Behavior Mod Final Exam

36. Ideally, what four qualities should a reinforcer have (besides the necessary quality of functioning as a reinforcer)? (see p. 42.)

1. Are readily available 2. Can be present immediately following the desired behavior 3. Can be used over and over again without causing rapid satiation 4. Do not require a great deal of time to consume

14. State 7 defining characteristics of behaviour modification.

1. Defining problems in terms of behaviour 2. Its treatment is ways of altering an individual's current environment. 3. Can be described precisely. 4. Often applied by individuals in everyday life. 5. The techniques stem from science of learning 6. Emphasizes scientific demonstration that an intervention was responsible for a behaviour change. 7. It places high value on accountability

13. List five areas of application within health psychology.

1. Direct treatment of medical problems 2. Establishing treatment compliance 3. Promotion of healthy living 4. Management of caregivers 5. Stress management.

5. Describe two dimensions of behaviour. Give an example of each.

1. Duration of behaviour - The length of time that behaviour lasts. Example, Mary studied for 1 hour. 2. Frequency of behaviour - The number of instances that occur in a given period of time. Example, Frank planted 5 tomato plants in his garden in 30 minutes.

11. Why is it necessary to be specific when selecting a behavior for a reinforcement program?

1. Help to ensure the reliability of detecting instances of the behavior and changes in its frequency 2. Increase the likelihood that the reinforcement program will be applied consistently.

10. Why is it necessary to consider the setting as a factor influencing your operant extinction program?

1. Minimize the influence of alternative reinforcers on the undesirable behavior to be extinguished 2. Maximize the chances of the behavior modifier persisting with the program

1. Identify the three basic stages in any shaping procedure as presented at the beginning of this chapter, and describe them with an example (either Frank's case or an example of your own).

1. Specify the final target behaviour • Franks goal was to jog a quarter of a mile each day. However, for a chronic non-exerciser, this was more than could be expected. 2. Identify a response that could be used as a starting point in working towards a final target behaviour • Frank decided that he would put on his sneakers and walk around the outside of the house once (approximately 30 yards). Although this was a long way from a quarter mile, it was a start. 3. Reinforce the starting behaviour; then reinforce closer and closer approximations until eventually the final target behaviours occurs • Frank decided to use the opportunity to drink beer as a reinforcer. Because he would receive a beer only by walking the walking increased. This led Frank to be able to run a quarter mile eventually.

5. Describe four advantages of intermittent over CRF (continuous reinforcement) for maintaining behavior.

1. The reinforcer remains effective longer because satiation takes place more slowly. 2. Tends to take longer to extinguish. 3. Individuals work more consistently on certain intermittent schedules. 4. Is more likely to persist after being transferred to reinforcers in the natural environment.

23. List four myths or misconceptions about behaviour modification.

1. Use of rewards by behaviour modifiers to change behaviour is bribery. 2. Behaviour modification is outdated. 3. Behaviour modification only changes symptoms; it doesn't get at the underlying problem. 4. Behaviour Modifiers are cold and unfeeling and don't develop empathy with their clients.

9. What are three characteristic effects of an FR schedule?

1. a high, steady rate until reinforcement 2. a post reinforcement pause 3. high resistance to extinction

7. Briefly, in a sentence each, describe five variables that influence the development of a conditioned reflex.

1. the greater the number of pairings of a CS with an UR, the greater the ability of the CS to elicit the CR 2. stronger conditioning occurs if the CS precedes the US 3. a CS acquires greater ability to elicit a CR if the CS is always paired with the US 4. when several NS precede an US, the stimulus that is most consistently associated with the US is the one most likely to become a strong CS. 5. respondent conditioning will develop more quickly and strongly when the CS or US (or both) are intense rather than weak.

8. Diagram an example of higher-order conditioning.

1st order: Pairing: NS (classical music) US (food) -> UR (salivating) CS1 (classical music) -> CR (salivating) 2nd order: Pairing: NS (yellow light) CS1 (classical music) -> CR (salivating) CS2 (yellow light) -> CR (salivating)

27. Explain what an FD schedule is. Illustrate with two examples FD schedules from everyday life (at least one of which is not in this chapter).

A Fixed Duration schedule in which a reinforcer in presented only if a behavior occurs continuously for a fixed period of time. Example 1, a worker paid by the hour, because of payment he must work continuously for a certain amount of time. Example 2, waiting at a traffic light, you must stop your car when the light turns red and let the other cars pass for a fixed period of time until the light turns green and you are reinforced by being able to accelerate to your destination.

9. What is a behavioural deficit? Give two examples that are not in this chapter

A behaviour deficit is too little behaviour of a certain type. Example 1, Jim doesn't speak up for himself enough. Example 2, Jane has trouble making eye contact with people when she talks to them

11. Distinguished between a simple conditioned reinforcer and a generalized conditioned reinforcer. Explain why a generalized conditioned reinforcer is more effective than a simple conditioned reinforcer

A conditioned reinforcer that is paired with a single backup reinforcer is called a simple conditional reinforcer. A stimulus that is paired with more than one kind of backup reinforcer is referred to as a generalized conditioned reinforcer. A generalized conditioned reinforcer is usually more effective than a simple conditioned reinforcer because a generalized conditioned reinforcer has many different backup reinforcers, thus you have a better chance of getting a stronger conditioned reinforcer that will be more effective, as it is more likely you will come in contact with a backup reinforcer more frequently than if you just had one, meaning a high reinforcing rate.

20. In general, what is a contingency? Give an example that is not in this chapter.

A contingency is an if-then type of arrangement. Example, you put the key in your ignition in your car and turn it, then your car will start.

4. Define CRF and give an example that is not in this chapter.

A continuous reinforcement is an arrangement in which each instance of a particular response is reinforced. An example would be each time you ring a doorbell, the bell inside the house rings.

22. Explain what an FI/LH schedule is, and illustrate with an example from everyday life. (Hint: Think of behaviors that occur at certain fixed times, such as arriving for meals, plane departures, and cooking.)

A fixed interval schedule with a limited hold. After a fixed interval, there's a limited amount of time for the response to be made. Example, when catching a plane, you can arrive at any time before boarding starts, but the plane will only wait for a limited amount of time after that.

19. Briefly describe an example of a pitfall of operant extinction. Which type of pitfall does your example illustrate?

A friend asks another friend for advice on a problem they are having. The friend does not pay attention to the friend asking for help because they are busy talking to someone else. This friend asking for advice is less likely to ask their other friend in the future about problems, and this may decrease communication and trust in the friendship. This is an example of pitfall type 1 (Unaware-Misapplication), where someone is unknowingly applying extinction (ignoring the friend) for a desirable behavior (asking for advice).

3. Define and give an example of schedule of reinforcement.

A rule specifying which occurrences of a given behavior, if any, will be reinforced. Example, every time a child brushes their teeth in the morning, she gets a token from their parents, if she does not brush her teeth, she does not receive any token.

15. What do we mean by stimulus equivalence class? Give an example that is not in this chapter

A set of completely dissimilar stimuli that an individual has learned to group or match together or respond to in the same way. Example, the stimulus equivalence class of sports, although sports are all different (ie. softball, soccer, and archery)

1. What is a stimulus? Give two examples that are not form the text.

A stimulus is a person, object or event that is currently present in ones immediate surroundings, that impinge on one's sense receptors can affect behavior. Example 1, of stimuli are the smell of pie cooking in the oven Example 2, the sounds of squeaky brakes at a stop sign.

7. Explain in two or three sentences what a token economy is

A token economy is a behaviour modification program in which individuals can earn tokens for specific behaviours and can cash in their tokens for backup reinforcers.

27. What is adventitious reinforcement? What is a superstitious behaviour? Give an example of each that are not in this chapter.

Adventitious reinforcer is a behavior accidentally followed by a reinforcer may be strengthened even if did not actually produce the reinforcer. Example, a child who is in their room writing on walls, when the parent calls out for the child to come get an ice cream sundae. Superstitious behavior is a behavior that is strengthened and maintained by adventitious reinforcement Example, snaps fingers before playing the slots because it worked once to win the jackpot.

2. What is an ABC assessment?

An ABC assessment is the process of identifying the antecedents and consequences of a behavior.

1. Define and give an example of intermittent reinforcement.

An arrangement in which a behavior is reinforced only occasionally rather than every time it occurs. Example, Jan's problem solving behavior was not reinforced after each math problem the she solved. Instead, she received reinforcement after a fixed number of problem-solving responses had occurred.

4.What is positive reinforcement?

An event that, when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the behavior to increase in frequency (reward)

15. Define behavioral community psychology.

Applications to socially significant problems in unstructured community settings where the behavior of individuals is not considered deviant in the traditional sense.

21. What is aversion therapy? Give an example.

Aversion therapy is the process of pairing something unpleasant with an undesirable behavior, with the goal of decreasing the undesirable behavior. Example, pairing disulfiram with alcohol for alcoholics in order for the alcoholics to pair nausea with alcohol, and want to quit drinking.

14. What is the effect of continuous versus intermittent reinforcement on the resistance to extinction of an operant behavior?

Behavior that has been intermittently reinforced extinguishes more slowly than behavior that has been continuously reinforced. Behavior that extinguishes slowly is said to be resistant to extinction. Extinction is typically quicker after continuous reinforcement than after intermittent reinforcement.

7.What is operant behavior? Give an example, and indicate how the example fits the definition of operant behavior.

Behavior that operates on the environment to generate consequences and are in turn influenced by these consequences Example, a man holds the door open for another lady and the lady replies "Thanks!" This fits the definition of operant behavior because holding the door open generates a positive consequence (verbal) which will influence the man to open the door more often when appropriate.

19. Define behavioral sport psychology.

Behavioral sport psychology is the use of behavior analysis principles and techniques to enhance the performance and satisfaction of athletes and others associated with sports.

12. Define behaviour modification

Behaviour modification involves the systematic application of learning principles and techniques to assess and improve individuals' covert and overt behaviours in order to enhance their daily functioning.

16. Define behavioural assessment.

Behavioural assessment involves the collection and analysis of information and data in order to: a) identify and describe target behaviours b) identify possible causes of the behaviour c) guide the selection of an appropriate behavioural treatment d) evaluate treatment outcome

10. What is a behavioural excess? Give two examples that are not in this chapter.

Behavioural excess is too much behaviour of a typical type. Example 1, Jim talks too much Example 2, Jane worries about everything

12. What is biological preparedness? Give an example.

Biological preparedness refers to the predisposition of members of a species to be more readily conditioned to some neutral stimuli as conditioned stimuli than to others. Example, conditioned taste aversion.

13. What do we mean by common-element stimulus class? By conceptual behavior? Give an example of each that are not in this chapter.

Common element stimulus class is a set of stimuli that all have one or more physical characteristics in common. Example, oranges, apples, and bananas are all fruit. Conceptual behavior is behavior under the control of generalized or abstract stimulus properties rather then specific attributes. Example, a child responds "cow" to different types of cows and responds "horse" to different types of horses.

16. Using the definition of positive reinforcer, how might you conduct a test to determine if the social attention of a particular adult is or is not reinforcing for a withdrawn child?

Conduct a reinforcer test: • Choose a behaviour that the individual emits occasionally and that does not appear to be followed by any reinforcer (withdrawn child) • Record how often the behavior occurs without reinforcement • Present the item (social attention) immediate following the behaviour for a few additional trials (withdrawn child) • If individual begins to emit that behaviour more often, than your item (social attention) is a reinforcer.

23. With examples that are not in this chapter, distinguish between rule-governed and contingency-shaped behavior.

Contingency shaped behavior is a behavior that develops because of it immediate consequences through trial and error. Example, a child realizes that a if they yell when they are on the play ground the teacher will not get upset, but if the child yells when they are in the class room the teacher will punish them by taking away his free play time. Rule governed behavior is a behavior that is controlled by the statement of a rule. Example, a parent tells their children that they can watch a TV show only if they clean up all their toys first.

18. What do behavior modifiers mean by the term deprivation? Give an example.

Deprivation is used as a term to indicate the time during which an individual doesn't experience a particular reinforcer. The longer the deprivation period, the more effective the reinforcer will be. Example, food deprivation in which an individual is prevented from having food for an extended period of time, food has a higher reinforcing value.

6. Define SD and give an example that is not in this chapter. Identify both the SD and the response in the example

Discriminative Stimulus is a stimulus in the presence of which a response will be reinforced Example, when your dog does a trick (SD) he knows he will get a treat (response)

2. Define errorless discrimination training.

Errorless discrimination training is the use of a fading procedure to establish stimulus discrimination so that no errors occur.

25. Give two examples of how VI/LH might be applied in training programs.

Example 1, in a classroom, a teacher faced with young students might use a variation of The Timer Game, such as VI 30 mins/ LH 0 seconds schedule to reinforce good behavior. If the children remain quiet whenever the timer rings after a variable 30-minute interval, they would receive points that could be used to gain free time. Example 2, to reduce children's bickering on a road trip, parents can set a timer for 25 minutes (VI 25 mins/ LH 0 secs). If the children are misbehaving when the timer goes off they lose 5 minutes in the hotel pool, if they are behaving they will earn that 5 minutes. This can prolong good behavior and reduce bickering.

14. Give an example of an unaware-misapplication pitfall in which shaping might be accidently applied to develop an undesirable behavior. Describe some of the shaping steps in your example

Example, showing too much attention to a child when they get hurt, as they may continue to hurt themselves in order to receive attention at increasing intensity, causing serious injury.

15. What is extinction burst? Describe an example.

Extinction Burst is an increase in response during extinction Example, a child is finger snapping in class to get the attention of the teacher. The teacher ignores these gestures and they increase temporarily before they begin to decrease

1. Define fading and give an example of it.

Fading is the gradual change over successive trials of an antecedent stimulus that controls a response so that the response eventually occurs to a partially changed or completely new antecedent stimulus. Example, a parent fading out their help and support when a child is learning to walk, talk, or ride a bike.

9. What is meant by the term final target behaviour in a shaping program? Give an example.

Final Target Behaviour is the final behaviour in which a person is working towards. The final target behaviour should be stated in such a way that all the relevant characteristics or behaviour are identified (topography, duration, frequency, latency and intensity). Example, an athlete to run 10 miles in an hour.

6. Explain what an FR schedule is. Illustrate with two examples of FR schedules in everyday life (at least one of which is not in this chapter).

Fixed Ratio Schedule in which a reinforcer occurs each time a fixed number of responses of a particular type are emitted. Example 1, if a basketball coach were to say to the team "everyone does 50 pushups before you take a break" Example 2, paying an industrial worker for a specified number of completed parts

25. Give an example of how ignorance of stimulus discrimination training may lead parents or other caregivers to develop an undesirable behavior in a child or adult in their care.

For example, if a parent tells a child to stop fooling around and the child doesn't stop, the parent may keep telling the child to stop in a tone that becomes a little angrier every time because the child is not listening. This would continue until the parent eventually yells at the child very loudly in a threatening tone. When the child finally stops fooling around, the parent says thank you for behaving. Now the child has been reinforced to only respond to when their parent gets very angry and threatening.

5. What is the difference between forgetting and operant extinction?

Forgetting is a behavior is weakened as a function of time following its last occurrence. Operant extinction is extinction weakens behavior as a result of being emitted without being reinforced.

11. List four behaviors in the area of self-management of personal problems that have been modified by behavior modification techniques.

Four behaviors that have been modified are: 1. Saving money 2. Exercising 3. Engaging in good study habits 4. Controlling gambling

1. What is behaviour, generally and technically? Give three synonyms of behaviour.

Generally, behaviour is anything a person says or does. Technically, behaviour is any muscular, glandular, or electrical activity of an organism. Three synonyms for behaviour are: Activity, Action and Performance.

12. What is health psychology?

Health psychology considers how psychological factors can influence or cause illness, and how people can be encouraged to practice healthy behavior so as to prevent health problems.

1. What are the two parts of the principle of operant extinction?

If an individual, in a given situation, emits a previously reinforced behavior and that behavior is not followed by a reinforcer. Then that person is less likely to do the same thing again when next encountering a similar situation.

1.What is baseline?

Measure of behavior in the absence of any treatment program

28. What do we mean by the natural environment? By natural reinforcers? By programmed reinforcers?

Natural environment is a setting in which an individual carries out normal, everyday functions. Natural reinforcers are reinforcers that follow behavior in the course of everyday living are called. Programmed reinforcers are reinforcers that are arranged systematically by psychologists, teachers, and others in behavior modification programs

24. What is operant behavior? Give an example.

Operant behavior is behavior that affects or "operates on" the environment to produce consequences, and which is, in turn, influenced by those consequences. It is behavior that is influenced by consequences (rewards and punishments) rather than prior stimuli. Example, putting gas in your car

25. What is operant conditioning? Give an example.

Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is modified by it's consequences. Example, not to touch a hot stove because of the pain following past instances of doing so.

1. What are two other names for respondent conditioning?

Pavlovian conditioning, classical conditioning

5.What is the principle of positive reinforcement?

Positive reinforcement states that if someone in a given situation does something that is followed immediately by a positive reinforcer, then that person is more likely to do the same thing the next time he or she encounters a similar situation.

8. What is a discrete trials procedure? Give an example.

Procedure in which a distinct stimulus is presented prior to an opportunity for a response to occur and be followed by reinforcement, and the next response cannot occur until another stimulus is presented, and so on. Example, if Jan's teacher presented one math question, and a period of time to answer before she gives another problem, and so on.

19. What do behavior modifiers mean by the term satiation? Give an example

Refers to a condition in which an individual has experience of reinforcer to such an extent that it is temporarily no longer reinforcing. Example, baseball player receives praise for getting a home-run; as the player makes more home-runs, the praise becomes less and less reinforcing.

24. Explain what a VI/LH schedule is. Illustrate with two examples from everyday life (at least one of which is not in this chapter).

Reinforcement is contingent on the first response occurring within a limited period of time following the expiration of another interval of time that varies around some mean value. Example 1, when watching TV you never know when something entertaining (the reinforcer) will occur (the VI), and you have to be watching it at the time that it occurs (the LH). Example 2, when you pick up your fruit before it is ripe, your behaviour will not be reinforced by the taste of the fruit, nor will waiting too long after it has ripened reinforced your behavior

2. What are respondent behaviors? Give three examples.

Respondent behaviors are behaviors elicited by prior stimuli and are not affected by their consequences. Example 1, salivating when smelling dinner cooking Example 2, feeling frightened when watching a scary movie Example 3, blushing when told that your fly is undone.

4. State the principle of respondent conditioning. Clearly diagram an example of respondent conditioning that is not in the text.

Respondent conditioning states that if a neutral stimulus is followed closely in time by an unconditioned stimulus that elicits and unconditioned response, then the previous neutral stimulus will also tend to elicit the response of salivation in the future. Example, NS= The sight of a toilet bowl; US=finger in throat; UR= puking/gagging.

17. Define respondent stimulus discrimination, and give and example.

Respondent stimulus discrimination is when a stimulus functions as a conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response because that stimulus has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response, but a similar stimulus does not function as a conditioned stimulus for that conditioned response because the second stimulus has been paired with extinction trials. Example, experiencing several repeated episodes of the dentist's drill paired with some pain, and several repeated episodes of the butcher's cutting tool never being paired with pain.

16. Define respondent stimulus generalization, and give an example.

Respondent stimulus generalization occurs when an organism has been conditioned so that a particular conditioned stimulus elicits a conditioned response and then a similar stimulus elicits that conditioned response. Example, US= drill due to a cavity ->UR= pain CS= Sound of drill-> CR = cringe from fear of pain CS= butcher's cutting machine -> CR= cringe

2. Define Shaping.

Shaping is development of a new operant behaviour by the reinforcement of successive approximations of that behaviour and the extinction of the earlier approximations of the behaviour, until the new behaviour occurs.

9.How are positive and negative reinforcement similar, and how are they different?

Similarities: Both increase responses differences Differences Positive reinforcement increases a response by presenting or adding a positive stimulus Negative reinforcement increases a response by the removal or taking away of a negative stimulus.

18. Briefly describe B.F. Skinner's early influence on behaviour modification?

Skinner distinguished between Respondent conditioning and operant conditioning. He also offered his interpretation of how basic learning principles could influence people's behaviour in all situations. These applications were named behaviour modification.

3. What is another name for shaping?

Sometimes referred to as method of successive approximations

16. What is spontaneous recovery? Describe an example.

Spontaneous Recovery is reappearance of an extinguished behavior following a rest Example, a child is finger snapping to get the attention of the teacher. The teacher and student ignore these gestures and the gestures stop for the day. The teacher assumes that they have been extinguished, but the next day she observes finger snapping by the student four times.

10. What is meant by the term starting behaviour in a shaping program? Give an example.

Starting behaviour is behaviour that occurs often enough to be reinforced within the session time and should approximate the final target. Example, Frank behaviour of walking around the house once was closest approximation that he made with respect of the goal of jogging a quarter mile

16. What is primary distinction between stimulus generalization involving common-element stimulus classes and stimulus generalization involving stimulus equivalence classes?

Stimulus generalization involving common-element stimulus classes, where stimulus equivalence class is a set of completely dissimilar stimuli that we have learned to group together.

17. Define organizational behavior management (OBM)

The application of behavioural principles and methods to the study and control of individual or group behavior within organizational setting

7. If a behavior that was maintained by positive reinforcement is not reinforcement is not reinforced at least once in a while, what will happen to the behavior?

The behavior that was positively reinforced will decrease in frequency

23. Distinguish between the direct and indirect acting effects of reinforcement

The direct effect of a positive reinforcer is the increased frequency of a response because it is immediately follows by that reinforcer. The indirect effect of a positive reinforcer is the strengthening of a response that is followed by that reinforcer even though the reinforcer is delayed.

8. List four behaviors of children with autism that have been modified using behavior modification.

The four behaviors of children with autism that have been modified using behavior modification are: 1. social behaviors 2. impaired communication 3. repetitive self-stimulatory behaviors 4. how to do self-care tasks such as dressing, grooming and feeding

7. What is a free operant procedure? Give an example.

The individual is "free" to respond repeatedly in the sense that there are no constraints on successive responses. Example, if Jan had been given a worksheet containing 12 math problems to solve, she could have worked at various rates (e.g., 1 problem per minute. 3 per minute)

26. What is key to ensuring ethical and effective treatment programs by applied behaviour analysis/behaviour therapists?

The monitoring of data by concerned parties and clients is the key.

2. Define and give an example of response rate

The number of instances of a behaviour that occur in a given period of time Example, how often a child asks "are we there yet?" on a 3-hour car ride.

9. Describe the stimulus discrimination training procedure, and give an example that is not in this chapter

The procedure of reinforcing a response in the presence of a SD and extinguishing that response in the presence of an S∆ Example, when with friends they reinforce bad behaviour (such as breaking rules), however when with your grandparents you don't receive the reinforcements

32. What are concurrent schedules or reinforcement? Give an example.

The schedule of reinforcement that as in effect when each of two or more behaviors is reinforced on different schedules at the same time. Example, watching TV, surfing the net, doing homework, and talking on the phone at the same time.

6. What are tokens?

Tokens are conditioned reinforcers that can be accumulated and exchanged for backup reinforcers.

16. Describe two pitfalls of conditioned reinforcement, and give an example of each

Unaware-Misapplication Pitfall: people who are unfamiliar with the principle of conditional reinforcement may unknowingly misapply it in various ways. Example, when parents scold a child for misbehavior and then, feeling guilty from making them cry, immediately hug the child. Partial-Knowledge-Misapplication Pitfall: ceasing to pair a conditioned reinforcer with a backup reinforcer can cause a conditioned reinforcer to lose its value. Example, a teacher who awards stamped happy faces as tokens for good behaviour but fails to use effective backup reinforcers. The result is that the stamped happy faces eventually lose whatever reinforcing power they may have had when they were first introduced.

1. Explain what an unconditioned reinforcer is. Give two examples

Unconditioned reinforcers are stimuli that are reinforcing without prior learning or conditioning. Example 1, include food for a hungry person, Example 2, warmth for someone who is cold.

6. Define and give and example of the following: unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, conditioned response.

Unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that elicits a response without prior learning or conditioning. Example, food Unconditioned response is a response elicited by an unconditional stimulus. Example, salivating Conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that elicits a response because that stimulus has been paired with another stimulus that elicits that response. Example, sound of classical music(CS) paired with food(US) Conditioned response is a response elicited by a conditioned stimulus. Example, Salivation.

11. Explain what a VR schedule is. Illustrate with two examples of VR schedules in everyday life (at least one of which is not in this chapter). Do your examples involve a free operant procedure or a discrete trials procedure?

Variable Ratio Schedule in which a reinforcer occurs after a certain number of a particular response, and the number of response required for each reinforcer changes unpredictably from one reinforcer to the next. Example 1, asking someone for a date, for example, even the most popular people often have to ask an unpredictable number of individuals to obtain an acceptance. (operant procedure) Example 2, slot machines are programmed on VR schedules: the gambler has no way of predicting how many times he/she must put in money to hit a payoff. (operant procedure)

25. Give an example of contingent reinforcement that is not in this chapter

When all the players of a basketball team complete the appropriate follow-through during 3 point shots, the team can have 10 minutes at the end of free time as given by the coach.

8.Give an example (not from this chapter) of a stimulus that is an SD for one behavior and an S∆ for a different behavior

With your parents you will be reinforced when you say please and thank you However, with your friends you will not be reinforced