Behavioral Sciences

78. describe language development of a child

"babbling": precursor to language, 9-12 months, even for deaf kids 12-18 months, add 1 word per month 18 months: "naming explosion": quickly learns dozens of words, uses each word w/ varying inflection and gestures to convey desired meaning - may fall into "overextension": inappropriately apply a term to an object that bears cursory similarities to the term 18-20 months: combine words 2-3 years: longer sentences (3 words or more), vocabulary grows exponentially. - "errors of growth": child applies grammatical rule (often morpheme) in a situation where it doesn't apply (runned, not ran) 5 years: language rules largely mastered

82. what is the Whorfian hypothesis

"linguistic relativity hypothesis" Our perception of reality—the way we think about the world—is determined by the content of language - language affects the way we think rather than the other way around - Ex: Inuits have more words for snow, better at seeing differences b/w diff types of snow Word choice, inflection, context, and speaker all play a role in our perception of a message. - In addition, language often provides an original framework for understanding information.

18. what is memory reconstruction

- "reproductive memory": accurate recall of past events - "reconstructive memory": theory that cognitive processes such as imagination, semantic memory, and perception affect the act of remembering. explains how 2 ppl recall same events occurring in diff ways - "false memory": incorrectly recalls events, recalls events that never occurred - "recovered memories": repressed memories brought back into conscious mind - "misinformation effect": a person's recall becomes less accurate due to injection of outside info into the memory - can be affected by leading language (collided vs crashed) - "intrusion errors": false memories that are mix-and-matches of 2 similar ones. - "source-monitoring error": confusion b/w semantic and episodic memory: remember details of event, but confuses context under which those details were gained. did it happen to my friend or me?

40. what is Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of human intelligence?

- analytical intelligence: ability to evaluate and reason - creative intelligence: ability to solve problems using novel methods - practical intelligence: dealing w/ everyday problems at home or work

31. what are the cognitive changes in late adulthood

- rxn time increases steadily in early adulthood Fluid intelligence: solving new or novel problems, possibly using creative methods - peaks in early adulthood, declines w/ age Crystallized intelligence: related to solving problems using acquired knowledge, and often can be procedural - peaks in middle adulthood, remains stable w/ age "Activities of daily living": eating, bathing, etc. - decline in intellectual abilities linked to how long they retain the ability to function in these - but decline is not uniform. certain characteristics (high level of education, socializing, performance of intellectual activities, stimulating environment): protective against intellectual decline Dementia: disorders and conditions characterized by a general loss of cognitive function - begins w/ impaired memory, progressed to impaired judgement and confusion - usually caused by Alzheimer's

2. what are the different ways we encode the meaning of info when controlled processing is required?

- visual encoding: visualize info (WEAKEST!) - acoustic encoding: store way it sounds - elaborative encoding: link to knowledge already in memory - semantic encoding: put it into meaningful context (STRONGEST! - more vivid context, the better. if in context of our own lives, even better "self-reference effect") "Maintenance rehearsal": repetition of piece of info to keep it w/in working memory or store in short-term and eventually long-term "Mnemonics": good for lists - often acronyms or rhyming phrases that provide vivid organization of info "Method of loci": associate each item in a list with a location along a route through a building already known "Peg-word": associate numbers with items that rhyme w/ or resemble the numbers, and then pair with item in peg-list (one sun, two shoe) "Chunking (clustering)": take individual elements of large list and group them into elements with related meaning

29. what is the formal operational stage in Piaget's model of cognitive development?

11 and on (coincides w/ adolescence) Marked by ability to think logically about abstract ideas ability to reason about abstract concepts and problem solve. - ability to mentally manipulate variables in a number of ways, generally within the scope of scientific experiments, is termed "hypothetical reasoning".

28. what is the concrete operational stage in Piaget's model of cognitive development?

7-11 years Understand conservation and consider perspectives of others, loss of egocentrism Able to engage in logical thought, as long as working w/ concrete objects or info that's directly available - have not yet developed ability to think abstractly

50. when do dreams occur, and what theories exist about them?

75% of dreaming occurs in REM, longer and more vivid than those experienced during NREM after Stage 2 Activation-synthesis theory: caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry - can mimic incoming sensory info, may consist of pieces of stored mems, current/previous desires, met/unmet needs, etc. - cortex tries to stitch unrelated info together Problem solving dream theory: dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping - interpretation of obstacles differently than during waking hours Cognitive process dream theory: dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness "Neurocognitive models of dreaming": seek to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes

7. what is implicit memory

A type of long-term memory, also called "nondeclarative memory" Consists of skills, habits, and conditioned responses, none of which need to be consciously recalled Includes - "procedural memory": related to unconscious memory of skills required to complete tasks - "priming": presentation of one stimulus affecting perception of a second - Positive priming: exposure to the first stimulus improves processing of the second stimulus (decreased response time/error rate) - Negative priming: first stimulus interferes with the processing of the second stimulus (slower response times and more errors.)

19. what is neuroplasticity

As infants, we are born with many more neurons than we actually need. - As our brains develop, neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli via a phenomenon called "neuroplasticity" (also known as neural plasticity). - Brains of young children are so plastic that they can reorganize drastically in response to injury While our brains do maintain a degree of plasticity throughout our lives, adult brains display nowhere near the degree of plasticity as those of a child. Another way our brains change is through a process called "synaptic pruning". As we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of our brains' ability to process information. Stimuli activate neurons, release NT into synaptic cleft (gap b/w neuron and target cell) - NT stimulate activity until degradation, reuptake, or diffusion - In interim, neural activity forms a memory tract thought to be cause of short-term memory - A stimulus repeated, neurons more efficient at releasing NTs and receptor sites on other side inc, inc receptor density - "longer-term potentiation": strengthening of neural connections through repeated use, believed to be neurophysiological basis of long-term memory - "NMDA receptor" - glutamate receptor required for strengthening of synaptic connections

83. what are Broca and Wernicke's areas

Both located in dominant (left) hemisphere Broca's area: located in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe, controls the motor function of speech via connections with the motor cortex Wernicke's area: located in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe, is responsible for language comprehension These areas connected by the "arcuate fasciculus": bundle of axons that allows appropriate association b/w language comprehension and speech production Aphasia: deficit of language production or comprehension - Broca's (expressive) aphasia: damage to this area, speech comprehension is intact but reduced or absent ability to produce spoken language (patients stuck w/ sensation of having every word on the tip of their tongue) - Wernicke's (receptive) aphasia: damage, production and fluency of speech is retained but comprehension of speech is lost. (speak nonsensical sounds and inappropriate word combos devoid of meaning. believe they are speaking and understanding perfectly well) - conduction aphasia: patient unable to repeat something that's been said bc connection b/w them is lost. very rare

54. what is sleep deprivation

Can result from as little as 1 night without sleep, or multiple with poor-quality, short-duration sleep - irritability, mood disturbances - diminished cognitive performance - affects problem solving, and motor skills (rxn time) - diabetes and obesity Extreme deprivation can cause psychosis When finally sleep, exhibit "REM rebound": earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal

96. what are the 7 universal emotions

Darwin said emotions are a result of evolution; thus, they and corresponding expressions are universal - humans evolved same set of facial muscles Paul Ekman: set of basic emotions recognized by societies around the world - happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, and anger BUT - can be affected greatly by culture. Dissimilarities include: - varying rxns to similar events, diff in emotional experience itself, behavior exhibited, and perception of emotion by others

88. what are need-based theories of motivation

Energy and resources are allocated to best satisfy human needs Primary needs: physiological needs such as the need for food, water, sleep, and shelter Secondary needs: mental states, like a desire for power, achievement, or social belonging Abraham Maslow thinks: - "needs": relatively long-lasting feelings that require relief or satisfaction and tend to influence action - "Maslow's hierarchy of needs": certain needs will yield a greater influence on our motivation. Levels: - 1: physiological needs - 2: safety and security - 3: love and belonging - 4: self-esteem - 5: self-actualization: need to realize one's fullest potential If lowest level is not met, motivation to meet that need will be the highest priority Specific theory: self-determination theory

43. is intelligence believed to be hereditary?

Galton argued in novel "Hereditary Genius" that it is, but actually attributed to many determinants: - genes, environment, and educational experiences Often runs in family, so may be due to both genetics and environment - parental expectations, socioeconomic status, and nutrition all correlate w/ intelligence Educational system has impact: - kids who attend school have greater inc in IQ - IQ decreases slightly during summer vacations - early intervention in childhood improves IQ - both gifted and disables children benefit from specialized educational environments

52. what are insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea

Insomnia: difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep - most common, may be related to anxiety, depression, medications, or disruption of sleep cycles and circadian rhythms Narcolepsy: lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep. symptoms include: - cataplexy: loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger - sleep paralysis: sensation of being unable to move despite being awake - hypnagogic/hypnopompic hallucinations: hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening (HypnaGOgic occur when GOing to bed, hypnoPOmPic occur when POPping out) Sleep apnea: inability to breathe during sleep - ppl awaken often during night in order to breathe - obstructive sleep apnea: physical blockage in pharynx or trachea prevents airflow - central sleep apnea: brain fails to send signals to diaphragm to breathe

49. what is a circadian rhythm, which hormones affect it

Internally generates daily cycle of waking and sleeping - approx 24-hour cycle, somewhat affected by external cues such as light - biochemical signals underlie them Sleepiness attributed to: - blood levels of melatonin: serotonin-derived hormone from the pineal gland - retina directly connects to hypothalamus, which controls pineal gland; dec light can cause release of melatonin Cortisol: steroid hormone produced in adrenal cortex, also related - levels slowly inc during early morning bc inc light causes release of "corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)" from hypothalamus - CRF causes release of "adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)" from anterior pituitary, which stimulates cortisol release - contributes to wakefulness Mnemonic: MELatonin MELlows you out. CortiSOL helps you get up with the SOL (sun)

21. what is the "dual-coding" theory of the brain

Paivio made it both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store information - "dad" and picture of dad recall same info. is redundant and increases change info can be retrieved

46. describe how we study sleep and the 5 patterns we see

Sleep studied by recording brain wave activity occurring during course of night's sleep - done w/ "electroencephalography" or "EEG": records avg of electrical patterns w/in diff portions of the brain 4 EEG patterns correlated w/ diff stages of waking and sleeping: beta, alpha, theta, and delta waves - 5th corresponds w/ REM - when we dream - stages form a complete cycle lasting 90 min

42. how to quantify intelligence?

Spearman's "g factor": general intelligence factor - theory behind existence of this is based on the observation that performance on different cognitive tasks is often positively correlated, indicating an underlying factor is playing a role This underlying variable of intelligence is often measured w/ standardized tests that generate an "intelligence quotient (IQ)" - pioneered by Alfred Binet Stanford-Binet IQ test original formula: - IQ = mental age/chronological age x 100

64. describe what ecstasy does

Stimulant - also MDMA, or called "E" acts as a hallucinogen combined with an amphetamine - designer amphetamine, mechanism and effects similar to other ones Physiologically: inc HR, inc blood pressure, blurry vision, sweating, nausea, and hyperthermia Psychologically: euphoria, increased alertness, and an overwhelming sense of well-being and connectedness Club/rave drug, packaged in colorful pills

10. how is long-term memory apparently stored?

The brain organizes ideas into a "semantic network", in which concepts are linked together based on similar meaning - "spreading activation" - when 1 node of network activated, linked concepts unconsciously activated. at heart of positive priming: recall aided by first being presented w/ a word or phrase "recall clue" close to desired semantic memory

8. what is explicit memory

Type of long-term memory, also called "declarative memory" consists of memories that require conscious recall. can be further subdivided: - Episodic memory: recollection of life experiences - Semantic memory: ideas, concepts, or facts we know, not tied to life experiences Autobiographical memory: explicit memories about our lives and ourselves, and includes all of our episodic memories of our own life experiences, but also includes semantic memories that relate to our personal traits and characteristics (Flashbulb memory: detailed recollection of stimuli immediately surrounding an important (or emotionally arousing) event - "do you remember where you were when...")

95. what is emotion, what are the 3 elements of an emotion

a natural instinctive state of mind derived from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships with others 3 elements: - physiological response: arousal stimulated by ANS. Includes changes in HR, breathing rate, skin temp, BP. Some emotions have more pronounced responses - behavioral response: includes facial expressions and body language - cognitive response: subjective interpretation of feeling being experienced. is evaluative process largely based on memories of past experiences and perception of cause of emotion

16. what is interference (interference effect) in memory loss

a retrieval error caused by the existence of other, usually similar, information. Classified by its direction. - Proactive interference: old info is interfering with new learning. (write last address you had) - Retroactive interference: new info causes forgetting of old info. (learn new teachers names, forgot old ones)

48. what is a sleep cycle, how it changes over the night, how it changes over life, and what disruption causes

a single complete progression through the sleep stages - cycle: Stage 1-2-3-4-3-2-REM or just 1-2-3-4-REM early in night: SWS predominates later in night: REM predominates over life-time, length of cycle inc from 50 min in children to 90 min in adults - kids spend more time in SWS than adults Disruption of SWS and REM: - diminished memory

55. what is hypnosis

a state in which a person appears to be in control of his or her normal functions, but is in a highly suggestible state Starts w/ "hypnotic induction": hypnotist seeks to relax the subject and increase the subject's level of concentration - then, hypnotist can suggest perceptions or actions to the hypnotized person Has been used for pain control, psychological therapy, memory enhancement, weight loss, and smoking cessation Hypnotic states are indeed real; however, effective hypnosis requires a willing personality and lack of skepticism on the part of the patient

89. what is the self-determination theory of motivation

a type of need-based motivational theory 3 universal needs: - autonomy: need to be in control of one's actions and ideas - competence: need to complete and excel at difficult tasks - relatedness: need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships. 3 needs must be met in order to develop healthy relationships with oneself and others.

37. what is intuition

ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence. - often developed by experience "recognition-primed decision model": brain is actually sorting through a wide variety of info to match a pattern. gained an extensive level of experience that they can access w/o awareness.

71. what is divided attention

ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time Most new tasks require undivided attention and utilized controlled (effortful) processing - but familiar/routine actions can be performed with automatic processing: permits brain to focus on other tasks w/ divided attention But, it's far from perfect. does not allow for innovation or rapid response to change, which may contribute to the high incidence of car accidents that result from distracted driving.

73. what is the phonology of language

actual sound of language - 40 speech sounds or "phonemes" in English Kids must learn to produce and recognize sounds of language, separating them from environmental noises and other human-created sounds "Categorial perception": when a language has subtle differences in speech sounds that represent a change in meaning, children learn to distinguish those phonemes "Constancy": ability to recognize a word as being the same, even if the pronunciation of the word varies between people

41. what is the theory of emotional intelligence

addresses our emotional awareness in four components: - ability to express and perceive emotions in ourself and others - ability to comprehend and analyze our emotions - ability to regulate our emotions - awareness of how emotions shape our thoughts and decisions. Empathy is often example bc requires an individual to understand his or her own emotions well enough to recognize those emotions in other people.

32. how do heredity, environment, and biologic factors affect cognition

affected by brain itself (organic brain disorders), genetics and chromosomal conditions, metabolic derangements, and long-term drug use Parenting styles: reward, punishment, or indifference for emerging skill Genetics: predispose to a state that can make cognitive development difficult Chemical exposures, illness, injury, or trauma during birth - Alcohol -> FAS: slowed cognitive development and craniofacial features - infections: electrical abnormalities, slowed development - birth complications: (reduced O2 delivery to brain): - trauma to brain: shaken baby syndrome "Delirium": rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical (nonpsychological) causes. - Can be caused by a variety of issues: electrolyte and pH disturbances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, a drug reaction, alcohol withdrawal, and pain.

27. what is the preoperational stage in Piaget's model of cognitive development?

ages 2-7 Characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism - Symbolic thinking: ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination. - Egocentrism: inability to imagine what another person may think or feel. Also: inability to grasp the concept of "conservation": understanding that a physical amount remains the same, even if there is a change in shape or appearance. - Piaget believed this is due to "centration": tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon, while ignoring other important elements.

17. describe the relationship of aging and memory

aging doesn't lead to significant memory loss - larger range for 70 year olds than 20 year olds - but most vivid memories occurred in teens and 20s: peak period for encoding in a person's life No degeneration in: recognition or skill-based memory - semantically meaningful material easily learned/recalled, due to older people having a larger semantic network - "prospective memory" (remembering to perform a task some time in the future) remains intact when it is event-based However, time-based prospective memory (take medication at 7 every day) tends to decline

44. what are the differented states of consciousness

alertness, sleep, dreaming, and altered states of consciousness - altered: hypnosis, meditation, and drug-induced. also sickness, dementia, delirium, and coma

57. what are the 4 types of consciousness-altering drugs

also known as psychoactive drugs depressants stimulants opiates hallucinogens (marijuana has depressant, stimulant, and hallucinogenic effects)

100. what is the Schachter-Singer Theory of emotion

also termed the "cognitive arousal theory" or the "two-factor theory" two factors (physiological arousal and a cognitive label) are needed to experience emotion - physiological arousal alone is insufficient to elicit an emotional response - to feel an emotion, the mind must also identify the environmental stimulus causing that physiological arousal Unique in that: to feel an emotion, one must consciously analyze environment in relation to nervous system arousal - MOST ACCURATE!

11. types of amnesia

amnesia: significant loss of memorized info source amnesia: inability to remember where, when, or how one has obtained knowledge

92. what is the expectancy-value theory of motivation

an additional theory (not in main 4) amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual's expectation of success in reaching the goal and the degree to which he or she values succeeding at the goal.

91. what is the incentive theory of motivation

an additional theory (not in main 4) behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but by the desire to pursue rewards and to avoid punishments

93. what is the opponent-process theory of motivation

an additional theory (not in main 4) when a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology - problem is that increased arousal lasts longer than the drug, resulting in withdrawal symptoms that are exact opposite effects - can create physical dependence on the drug explains "tolerance": decrease in perceived drug effect over time

86. what is the arousal theory of motivation, what's the law that's part of this

arousal: psychological and physiological state of being awake and reactive to stimuli - involves the brainstem, autonomic nervous system, and endocrine system and plays a vital role in behavior and cognition Theory: people perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal: seeking to increase arousal when it falls below their optimal level, and to decrease arousal when it rises above their optimum level Yerkes-Dodson law: postulates a U-shaped function between the level of arousal and performance - worst at extremely high/low levels of arousal, optimal at an intermediate level - lower levels are optimal for highly cognitive tasks, while higher levels are optimal for activities that require physical endurance and stamina. - simple tasks generally require slightly higher arousal than complex tasks.

75. what is the semantics of language

association of meaning with a word - certain combos of phonemes represent certain physical objects/events - words may refer to entire categories (women) or specific members of categories (mommy)

47. describe the stages of sleep and the EEG patterns that accompany them

beta waves: high frequency, occur when person is alert/attending to a mental task that requires concentration - occur when neurons are randomly firing alpha waves: we are awake but relaxing with out eyes closed, somewhat slower and more synchronized than beta as soon as you doze off you enter "Stage 1" (NREM1): detected by appearance of theta waves - EEG has irregular waveforms w/ slower frequencies and higher voltages as you fall more deeply asleep you enter "Stage 2" (NREM2): theta waves along with "sleep spindles": bursts of high-frequency wave, and "K complexes": singular high-amplitude waves more deeply asleep you enter "Stage 3 and 4" (NREM3 and 4) or "slow-wave sleep (SWS)": EEG activity is slower until only a few sleep waves per sec, low-frequency high-voltage "delta waves" - rousing someone from this is especially difficult - associated w/ cognitive recovery, memory consolidation, and inc growth hormone release NREM: non-rapid eye movement sleep - interspersed b/w cycles of the stages is "rapid eye movement (REM) sleep": arousal levels reach that of wakefulness, but muscles paralyzed - also "paradoxical sleep" bc one's heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness, but individual is asleep - stage in which dreaming is most likely to occur, associated w/ memory consolidation Note: REM associated w/ procedural memory consolidation, SWS w/ declarative memory consolidation Mnemonic: BAT-D, bat sleeps during day, beta, alpha, theta, delta

26. what is the sensorimotor stage in Piaget's model of cognitive development?

birth - 2 years. Child learns to manipulate his environment in order to meet physical needs, and learns to coordinate sensory input with motor actions 2 types of behavior patterns called "circular reactions", named for their repetitive natures. - Primary circular reactions: repetitions of body movements that originally occurred by chance, such as sucking the thumb. Repeated bc child finds these behaviors soothing. - Secondary circular reactions: manipulation is focused on something outside the body, (throwing toy). Repeated bc child gets response from environment, (parent picks up the dropped toy). Key milestone at end: "object permanence", which is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view. - marks the beginning of "representational thought", in which the child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events.

5. what is working memory

closely related to short-term memory, similarly supported by the hippocampus. Enables us to keep a few pieces of info in our consciousness simultaneously and to manipulate that info. To do this, one must integrate: - short-term memory, attention, and executive function - accordingly, the frontal and parietal lobes are also involved. This is the form of memory that allows us to do simple math in our heads.

69. what is attention and how it relates to sensorium

concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment, or "sensorium"

61. what are stimulants and 3 examples

consciousness-altering drug that cause an increase in arousal in the nervous system - each drug inc frequency of APs, but does so by diff mehcanisms ampethamines, cocaine, and ecstasy

58. what are depressants and 2 examples

consciousness-altering drugs that reduce nervous system activity, resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety. - alcohol (most common) and sedatives (downers): calm and induce sleep

79. what is the nativist (biological) theory of language

credited to linguist Noam Chomsky: advocates for the existence of some innate capacity for language Chomsky known for study of "transformational grammar": syntactic transformations, or changes in word order that retain the same meaning; for example, I took the MCAT vs. The MCAT was taken by me - kids learn to make such transformations effortlessly at an early age - concluded ability must be innate Ability called the "language acquisition device device (LAD)": theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules. Nativists believe in "critical period" b/w 2 years and puberty: If no language exposure occurs during this time, later training is largely ineffective - unfortunate test case with isolated child. she could learn some syntax, so suggested it's instead a "sensitive period": time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability - most think it is before the onset of puberty

30. what is the role of culture in cognitive development

culture determines what one is expect to learn - some place higher value on social learning (cultural traditions and roles) - others value knowledge rate of cognitive development influenced, as children treated differently across cultures Lev Vygotsky: the engine driving cognitive development is the child's internalization of his or her culture, including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and language. - With help from adults or other children, skills can develop further. Help may come in the form of instruction from a teacher or even watching another child perform the skill.

12. what is Alzheimer's disease

degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of Ach in neurons that link to the hippocampus, although its exact causes are not well understood. Marked by progressive dementia (a loss of cognitive function) and memory loss, with atrophy of the brain - While not perfectly linear, memory loss tends to proceed in a retrograde fashion, with loss of recent memories before distant memories. Microscopic findings include "neurofibrillary tangles" and "β-amyloid plaques": incorrectly folded copies of amyloid precursor protein, in which insoluble beta pleated sheets form and deposit in brain - Common phenomenon in individuals with middle- to late-stage Alzheimer's is "sundowning", an increase in dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening.

77. what is the pragmatics of language

dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge - manner in which we speak depends on audience and relationship to audience affected by "prosody": rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices

59. describe what alcohol does, who tends to use it, long-term effects

depressant - inc activity of GABA receptor: Cl channel that causes hyperpolarization of membrane, which causes brain inhibition (diminished arousal at moderate doses) - inc dopamine levels, sense of mild euphoria Changes in outward behavior: - "disinhibition": lack of self-control, occurs bc centers of brain that prevent inappropriate behavior are depressed At high doses, brain activity disrupted - logical reasoning + motor skills affected - fatigue may results - "alcohol myopia": short-sighted view of world, inability to recognize consequences of actions Implicated in many car accidents, homicides (both perpetrator and victim), hospital admissions Intoxication w/ alcohol measured with BAC One of most widely abused drugs - rates of use are higher for those of lower socioeconomic status (SES), but low-SES alcoholics enter recovery sooner and at higher rates - tends to run in families, children of alcoholics likely to suffer from depression Long-term consequences: - cirrhosis and liver failure, pancreatic damage, gastric or duodenal ulcers, GI cancer, and brain disorders like "Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome": deficiency of thiamine, characterized by severe memory impairment w/ changes in mental status and loss of motor skills

60. describe what sedatives do

depressant depress central nervous system activity, resulting in feelings of calm, relaxation, and drowsiness barbiturates: historically used as anxiety-reducing (anxiolytic) and sleep medications, but have mostly been replaced by... - include: amobarbital, phenobarbital benzodiazepines: less prone to overdose - include: alprazolam, lorazepam, diazepam, and clonazepam These drugs inc GABA activity, cause sense of relaxation - both can be highly addictive If taken w/ alcohol, overdoses of either can result in coma or death

23. what is cognitive development, what happens in early cognitive development

development of one's ability to think and solve problems across the life span During childhood: limited by pace of brain maturation - characterized by mastering the physical environment - next challenge: abstract thinking and social skills Development of abstract thinking dependent upon increases in working memory and mental capacities - as brain develops, ability to process info in abstract manner also develops

36. what are biases and overconfidence

disconfirmation principle: the evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work - but can be ignored bc of... Confirmation bias: tendency to focus on info that fits an individual's beliefs, while rejecting info that goes against them - also contributes to... Overconfidence: tendency to erroneously interpret one's decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible - hindsight bias: tendency for people to overestimate their ability to predict the outcome of events that already happened. - belief perseverance: inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary. Together, these can all seriously impede a person's analysis of available evidence.

87. what is drive reduction theory in motivation, what are primary and secondary drives

drives: internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals - thought to originate within an individual without requiring any external factors to motivate behavior - help humans survive by creating an uncomfortable state, ensuring motivation to eliminate this state or to relieve the internal tension created by unmet needs Primary drives: need for food, water, and warmth, motivate us to sustain bodily processes in homeostasis - Homeostasis: regulation of internal environment to maintain an optimal, stable set of conditions, usually controlled by "negative feedback loops" Secondary drives: Additional drives that are not directly related to biological processes, stem from learning - includes desire for nurturing, love, achievement, and aggression CONCEPT: Primary drives are those that motivate us to sustain necessary biological processes. Secondary drives are those that motivate us to fulfill nonbiological, emotional, or "learned" desires. Theory: motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states. Certain physiological conditions result in a negative internal environment, drives motivation and seeks homeostasis

66. describe what hallucinogens do, give examples

drugs which typically cause introspection, distortions of reality and fantasy, and enhancement of sensory experiences Physiological effects: inc HR and blood pressure, dilation of pupils, sweating, and inc body temp Example: LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), peyote, mescaline, ketamine, and psilocybin-containing mushrooms Also considered club drug, sold on colorful paper

51. what are the 2 categories of sleep-wake disorders

dyssomnias and parasomnias Dyssomnias: difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep - insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea. Parasomnias: abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep - night terrors and sleepwalking. Most sleep-wake disorders occur during NREM sleep.

39. what is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences

eight defined types of intelligence: - linguistic, - logical-mathematical, - musical, - visual-spatial, - bodily-kinesthetic, - interpersonal, - intrapersonal, and - naturalist Western culture values first 2 abilities - tested on traditional IQ tests Interpersonal intelligence: ability to detect and navigate the moods and motivations of others. Intrapersonal intelligence: centers around being mindful of one's own emotions, strengths, and weaknesses, which can provide clear guidance what role one should take in a group or society

6. what is long-term memory

essentially limitless warehouse for knowledge that we are then able to recall on demand, sometimes for the rest of our lives "elaborative rehearsal": association of info to knowledge already stored in long-term memory. closely tied to self-reference effect Primarily controlled by hippocampus, and memories are moved back to cerebral cortex over time.

97. what is the "evolutionary perspective" of emotion

everything we do, think, and feel is based on specialized functional programs designed for any problem we encounter. - coordinated in order to produce a cohesive response Emotions: evolutionary adaptations due to situations encountered over the evolutionary history of the human species that guide sensory processing, physiological response, and behavior - diff emotions thought to have evolved during diff periods in history - started with fear, then social emotions like guilt and pride

4. what is short-term memory

fades quickly, over approx 30 second without rehearsal. based on NT activity "memory capacity": # of items we hold in short-term memory at any given time: 7 +/- 2 - increased by clustering info, duration extended using maintenance rehearsal Housed primarily in "hippocampus" - also responsible for consolidating of shot-term memory into long-term memory

98. what is the James-Lange Theory of emotion

first physiological arousal -> emotion labeled - physiological arousal is labeled as an emotion by the brain FALSE: spinal cord injury subjects continue to show the same level of emotion after their injuries as before

81. what is the social interactionist theory of language

focuses on the interplay between biological and social processes - language acquisition is driven by the child's desire to communicate and behave in a social manner As the biological foundation for language develops and children are exposed to language, the brain groups sounds and meanings together. Then, as the child interacts with others, certain brain circuits are reinforced, while others are de-emphasized, resulting in atrophy of those circuits.

70. what is selective attention

focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli - acts as a filter between sensory stimuli and our processing systems It's not all-or-nothing though - "cocktail party phenomenon": hear our name across the room during a convo - evidence of a different interpretation of selective attention. - suggests that selective attention is more of a filter that allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in the background - only if other stimuli are quite important do we shift attention to them Dichotic listening tests: test selective attention - Participants asked to pay attention to 1 or 2 stimuli in either ear, then asked to repeat out loud what they heard in the attended ear, which is termed "shadowing" - tests selective attention because participants are asked to filter out information from the unattended ear - alternatively, tests if they subconsciously gain info from unattended ear

13. what is Korsakoff's syndrome

form of memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain. Marked by both retrograde amnesia (the loss of previously formed memories) and anterograde amnesia (the inability to form new memories). - Another common symptom is "confabulation", or the process of creating vivid but fabricated memories, an attempt made by the brain to fill in the gaps of missing memories.

68. describe drug addiction, what pathway involved

highly related to "mesolimbic reward pathway", 1 of 4 dopaminergic pathways Includes "nucleus accumbens (NAc)" and "ventral tegmental area (VTA)", and connection b/w them called the "medial forebrain bundle (MFB)" This pathway involved in motivation and emotional response, activation accounts for positive reinforcement of substance use - activated by all substances that produce psychological dependence - gambling and falling in love also activate

20. what is cognition

how our brains process and react to the incredible information overload presented to us by the world. - not a uniquely human trait, but we are the most advanced species on the planet in terms of complex thought. - the frontal lobe is disproportionately large in our subspecies; our skull is shaped to accommodate this enlarged lobe

76. what is the syntax of language

how words are put together to form sentences Nathan has only 3 pieces Only Nathan has 3 pieces

94. what is sexual motivation

humans are motivated to sexual behavior based on the secretion of estrogens, progesterone, and androgens - strong correlation between hormone concentration and sexual desire smell: Certain odors have been shown to increase sexual desire and activity pleasure and interpretation of pleasure play key role, highly influenced by culture - cognition plays a role in sexual motivation culture and society influence what is deemed appropriate sexual behavior

25. what did Piaget think learning was?

infants learn mainly through instinctual interaction with the environment. - infants possess a grasping reflex. Through experience with this reflex, the infant learns that it is possible to grasp objects. Piaget referred to these organized patterns of behavior and thought as "schemata". - A schema can include a concept, a behavior, or a sequence of events - as child proceeds through the stages, new info has to be placed into the different schemata. New info is processed via "adaptation", comes about by 2 complementary processes - Assimilation: process of classifying new info into existing schemata. If the new information does not fit neatly into existing schemata, then accommodation occurs. - Accommodation: process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass this new info.

90. what are the 4 primary factors the influence motivation (the 4 theories)

instincts arousal drives needs

85. what is the instinct theory of motivation

instincts: innate, fixed patterns of behavior - example: thumb-sucking sooths babies - may be consistent throughout life, or may appear/disappear with time Theory: certain behaviors are based on evolutionarily programmed instincts - first said by William James, got from Darwin - "many of these instincts were in direct conflict with each other and could be overridden by experience" - biggest proponent: William McDougall - proposed that humans were led to all thoughts and behaviors by 18 distinctive instincts

15. what is memory decay

memories simply lost naturally over time as the neurochemical trace of a short-term memory fades. "curve of forgetting", formally called the "retention function". For a day or two after learning the list, recall fell sharply but then leveled off.

3. what is sensory memory storage

most fleeting, preserves info in its original sensory form (auditory, visual, etc.) with high accuracy and lasts less than 1 sec. based on NT activity - iconic memory: fast-decaying memory of visual stimuli - echoic memory: fast-decaying memory of auditory stimuli Maintained by major projection areas of each sensory system (occipital lobe for vision, temporal lobe for hearing) - "whole-report" - list all letters you see - "partial-report" - list a row

53. what are night terrors and sleepwalking

night terrors: periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow-wave sleep - most common in children, trash/scream during terrors, show signs of sympathetic overdrive (high HR, rapid breathing) - during SWS, so can't wake child, and they usually don't remember dream sleepwalking (somnambulism): occurs during SWS - may eat, talk, have sex, or drive w/ no recollection of event - Most return to beds and awake w/ no knowledge of their nighttime activities. - Contrary to popular belief, awakening a sleepwalker will not harm the person; however, it is generally suggested to quietly guide the sleepwalker back to bed to avoid disturbing SWS.

72. what are the 5 basic components of language

phonology morphology semantics syntax pragmatics

99. what is the Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion

physiological arousal and conscious experience occur at the same time, behavior follows - thus, severing feedback should not alter the emotion experiences - person will respond w/ action after experiencing emotion both mentally and physically Sensory info received and sent to both cortex and sympathetic NS simultaneously by thalamus WEAKNESS: fails to explain vagus nerve, cranial nerve that functions as a feedback system, conveying info from peripheral organs back to CNS ??

9. what is retrieval? what are the types

process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained includes "recall": retrieval and statement of previously learned information - but is also recognizing or quickly relearning info - Recognition: identifying piece of info that was previously learned - Relearning: rememorizing list much more quickly each time. (spacing effect: longer space b/w learning, greater retention later on) - "context effect": memory aided by being in physical location where encoding took place - "source monitoring": determining origin of memories, whether they are factual or fictional - "state-dependent memory/effect": retrieval cue based on performing better when in the same mental state as when the info was learned (learn when drunk, do better when drunk, and same for moods) - "serial-position effect": early and late items best recalled, primacy and recency effect, but recency usually fades so this is likely due to still being in short-term memory on initial recall

80. what is the learning (behaviorist) theory of language

proposed by BF Skinner, explained language acquisition by operant conditioning v young babies capable of distinguishing between phonemes of all human languages, but by 6mo show a strong preference for phonemes in their parents language - explained by "reinforcement": parents and caregivers repeat and reinforce sounds that sound most like the language spoken by the parents - over time, infant perceives that certain sounds have little value and are not reinforced, while other sounds have value and are reliably reinforced by parents and caregivers However, doesn't explain explosion in vocab during early childhood

24. what are Piaget's stages for cognitive development

proposed that there are qualitative differences between the way that children and adults think, and that these differences can be explained by dividing the life span into four stages of cognitive development: - sensorimotor - preoperational - concrete operational - formal operational. Passage through each of these stages was a continuous and sequential process in which completion of each stage prepares the individual for the stage that follows.

67. describe what marijuana does

refers to leaves and flowers of 2 plant species: cannabis sativa and cannabis indica - has been in used for centuries Active chemical: THC, tetrahydrocannabinol - exerts effects by acting at cannabinoid receptors, glycine receptors, and opioid receptors - inhibits GABA activity and indirectly inc dopamine activity (causing pleasure) Physiological effects: eye redness, dry mouth, fatigue, impairment of short-term memory, inc HR, inc appetite, and lowered BP Psychologically: stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen

35. what are heuristics?

simplified principles used to make decisions; they are colloquially called "rules of thumb." availability heuristic: when we base the likelihood of an event on how easily examples of that event come to mind representativeness heuristic: categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category - ignoring actual numerical info is called "base rate fallacy" - Ex: we think head will land next due to last few being tails

22. what are the 4 key components of the information processing model

states that brain encodes, stores, and retrieves info like a computer - Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli. - Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (rather than responded to automatically) to be useful in decision making. - Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (also called situational modification). - Problem solving is dependent not only on the person's cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem.

62. describe what amphetamines do

stimulant cause increased arousal by increasing release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at the synapse and decreasing their reuptake - inc arousal, reduction in appetite and dec need for sleep - physiological effects: inc HR and blood pressure - psychological effects: euphoria, hypervigilance (being on edge), anxiety, delusions of grandeur, and paranoia Prolonged use of high doses: stroke or brain damage - withdrawal after discontinuation, leading to depression, fatigue, and irritability

63. describe what cocaine does

stimulant - originates from coca plant grown in high-altitude regions of South America. can be purified from leaves or created synthetically cocaine predominantly works through dec reuptake of: dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin - effects of cocaine intoxication and withdrawal similar to amphetamines Anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties - sometimes used in surgeries in highly vascularized areas like nose and throat - these properties can lead to heart attacks and strokes when used recreatioally Crack: form of cocaine that can be smoked W/ quick and potent effects, this drug is highly addictive

74. what is the morphology of language

structure of words - words composed of multiple building blocks called "morphemes", each of which connotes a particular meaning Redesigned: re- (do again), -design- (verb root), -ed (action in past)

38. what is emotion in decision-making

subjective experience of a person in a certain situation - almost, emotions a person expects to feel from a particular decision are also involved

33. what is a mental set

tendency to approach similar problems in the same way - problem solving can be impeded by the wrong mental set "Functional fixedness": inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner

14. what is agnosia

the loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds, though usually only one of the three. Usually caused by physical damage to the brain, such as from stroke or a neurological disorder such as multiple sclerosis

1. what is encoding in memory?

the process of putting new info into memory. - Info gained w/o any effort is the result of "automatic processing" - unintentional, passively absorbed from environment - if you do it on purpose, it's "controlled (effortful) processing" - with practice, controlled processing can become automatic

84. what is motivation, what are extrinsic/intrinsic

the purpose, or driving force, behind our actions - can be directed toward minimizing pain, maximizing pleasure, or it can be rooted in the desire, or "appetite", to fulfill a physical need (not just food) Extrinsic motivation: manifests from external forces, such as rewards and punishments Intrinsic motivation: comes from within oneself, driven by interest in a task or pure enjoyment note: being offered extrinsic motivation tends to lower intrinsic motivation

34. what are the different types of problem solving

trial-and-error: various solutions tried til 1 works. useful when only a few possible solutions algorithms: formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem deductive (top-down) reasoning: starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given - solution MUST be true based on info given inductive (bottom-up) reasoning: seeks to create a theory via generalizations - starts w/ specific instances, draws conclusion from them

65. what are opiates and opioids, go in depth w/ heroine

types of narcotics, AKA painkillers - derived from poppy plant, "opium" used and abused for centuries Naturally-occurring: opiates - morphine and codeine Semisynthetic derivatives: opioids - oxycodone, hydrocodone, heroin They bind to opioid receptors in peripheral and CNS, act as endorphin agonists and cause dec rxn to pain and sense of euphoria Overdose can cause death by respiratory suppression, in which brain stops sending signals to breathe Heroin (diacetylmorphine): substitute for morphine. Once injected, body metabolizes heroin to morphine - used to be most widely abused, but now its prescription opioids like oxycodone and hydrocodone - treatment for addiction may include use of "methadone": long-acting opioid w/ lower risk of overdose

56. what is meditation

usually involves quieting of the mind for some purpose, whether spiritual, religious, or related to stress reduction. In the secular Western tradition, often used for counseling and psychotherapy bc it produces a sense of relaxation and relief from anxiety and worrying. Causes physiological changes such as dec HR and blood pressure. On EEG, meditation resembles Stage 1 sleep with theta and slow alpha waves.

45. what is alertness as a state of consciousness

we are awake and able to think. - able to perceive, process, access, and verbalize info - experience certain level of "physiological arousal": characterized by physiological rxns like inc heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, and so on. cortisol levels tend to be higher, EEG waves indicate brain in waking state Alertness maintained by neurological circuits in the prefrontal cortex at the very front of the brain - fibers there communicate w/ the "reticular formation" (reticular activation system): neural structure located in the brainstem, to keep the cortex awake and alert - injury b/w connections results in coma