BBH 310 Exam 1

How is a theory different from a law?

- A law is an EMPIRICALLY VERIFIED, QUANTITATIVE relationship between two or more variables. - Laws ideally should express their relationships mathematically. - Mathematical laws are rare in psychology.

What are the main characteristics of scientific explanations?

- An explanation based on the application of accepted scientific evidence. -empirical. (Based on objective and systematic observations) -rational. (Follow the rules of logic and are consistent with known facts) -testable. (Verifiable through observation and can be disproved) -parsimonious. (Provide the simplest explanation using the fewest possible assumptions) -general. (Apply beyond the original observations on which they are based) -tentative. (Never accepted as absolutely correct.) -rigorously evaluated. (Constantly evaluated for consistency with the evidence, for generality, and for parsimony.)

How can "Pseudo-explanation" invalidate a scientific explanation?

- Based on tautology: circular reasoning. (ex: You have to drive under the speed limit because it's illegal to drive faster than the speed limit) To avoid this trap, independent measures of behavior and the proposed explanation should be provided. (they should be equal)

How do belief-based and scientific explanations differ?

- Belief-based explanations are accepted because they come from a trusted source or appear to be consistent with a larger framework of belief (no evidence required) - they differ in tentativeness (Belief-based explanations are assumed to be true whereas scientific are accepted because they are consistent with existing objective evidence and went through rigorous testing)

Methods of Inquiry: Rational Method

- Descartes was a creative mathematician of the first order, an important scientific thinker, and an original metaphysician THREE STEPS: - willingness to doubt the truth of every belief (Why? How?) - Search for "SELF-EVIDENT TRUTHS" so obvious that there is no need for proof or explanation - DEDUCE a conclusion from the self-evident truths - the power of this method lies in the logical deduction of truths from self-evident truths, unfortunately, few self-evident truths exist - not used to develop scientific explanations used to develop TESTABLE hypotheses

What are the characteristics of pseudoscience?

- Findings disseminated to the general public via sources that are not peer-reviewed; no prepublication review for precision or accuracy. - Studies, if any, are VAGUELY defined and cannot be reproduced easily; results cannot be reproduced. - Failures are ignored, minimized, explained away, rationalized, or hidden. - No underlying mechanisms are identified, and NO NEW research is done; no progress is made and nothing concrete is learned. - Attempts to convince based on belief and faith rather than facts. - Serious CONFLICTS OF INTEREST; pseudoscientist make their living off pseudoscientific products or services

What are the characteristics of Science?

- Findings published in peer-reviewed publications using standards for honesty and accuracy aimed at scientists. - Experiments must be precisely described and be REPRODUCIBLE - Scientific failures are carefully scrutinized and studied for reasons for failure. - Over time and CONTINUED research, more and more is learned about scientific PHENOMENA. - ****Scientist has no PERSONAL STAKE in a specific outcome of a study. (unbiased, looking for actual truth in findings)

How is a theory different from a hypothesis?

- Hypothesis: A tentative explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation. - In contrast to a theory, a hypothesis is: •Not well substantiated. •Simpler and lacks a complex set of assumptions. •Like a theory, a hypothesis is TESTABLE.

Ethical Guidelines for Research:

- Nuremberg Code - Declaration of Helsinki - Belmont Report - APA ethical guidelines - Guidelines of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

What is the difference between a non-refereed and a refereed journal? Which is more trustworthy?

- Papers submitted to a REFEREED journal undergo review by two or more reviewers. - Papers submitted to a NON-REFEREED journal do not undergo review - One should prefer referred over non-refereed sources.

What can be done to reduce the influence of values and ideology in the research process?

- Promote ideological diversity - a philosophical approach that emphasizes the significance of differences - Become aware of one's own ideological biases. - Think about an issue from a perspective different from your own.

Tools for searching literature?

- PsycINFO - PsychARTICLES - PubMed - Google (not comprehensive or targeted at peer-review)

What makes a research question important or unimportant, and why should you ask important questions?

- Questions must justify the expense and time involved in doing the research. Important questions: •Focus on variables known to affect behavior. •Support only one of several competing models or theoretical views. •Provide answers that lead to practical application. Unimportant questions: •Already have FIRMLY established answers. •Are linked to variables that have small effects and have no theoretical interest. Focus on variables that may not be causally related

What do scientists do?

- Scientists make systematic observations of the natural world - Systematic observations produce QUANTITATIVE or QUALITATIVE data. - Scientists analyze data to discover relationships and draw conclusions - science is self-correcting - overturned by new evidence

Theory-Driven vs Data-Driven research?

- The quest for theories of learning once drove psychological research. - Some researchers (e.g., Skinner) argued for an a-theoretical approach to research. (should focus on functional relationships among variables rather than testing theories)

How is a theory different from a model?

- The word model is often used as a synonym for theory. - A model is a specific implementation of a general theoretical view (usually more visual - predicts behaviors)

Empiricism means...

- To look and see based on scientifically conducted tests. - A way of knowing based on sensory observation

Government Regulations

- U.S. Department of Health & Human Services issued guidelines covering the categories of research that must be reviewed by an institutional review board

What roles do theories play in science?

- Understanding (phenomena) - Prediction (tested empirically) - Organizing and interpreting research results (FRAMEWORK for understanding, results can be interpreted based on a theory) - Generating research (aka heuristic value of a theory: proceeding to a solution by trial and error or by rules that are only loosely defined. A theory can be WRONG but can still have heuristic value.)

Watson "Little Albert" study

- a classic study to condition a small child to fear a white rat - struck a steel bar with a hammer - researchers did not reverse the fear response - not ethical; no informed consent

APA Ethical Guidelines (2002)

- a comprehensive document SPECIFYING the ethical responsibilities of psychologists and researchers

What is a theory?

- a plausible or scientifically acceptable, well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world; an organized system of accepted knowledge that applies in a variety of circumstances to explain a specific set of phenomena and predict the characteristics of as yet unobserved phenomena. - Used loosely to refer to a WIDE RANGE OF CONCEPTS.

What is science?

- a set of activities aimed at producing a SYSTEMATIC reliable body of knowledge about the natural world and developing VALID explanations for its workings. (scientific method) - WHY? Science is used to test validity, advance knowledge, and free us from false beliefs.

Clinical trial

- a study testing the effects of therapy in humans - for drug studies, clinical studies compare subjects who receive the treatment to a control group who receives a placebo - the point of a control group is to get a group of people who are pretty much exactly the same as the treatment group for comparison - drug intervention trials are fairly straightforward (we just need a few high-quality studies that share results through publications and research reports)

What are cognitive biases?

- a systematic error in thinking that occurs when people are processing and interpreting info in the world around them and affects the decisions and judgments that they make. - the filtering process is a defense mechanism to process info fast

Imagine someone thought that taking vitamin C reduced the risk of heart disease. What's an example of a third variable that could explain the association without any direct causal link between vitamin C and heart disease?

- a third unmeasured variable influences both observed variables in such a way as to produce the correlation between them. -

Declaration of Helsinki

- adopted by the World Medical Association in 1964 Addresses...... •Health and welfare of human research participants. •All medical research must conform to accepted scientific principles and must be based on knowledge of relevant scientific literature. •Research must be reviewed by an independent group to ensure that the research protocol adheres to accepted ethical standards.

Nuremberg Code (1947)

- arose from the Nazi war crime trials after the Second World War and laid the groundwork for later ethical codes. Addresses... 1. Consent should be informed, voluntary, and non-coercive 2. Experiments should be useful and necessary. 3. Human experiments should be based on animal research 4. Physical and mental suffering should be avoided. 5. Death and disability should not be expected. 6. Risk should not exceed humanitarian importance 7. Human subjects should be protected from harm. 8. Only qualified scientists should conduct research. 9. Subjects should be free to end an experiment. 10. Scientists should prepare to end experiments.

Erroneous beliefs

- common false beliefs - it is easy to fall into the trap of false belief

Functions of a Research Design?

- exploratory datas collection and analysis - hypothesis testing

How do you assess the quality of a scholarly journal?

- find a relevant research article (use the reference section to identify more recently published sources) •What are the author's credentials and institutional affiliation? •Has the author's work been cited by others? •Is the publication current or dated? (Last 10 years) •Is the work published by a publisher of professional books or journals? •Is the work peer-reviewed? •Is the source a scholarly journal?

The Poison Squad

- government chemist Dr. Harvey Wiley's recruited 12 unmarried men to eat food contaminated with borax, salicylic acid, sulfuric acid, sodium benzoate, a formaldehyde. - The men agreed to eat contaminated food for at least 6 months and waived all liability for damages. - For 5 years, the purpose of this research was to see if preservatives were toxic to the human body.

What is Evidence-based Knowledge?

- has been tested - we want systematically and critically gathered evidence that the info is true

When is it appropriate to use the term "independent variable" versus "dependent variable"? What is the difference between variables that can and cannot be manipulated?

- independent is a variable whose values are chosen and set by the experimenter - independent of the participant's behavior - dependent is a variable whose value you observe and measure in experimental designs. - manipulation occurs when you are looking for changes in the value of another that occur as a result

Methods of Inquiry: Method of Authority

- involves consulting an authoritative source (for ex: a book, the internet, or an expert) - useful in EARLY stages of life acquiring knowledge - Does not always provide valid answers - source may be BIASED - can be used to generate new ideas that can later be tested EMPIRICALLY

How should we evaluate claims?

- look at reliable evidence-based sources of information about the issue. - check to see if it is biologically plausible (supported by previous research) - any distinguishing characteristics?

Experimental Research

- manipulation of one or more independent variables & control over extraneous variables

Scientists prefer that the so-called "facts" around this world be evidence-based. What does that mean?

- most people tend to accept the things they hear without evidence - we want systematically and critically gathered evidence that the info is true - understand what sort of evidence is reasonable to collect, and how it may be interpreted

Why should you care about learning about research?

- one is exposed to research every day. - helps us deal with everyday research issues rationally. - avoiding the trap of UNTESTED explanations required ADOPTING THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD (being skeptical).

Examples of Pseudoscience?

- phrenology - the detailed study of the shape and size of the cranium as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities - astrology - the divination of the supposed influences of the stars and planets on human affairs and terrestrial events by their positions and aspects

Sources of Research Info: Conventions and professional meetings

- provide the most up-to-date information - researchers from many areas present research findings at conventions and meetings - researchers may be presented in a paper (oral) session or poster session

How can applied issues be good sources of research ideas?

- research ideas can derive from the need to solve PRACTICAL problems.

The Institutional Review Board (IRB)

- research proposals are screened for adherence to ethical guidelines - ensures that participants are treated ethically - assesses the risk-benefit ratio of doing research

Scholarly means....

- review articles - provides current research and theoretical views - one should prefer referred over non-refereed sources

Problems with peer review process?

- reviewers may see themselves as GATEKEEPERS - reviewers may be DIRECT COMPETITORS of the authors and may be biased low rates of inter-reviewer agreement - Gender (males are more likely to be reviewers, females are more critical)

What is meant by the statement that science is a way of thinking?

- science is not just a way to acquire info - careful definition of a PROBLEM - rigorously testing HYPOTHESES - leads a person to be SKEPTICAL

Why do we believe things without evidence?

- shortcuts - an evolutionary path that helps them to problem solve/make decisions - life experiences - we grow and change depending on cultural norms and unexpected events - different variations of mistakes in reasoning

Purpose of a clinical trial?

- test the effects of a treatment on people and compare the results to people who did not receive the treatment

What is a research question?

- the question around which you center your research. It should be: •CLEAR: provides enough specifics that one's audience can easily understand its purpose. •FOCUSED: it is narrow enough that it can be answered thoroughly in the space the writing task allows. •CONCISE: it is expressed in the fewest possible words. •COMPLEX: it is not answerable with a simple "yes" or "no," but rather requires synthesis and analysis of ideas and sources prior to the composition of an answer. •ARGUABLE: its potential answers are open to debate rather than accepted facts. - The specificity of a well-developed research question helps writers avoid the "all-about" paper and work toward supporting a specific, arguable thesis.

Scientific Evidence

- the results of observations, formal data collection, and critical data analysis to continuously generate, test, reformulate, and revise hypotheses and theories. (we are empiricists - we look for truth through our sense and scientific tools to gather data) In the practice of medicine: evidence-based medicine - Ex: Bloodletting, doctors cut patients open to drain out some of the blood (used for so long as a treatment even though it killed a lot of people - should have been constituted ineffective)

Why do we believe things?

- we carry a lot of facts in our head - when things are precisely demonstrable every time, it is reasonable to consider them facts - things that seem obvious but don't necessarily mean it's correct - anecdote - a short story or example - assertions - a statement or claim

Tanning Bed example Question

- what needs to be changed in order to change the outcome? - answers to these questions are not always as obvious as they might seem on the surface - properly designed studies; separate from any effects

What makes a good theory?

1. Ability to account for data ( accounts for well-established FACTS) 2. Explanatory relevance (the explanation must make sense under the specified conditions) 3. Testability (capable of passing or failing an empirical test). 4. Prediction of novel events (PREDICT PHENOMENA outside of original test) 5. Parsimony (contains the fewest possible assumptions.)

What are the 8 practices of scientists and engineers identified in the Next Generation Science Standards?

1. Asking questions and defining problems 2. Developing and using models 3. Planning and carrying out investigations 4. Analyzing and interpreting data 5. Using mathematics and computational thinking 6. Constructing explanations and designing solutions (EXPLANATIONS) 7. Engaging in argument from evidence (ARGUMENTATION) 8. Obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information (PERSUASIVELY)

How to write a research question?

1. Choose an interesting general topic 2. Do preliminary research on your general topic 3. Consider your audience 4. Start asking questions 5. Evaluate your question (clear? focused? complex?)

15. Steps of the Research Process Correct Order:

1. Developing a research idea and hypothesis. 2. Choosing an appropriate research design. 3. Choosing an appropriate subject population. 4. Deciding on what to observe. 5. Conducting a study. 6. Analyzing data. 7. Reporting results.

Why do scientific explanations fail?

1. Faulty Inference 2. Pseudo-explanation 3. Emergence of new, conflicting information

What are the 2 purposes of a literature review?

1. Lead into your research question (Intro, Review of Literature, Research question, Hypothesis) 2. Answer a research question (through review paper)

What is the difference between the three types of reviews we covered?

1. Narrative Review: or TRADITIONAL LITERATURE REVIEW is a comprehensive, critical and objective analysis of the current knowledge on a topic. 2. Systematic Review: a summary of the literature that uses explicit and reproducible methods to SYSTEMATICALLY search, critically appraise, and synthesize on a specific issue. It synthesizes the results of multiple primary studies related to each other by using strategies that reduce bias/random errors. 3. Meta-analysis: a research process used to systematically synthesize or merge the findings of single, independent studies, using STATISTICAL METHODS to calculate an overall or 'absolute' effect. A meta-analysis is a systematic review, but a systematic review is not necessarily a meta-analysis.

How do values affect the research process?

1. PRACTICES: Values affect the practice of science, which affects the integrity of findings. 2. QUESTIONS: Values determine which research questions are addressed and which are ignored. 3. DATA: Values affect how data are interpreted (for example, using value-laden terms). 4. SPECIFIC ASSUMPTIONS: Values influence basic assumptions in science and may cause scientists to make inferences in specific areas of study. 5. GLOBAL ASSUMPTIONS: Values affect the nature and character of research conducted in an area..

What are the 2 steps suggested by Cialdini (1994) for exploring the causes of behaviors, and how to they relate to explaining behavior?

1. Scouting - some behavior or event that catches your attention; making systematic observations of naturally occurring behavior 2. Trapping - identify the factors that might affect the behavior that you have scouted.

what are the 2 functions of the IRB? What 2 principles does the IRB adhere to?

2 functions: 1. It ensures that research meets ethical standards. 2. It protects researchers from liability arising from research participation. 2 principles: 1. Acts to protect human participants from unethical treatment. 2. Helps to educate and train staff concerning the IRBs function.

20, Does early life stress affect risk for cardiovascular disease through increasing adiposity? Is this research question clear and focused? A. Clear and focused B. Clear but not focused C. Focused but not clear D. Not clear or focused

A. Clear and focused

23. A research question that is not answerable with a simple "yes" or "no" is... A. Complex B. Arguable C. Clear D. Focused

A. Complex

A paper describing the results of an experiment comparing the effects of a drug to a placebo. A. Primary research article B. Secondary source C. Tertiary source

A. Primary research article

6. What is science not? A. Settled B. Self-correcting C. Cumulative D. Collaborative

A. Settled

33. Select three functions of a peer review: A. To provide advice to the editor of publication decisions. B. To make sure the research is perfect. C. To provide feedback to authors. D. So the authors can learn to do better science and writing. E. To preview if your research will be liked by others.

A. To provide advice to the editor of publication decisions. C. To provide feedback to authors. D. So the authors can learn to do better science and writing.

2. Empiricists find truth through their senses and scientific tools to gather data A. True B. False

A. True

39. Frank uses a ground-breaking statistical method to merge the findings of single, independent studies on the association between the amount of lead in water pipes and educational attainment to calculate an overall effect. He writes up his results to submit for publication. What is the best choice for the type of review article that Frank wrote? A. A narrative review B. A meta-analysis C. A systematic review. D. A literature review

B. A meta-analysis

21. Marissa reads an article she found on PubMed. This article is most likely: A. Less accurate B. A primary or secondary source C. Not peer-reviewed

B. A primary or secondary source

22. Which of the following is an empirical and scholarly article? A. A literature review on water use in rural United States B. A randomized control trial of a drug for depression in post-menopausal women C. An article describing the theory of planned behavior D. A book review of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson

B. A randomized control trial of a drug for depression in post-menopausal women

34. What is the main purpose of a literature review? A. Explains the problem B. Asks the question "what do we know?" C. Defines the population D. Finds a solution

B. Asks the question "what do we know?"

24. What is the first step of writing a research question? A. Start asking questions B. Choose a topic that interests you C. Think about who you are writing for D. Do a literature review of the general topic

B. Choose a topic that interests you

9. Judy has a theory that people who are introverted will display withdrawn behavior, but one of her measures for introversion relies on participants displaying withdrawn behavior. Judy's study relies on what type of reasoning? A. Independent B. Circular C. Conflicting D. Scientific

B. Circular

7. Scientific practices end when results are found. A. True B. False

B. False

40. Bella decides her research project will focus on nutrition. Which of the following is an operationalized construct for this factor? A. Fruits and vegetables B. Farmers' markets C. Participants fill out food logs daily D. Obesity

B. Farmers' markets

41. What is the dependent variable in Thomas' research question: What is the impact of land use on general health in low-income neighborhoods? A. Low-income B. General health C. Neighborhoods D. Land use

B. General health

18. Carlos has a hypothesis that nicotine leads to increased feelings of anxiety because it affects the amygdala. Is this a functional or mechanistic explanation? A. Functional B. Mechanistic C. Neither

B. Mechanistic

A paper synthesizing all the previously published studies investigating a drug. A. Primary research article B. Secondary source C. Tertiary source

B. Secondary source

14. _________________ science does not exist A. Generalizable B. Settled C. Biased D. Empirical

B. Settled

17. Which of these does NOT apply to a hypothesis? A. Testable B. Well-substantiated C. Complex set of assumptions D. Simple E. Tentative explanation

B. Well-substantiated C. Complex set of assumptions

1. Hindsight bias is... A. The tendency to interpret new information as confirmation of your preexisting beliefs and opinions. B. the tendency to perceive past events as more predictable than they actually were C. The tendency to take personal responsibility for positive outcomes and blame external factors for negative outcomes D. The tendency for people to believe that their own opinions, beliefs, and attributes are more common and normative in others than they actually are, and that opinions, beliefs and attributes that others have but they do not share are more indicative of someone's personality in general.

B. the tendency to perceive past events as more predictable than they actually were

How do basic and applied research differ, how are they similar?

Basic: conducted to investigate issues - acquire general information - little emphasis on application to real work examples Applied: investigate a real-world problem - the goal is to apply the results - substantial overlap between basic/applied

36. As a general rule of thumb, data should be published within the last __ years to be considered "current:" A. 50 years B. 35 years C. 10 years D. 5 years

C. 10 years

3. Hannah proposes a study examining whether early life stress is associated with cardiovascular disease risk in mid-life. She knows that obesity can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. What is the best way for Hannah to be sure that the increase in cardiovascular disease risk that she may find in her study is because of early life stress and not obesity? A. Exclude participants who are obese from her study B. Ask the participants in her study if they are obese C. Control for participant's body mass index (BMI) in her analyses D. It doesn't matter. Hannah can ignore the effect of obesity

C. Control for participant's body mass index (BMI) in her analyses

32. All of the following tools are the most useful in providing comprehensive, peer reviewed publications EXCEPT: A. PsychINFO B. PsychARTICLES C. Google D. PubMed

C. Google

12. What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis? A. Theories are not well substantiated and are more like educated guesses. Hypotheses tend to be well-supported explanations. B. Theories are limited in scope; hypotheses are an organized body of knowledge. C. Hypotheses are usually simple. Theories involve a complex set of assumptions and logical relationships. D. Hypotheses state the expected result but don't provide a tentative explanation

C. Hypotheses are usually simple. Theories involve a complex set of assumptions and logical relationships.

35. What is NOT included in the introduction section of a research paper? A. Hypothesis B. Literature review C. Methods D. Research question

C. Methods

8. Lloyd studies how people recover from surgery by asking them to write down their experiences in the days following the procedure. This type of research is... A. Quantitative B. Quantiferative C. Qualitative D. Nominal

C. Qualitative

A paper summarizing the main information a doctor needs to know before prescribing a drug. A. Primary research article B. Secondary source C. Tertiary source

C. Tertiary source

4. What is the difference between basic and applied research? A. The goal of applied research is to acquire general information about phenomena, while basic research aims to generate information that can be used to solve a problem. B. The goal of applied research is to acquire medical information about mechanisms, while basic research aims to generate information that can be used to solve a problem. C. The goal of basic research is to acquire general information about phenomena, while applied research aims to generate information that can be used to solve a problem

C. The goal of basic research is to acquire general information about phenomena, while applied research aims to generate information that can be used to solve a problem

Common causes of Cognitive Bias:

Common causes of Cognitive Bias: -Limits on the mind's attention -Individual motivations -Mental shortcuts called "heuristics" -Social pressure -emotions

Common Cognitive Biases

Confirmation Bias - The tendency to look for evidence to confirm beliefs Hindsight Bias - The tendency to perceive past events as more predictable than they actually were. both cognitive and motivational explanations. Self-Serving Bias - The tendency to take personal responsibility for positive outcomes and blame external factors for negative outcomes. False-Consensus Bias - The tendency for people to believe that their own opinions, beliefs, and attributes are more common and normative than they actually are. And the beliefs of others are more indicative of someone's personality in general.

What is meant by confirmation and disconfirmation strategies for testing a theory?

Confirmational strategy: Looking for evidence to CONFIRM predictions from a theory. - Confirmation does not prove a theory is correct. - Confirmation may occur when predictions are too loosely defined. Dis-confirmational strategy: Using a positive research result to DISCONFIRM a theory's predictions.

How are theories tested?

Conformational strategy Dis-conformational strategy

26. What is a good source of research ideas? A. Watching your dad cook dinner B. Reading a meta-analysis of the association between green space and violent crime C. Listening to lectures in your classes D. All of the above

D. All of the above

11. Ariana is a graduate student studying how aging affects mitochondrial functioning. She is not sure what assay (test) to conduct on her experiment, so she asks her advisor. What method of acquiring information is Ariana using? A. Scientific B. Rational C. Pseudoscientific D. Authority

D. Authority

25. What should you do after you write a research question? A. Consider your audience B. Focus your research question C. Start recruiting participants D. Evaluate your research question

D. Evaluate your research question

37. Juan's paper, published in Nature, explained the results of his innovative research on the role of the microbiome in depression. He wrote it in collaboration with his graduate student seven years ago. Is this probably a good, peer-reviewed, current paper? A. Good and peer-reviewed, but not current B. Current and peer-reviewed, but not good C. Good and current but not peer-reviewed D. Good, current, and peer-reviewed

D. Good, current, and peer-reviewed

38. What is the independent variable in Hannah's research question: What is the impact of inflammation on postpartum depression among first-time mothers who experienced stress during pregnancy? A. Post-partum depression B. First-time mothers C. Stress during pregnancy D. Inflammation

D. Inflammation

5. What is philosophy an example of? A. Protoscience B. Peudoscience C. Science D. Non-science

D. Non-science

19. Jeremy has a blog where he has a post discussing what he thinks are the best biomarkers of inflammation. What kind of a source is this? A. Primary B. Secondary C. Tertiary D. Not a good source, but a good place to start

D. Not a good source, but a good place to start

Ill-Gotten Information:

Demonstrably important and beneficial information gathered methodically through means completely unacceptable to us. Ethical Issues raised: - Subjects were subjected to brutal, harmful methods without their consent. - Should existing ill-gotten information be used if it is helpful to society? Arguments For using ill-gotten info: •if it benefits society •Honoring the sacrifice of victims Arguments Against using ill-gotten info: •The data are morally-tainted •Using the data justifies evil •Not using the data gives "voice" to the victims

13. Select all that are characteristics of a typical good scientific study.. A. Personal B. Empirical C. Not falsifiable D. Parsimonious E. Tentative F. Makes assumptions G. Irreproducible

Empirical, Parsimonious, Tentative

What is Eugenics and the Nazi Experiments?

Eugenics was a commonly accepted means of protecting society from the offspring (and therefore equally suspect) of those individuals deemed inferior or dangerous - the poor, the disabled, the mentally ill, criminals, and people of color.

What initial appraisals should you make of an article that you are going to read?

Evaluating Intro (Has relevant research been adequately reviewed? Are the purposes of the study clearly stated?Are the hypotheses clearly stated, and do they flow logically from the discussion in the introduction?) Evaluating Methods (Was the nature of the subject sample specified?) Evaluating Results (Note which effects were statistically significant.) Evaluating Discussion (Does the author point the way to directions for future research?)

How can experience, unsystematic observation, and systematic observation help you come up with research ideas?

Experience: - UNSYSTEMATIC observation: •Observation of everyday behavior. •Observation of animal behavior. • Pay attention to research presented in your classes. •Good way to discover a general research idea. - SYSTEMATIC observation: •Careful observation of real-world behavior. •Published research reports and research projects on the Internet. •One's own previous or ongoing research.

Proving a theory true is impossible, true or false?

Flase, A theory isn't speculation about what might be true. It is a set of propositions that seek to explain a particular phenomenon or set of facts.

How do ideological values affect the research process?

Ideological values can affect SOCIAL science negatively in 3 ways: 1. Values becoming embedded in the theory and methods of the science (questions addressed from one point of view) 2. Researchers might focus only on issues that validate the dominant (popular or common) ideology. 3. Behaviors and motives of members of the nondominant ideology might be mischaracterized

How do mechanistic and functional theories differ?

Mechanistic explanation: (preferred) •Describes the mechanism and the chain of cause and effect. •Describes HOW something works. Functional explanation: •Describes an attribute in terms of its function. •Describes WHY behavior exists •Ex: beauty functions to attract a mate.

Peer-review and some ethical problems with it?

Peer-reviewed: Articles submitted for publication are reviewed by experts in the field. Top Problems: - incompetent, biased, required citation

Difference between Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Research Literature?

Primary - includes Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion Secondary - synthesize, compare, and contrast several primary research articles Tertiary - generally broader, less focused on the details of science (lbooks)

How do science, protoscience, non-science, and pseudoscience differ?

Protoscience: Science at the EDGES of current scientific understanding (sometimes called "fringe science"). Ex: computer science/epigenetics Nonscience: a legitimate academic discipline that applies systematic techniques to gather information; lacks any empirical test (not ethical). Pseudoscience: a set of ideas PRESENTED as science but are NOT really a science. (false science; ex: phrenology, EDMR, astrology)

Classifying Theories:

Quantitative theory. •defines the relationships between variables and constants in the form of mathematical formulas. •Relates NUMERICAL values of variables to one another. Qualitative theory. •states the relationships between variables in VERBAL rather than mathematical terms.

Why are scholarly journals the preferred sources for research information?

Scholarly journals provide CURRENT research and THEORETICAL views

Ethical issues in internet-based research

Three specific areas where internet-based research poses problems: 1. Informed Consent (think about public pages on social media like Facebook - edit any data collected by removing names) 2. Anonymity (Assuring participants that they cannot be identified as research participants) and Confidentiality (Guaranteeing the security of participants' responses) 3. The use of Deception (debrief/dehoax the participants about the deception)

When is IRB Approval required?

When a project meets the regulatory definitions of human-subjects research provided by the Common Rule or FDA regulations. Common Rule: applies to most research conducted by healthcare professionals. They ask: •Is this regulated research? •Are human subjects involved? FDA Regulations: (uncommon for students or healthcare prof to use) •Use of an unapproved drug or biologic •Use of an FDA-approved drug other than the use of a marketed drug in the course of medical practice.

What kinds of questions do scientists refrain from investigating? Why?

belief-based ?

What are the characteristics of an empirical question?

can be answered with objective observations

How do scientific and commonsense explanations differ?

commonsense explanations: based on our own sense of what is true about the world around us (tend to be accepted at face value) - they both start with an observation of events in the real world - difference in the level of proof required to support the explanation - scientific explanations are subjected to rigorous research scrutiny

What is theory-driven research? Relative advantages and disadvantages?

focuses on identifying constructs and the relationships among them; described in terms of the following tasks: (1)identifying a research gap; (2)deriving research questions from existing or extended theory; (3)formulating HYPOTHESES to address the questions; (4)designing studies to minimize confounding effects; (5)collecting data using appropriate instruments; and (6)analyzing data to draw inferences. •Theory-driven research has dominated the SOCIAL and organizational sciences. •A theory identifies CONSTRUCTS AND RELATIONSHIPS among them that are abstracted from specific phenomena.

More problems/Solutions for peer-review process?

incomplete, incoherent, or illogical reviews (train reviewers - require training before reviewing) reviews do not offer constructive criticism and maintain orthodoxy (compensate reviewers to motivate/increase potential) with advances in tech, it is easier for reviewers to identify authors (require reviewers to sign reviews & ask follow-up questions) editors not actively involved in the review process (Encourage editors to form groups to encourage critical thinking) the peer review process is often too slow (impose a 30 day deadline)

Why is it necessary to define your terms operationally?

it defines the variable in terms of the operations required to measure it

The Belmont Report (1979)

presented 3 basic principles of ethical treatment of human participants: 1. Respect for persons - making their own decisions, special protection, volunteer/fully informed) 2. Beneficence - benefits maximized, harm minimized 3. Justice - researcher and participant should share costs/benefits

Investigator's Responsibilities:

•Continuing Review •Modifications •Tracking adverse events •Reporting noncompliance •Inactivation •Complete and maintain IRB training •Follow IRB approved protocol •Supervise study and people •Place protection of subjects first. •Verify IRB approval before beginning •Keep participants informed throughout study •Ensuring informed consent occurs at the beginning of the study •Regularly collect and assess information about safety and expected problems. •Confirm that data collected are accurate •Maintain organized records.

What are the steps involved in the research process?

•Developing a research idea and hypothesis •Choosing an appropriate research design •Choosing an appropriate subject population (target pop) •Deciding on what to observe. (the independent variable) •Conducting a study •Analyzing data •Reporting results

types of values and their role in science:

•Embedded CULTURAL values can lead to a bias. •can be expressed as value JUDGEMENTS concerning the best way to live one's life. •can influence how we CONNCEPTUALIZE BEHAVIOR. •can affect how we LABEL behavior or psychological phenomena. •can influence HOW AND WHAT scientists study - Gender-based values can influence all aspects of science. (Critical feminist psychologists have argued that all science is inspired by politics.) Values of journal editors (GATEKEEPERS) may influence what is allowed to be published in scientific journals. (problematic when values suppress research on one side of an issue and determine how behavior is interpreted.)

Why should you review the literature on your topic before you begin to design your study?

•Helps avoid needless DUPLICATION of effort. •Helps generate ideas about research design, such as what variables to include, what materials to use, and what procedures to follow. Keeps one up to date on empirical or theoretical issues

In what 2 ways can a theory help you develop research ideas?

•Helps one predict behavior that may occur under conditions previously not observed. •Two or more theories can account for the same initial observations. (Research can determine which competing prediction is most valid)

Why is it important to consider new or conflicting information when forming scientific explanations?

•New information requires older explanations to be modified. - BELIEF PERSEVERANCE: Tendency to maintain old beliefs even in the face of new evidence. •No such thing as "SETTLED SCIENCE." •Scientists are and must always be willing to modify their explanations and beliefs in the face of new information (so, it can help with updating practices)

How can "faulty inference" invalidate a scientific explanation?

•Scientific explanations involve an inference process. •Inference: a conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning. •If the inference is wrong, the explanation fails.

What is data-driven research? Relative advantages and disadvantages?

•has been popular in some of the natural sciences, such as meteorology and astronomy, where large amounts of data are collected by sensors. •due to the complexity of the environments and processes that generate data, there may not be a strong theoretical base for the questions being studied. •is typically described in terms of the following tasks: (1)identifying research question(s) based on a knowledge gap in an area, (2)creating/obtaining data relevant to phenomena in the domain; (3)cleaning, extracting, annotating data to prepare for analyses; (4)integrating, aggregating, and representing data to detect correlations or patterns; (5)analyzing data to place correlations and patterns in context; and (6)interpreting the patterns to arrive at solutions.