were formed Colleges were founded during this time: Princeton, Brown, and Rutgers

Samuel Adams

1722-1803 Revolutionary resistance leader in Massachusetts Along with Paul Revere, he headed the Sons of Liberty in Massachusetts Worked with the committees of correspondence, which provided communication about resistance among colonies Attended both the First and Second Continental Congress and signed the Declaration of Independence

Charles Cornwallis

1738-1805 British military and political leader Was a member of Parliament Opposed the tax measures that led to the American Revolution Led British forces during the American Revolution The British defeat culminated with Cornwallis' surrender at Yorktown in 1781

John Jay

1745-1829 Member of First and Second Continental Congress Negotiated Treaty of Paris and Jay's Treaty First Chief Justice of Supreme Court Wrote portions of the Federalist Papers

French and Indian War

1748-1763 Also known as the Seven Years War Rivalry between France, Britain, and various NA tribes over land in the Ohio region One of a series of wars fought between France and England across the world Battles continued on European and American fronts until Britain gained control of Canada It was in these conflicts that George Washington first appeared as a military leader

Writs of Assistance

1750s-1770s Court orders that authorized customs officials to conduct non-specific searches to stop colonial smuggling Allowed for the searching of homes, warehouses, and shops James Otis served as a prosecutor in a failed Massachusetts legal case; he argued that these searches were contrary to natural law Later the Fourth Amendment would protect citizens against "unreasonable searches and seizures"

Albany Plan

1754 Delegates of seven colonies met in New York to discuss plans for collective defense The Pennsylvanian delegate, Benjamin Franklin, proposed a plan for an intercolonial government, but the plan was rejected by legislatures as demanding too great a surrender of power While there was no support for the plan, it was the precedent for the concept of uniting

Alexander Hamilton

1757-1804 First Secretary of Treasury Proposed the federal assumption of state debts, the establishment of a national bank, and the federal stimulation of industry through excise tax and tariffs Opponents, including Jefferson, saw his programs as aiding a small, elite group at the expense of the average citizen Hamilton died from wounds sustained in a pistol duel with Aaron Burr, Jefferson's vice President

Proclamation of 1763

1763 A result of Pontiac's Rebellion, a Native American uprising against the British for their mistreatment Forbade white settlement west of the Appalachians to reduce friction between Native Americans and the settlers Stated that NA owned the land on which they were residing Outraged colonists believed that the successful outcome of the French and Indian War should have allowed settlement in the Ohio Valley

Treaty of Paris, 1763

1763 Ended the Seven Years War (French and Indian) England took Canada and the east of the Mississippi from France France lost all North America holdings Spain took Louisiana Territory Treaty marked the end of salutary neglect, a relationship in which Britain ignored the colonies, allowing them to develop their own character and to flourish

Sugar Act

1764 It taxed goods imported to America to raise revenue for England Meant to assist England in recouping the debt it had taken on during the French and Indian War Strictly enforced, unlike the Molasses Act of 1733 Taxed goods included imports such as wine, cloth, coffee, and silk

Quartering Act

1765 Act that required the colonies in which British troops were stationed to provide soldiers with bedding and other basic needs Colonists reacted negatively because they feared having a standing army in their towns, as well as the additional expenses caused After the emergence of the US Constitution, the 3rd Amendment protected citizens against the stationing of troops in their homes

Stamp Act

1765 An internal tax, the sole purpose of which to raise revenue Required Americans to use "stamped" paper for legal documents, newspapers, and playing cards Affected the upper middle class Revenue was used solely to support British soldiers who protected the colonies

Eli Whitney

1765-1825 Inventor and manufacturer Invented the cotton gin in 1793, revolutionizing the cotton industry and increasing the need for slaves (ONLY IN 1800s CAN YOU SAY THAT COTTON WAS A CASH CROP) Established first factory to assemble muskets with interchangeable, standardized parts His innovations led to an "American system" of manufacture, where those laborers with less skill could use tools and templates to make identical parts; also the manufacture and assembly of parts could be done separately

Declaratory Act

1766 Act giving Britain power to tax and make laws for Americans in all cases Followed repeal of the Stamp Act, which the colonists had seen as a victory Suggested that Britain might pass more restrictive acts in the future

Townshend Acts

1767 Created by British Prime Minister Charles Townshend (Greenville's replacement) Formed a program of taxing imported items into colonies such as paper, lead, glass, and tea Replaced the direct taxes of the Stamp Act Led to boycotts by Boston merchants and was key contributor to the Boston Massacre

Methods of Colonial Resistance

1770s Colonists reacted first with restrained and respectful petitions against Britain Colonial governments organized "committees of correspondence" to share their view of British actions with neighboring colonies and with foreign govts, this was the start of political organization among colonies Colonial merchants boycott British goods Colonists finally turn to violence, crowds take action against customs officials and merchants who violated the boycotts Some colonists still follow Britain, "Loyalists"

Virtual Representation

1770s English principle stating that members of parliament represented all of Britain and the British Empire, even though members were only elected by a small number of constituents This idea was meant to be a response to the colonial claim of "no taxation without representation", meaning that the parliament was itself a representation of those being taxed

Tea Act and Boston Tea Party

1773 The Tea Act was a concession that allowed the British East India Company to ship tea directly to America and sell it at a bargain Because the cheap tea undercut the costs of local merchants, colonists opposed these shipments; they turned back ships, left shipments to rot, and held ships in port Led to the Boston Tea Party in December 1773, where citizens, dressed as NA, destroyed tea on the British ships

The Intolerable Acts (The Coercive Acts)

1774 Names given to the Quebec Act by colonists, as well as a series of acts by the British in response to the Boston Tea Party Closed the Port of Boston to all trade until citizens paid for the lost tea Increased the power of Massachusetts' Royal governor at the expense of the legislature Allowed Royal officials accused of crimes in Massachusetts to be tried elsewhere

George Washington's Leadership in the American Revolution

1775-1781 Named Commander-in-Chief of Continental Forces in June 1775 by 2nd Continental Congress Forced British to evacuate Boston in March 1776 Defeated British at Trenton, NJ, after crossing the Delaware on December 25, 1776 Survived tough winter at Valley Forge 1777-1778, Washington strengthened his troops during the winter and gained tremendous respect among the men General Cornwallis surrendered to Washington on October 19, 1781

Lee's Revolution

1776 Presented to Second Continental Congress by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia Urged Congress to declare independence and were accepted July 2, 1776 Said, "That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States"

Battle of Saratoga

1777 American Revolution battle fought in northern NY The British planned to end the American Revolution by splitting the colonies along the Hudson River, but they failed to mobilize properly The British ended up surrendering, allowing for the first great American victory Demonstrated that the British could more easily hold the cities, but that they would have trouble subduing the countrysides Considered a turning point, as French aid began after this battle

Anti-Federalists

1780s-1790s Those against the adoption of the Constitution; they were suspicious of political actions that would limit freedom and of a centralized gov't that would rule at a distance George Mason, Patrick Henry, and George Clinton were Anti-Federalists Many of the Anti-Federalists would come to oppose the policies of Alexander Hamilton and the Federalists The Jeffersonian Republican Party absorbed many of the Anti-Federalists after the Constitution was adopted

Western Land Cessions

1781-1787 The original 13 states ceded their western land claims to the new federal gov't The states that lacked western land claims feared that states with claims could grow in size, skewing representation in the federal gov't Before signing the US Constitution, these states demanded that those with claims cede the land Ordinances in 1784 and 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance 1787 organized the ceded areas in preparation for statehood New states were organized and admitted to the Union This policy strengthened the ties of the western farmers to the central gov't

Treaty of Paris 1783

1783 Peace settlement that ended the Revolutionary War US was represented by Ben Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay Britain recognized the US independence and outlined its borders US received all lands east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida, and south of the Great Lakes US agreed that Loyalists would not be persecuted

Land Ordinance of 1785; Northwest Ordinance of 1787

1785; 1787 The Land Ordinance was an act of Congress that sold western lands in order to settle that territory and to earn revenue for the federal gov't The Land Ordinance organized the distribution of land into townships and set aside a section of each township to be used for public education The Northwest Ordinance (NWO from now on) described how the land north of the Ohio River should be divided and helped to create five new states The NWO held that states would be admitted to the Union when the number of free inhabitants reached 60,000; slavery and involuntary servitude were not allowed in these states The NWO set a precedent of how states could join the Union and stood as a successful accomplishment by a federal gov't that had been seen before as ineffective

Shays' Rebellion

1786-1787 During a period of economic depression, Daniel Shays led a group of farmers to stop the courts from seizing a farmer's land and enacting debt collection Citizens of Boston raised an army and suppressed the rebels Americans felt pressure to strengthen the gov't and avoid future violence The rebellion served as a catalyst for writing the Constitution

Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise)

1787 Called for a bicameral legislative system in which the House of Representatives would be based on population and the Senate would have equal representation in Congress Combined pieces of the New Jersey Plan, the Virginia Plan, and other proposals Included the Three-Fifths Compromise, which counted slaves as 3/5 of a person for purposes of apportioning representation and called for direct taxation on the states

Federalists

1788 Americans who advocated centralized power and constitutional ratification Used the Federalist Papers to demonstrate how the Constitution was designed to prevent the abuse of power Supporters of Federalist platforms included Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay, and northeastern business groups Federalists believed that the government was given all powers that were not expressly denied to it by the Constitution ("loose interpretation" of the Constitution)

Judiciary Act of 1789

1789 Provided for a Supreme Court with a Chief Justice and five associates Established the office of Attorney General Created federal district courts and circuit courts

George Washington

1789-1797 First President Unanimously elected Served two terms His leadership led to a standard of a strong presidency with control of foreign policy and the power to veto Congress' legislation Declared the Proclamation of Neutrality in April 1793, keeping the US neutral in European Wars His Farewell Address in 1796 warned against entangling alliances, recommended isolationism, and warned of political party faction

Elastic Clause and the Tenth Amendment

1791 The 10th Amendment restricts the federal gov't to those powers delegated to it by the Constitution and gives all other powers to the states, or people Article 1, Section 8 grants the federal gov't the power to make all laws "which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers"

Jeffersonian Republicans (Democratic-Republicans)

1792-1860 Political party that absorbed the Anti-Federalists Proponents included Thomas Jefferson and James Madison Favored states' rights and power in the hands of commoners; supported by Southern agriculture and frontiersmen Believed that the federal gov't was denied all powers that were not expressly given to it by the Constitution ("strict interpretation") Supported the French Revolution's ideals, but they were against the revolution's bloody radicalism

Jay's Treaty

1794 An attempt to settle the conflict between the US and England over commerce, navigation, and violations of the Treaty of Paris of 1783 Provided for eventual evacuation by the British of their posts in the Northwest, but it allowed them to continue their fur trade Allowed for the establishment of commissions to settle US-Canadian border disputes and US-Britain losses during the Revolutionary War The generous terms to Britain upset Americans because these were promises that had been made and not fulfilled in the Treaty of Paris 1783

Whiskey Rebellion

1794 Western whiskey farmers refused to pay taxes on which Hamilton's revenue program was based A group of farmers terrorized the tax collectors, and Washington responded with a federalized militia George Washington and Alexander Hamilton rode out to Pennsylvania themselves to emphasize their commitment First test of federal authority Established federal gov't right to enforce laws

Pinckney Treaty

1795 Signed by the US and Spain Free navigation of the Mississippi River was given to the US US gained area north of Florida that had been in dispute Gave western farmers the "right of deposit" in New Orleans, enabling them to use the port for their goods and making it easier for them to get their goods to the east The US would later make the Louisiana Purchase, which would cement this right of deposit

John Adams

1797-1800 Second President First Vice President Diplomat and signer of the Declaration of Independence Led the country through the XYZ affair, the Alien and Sedition Acts, and the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions Kept the nation form war during his tenure as president

XYZ Affair

1798 The US wanted an end to French harassment of American shipping To settle the issue, French representatives demanded a bribe from the US just to open negotiations with French Minister Talleyrand US refused the bribe and suspended trade with France Led to creation of American Navy

Alien and Sedition Acts

1798-1799 Legislation enacted by the Federalists to reduce foreign influences and increase their power New hurdles to citizenship were established Broadened power to quiet print media critics The legislation was used to silence Jeffersonian Republican critics of the Federalists and was indicative of the poisoned relations between the two groups These acts tested the strength of the First Amendment and limited the freedom of the press Federalists gained a reputation as being a less democratic group, quickening their demise as a political organization

Declaration of Independence

July 4, 1776 Document restating political ideas justifying the separation from Britain Thomas Jefferson and his committee had the duty of drafting for the Continental Congress John Locke's influences served as a foundation for the document The final product lacked provisions condemning the British slave trade and a denunciation of the British people that the earlier drafts contained