bio 105 unit 3
Autosomes
1. 22 pairs in humens 2. do not differ between males and females
PCR: Similarities with DNA replication
1. A template strand is required 2. spare nucleotides 3. DNA Polymerase
what are the characteristics that are considered to be evidence of natural selection that Darwin observed aboard the Beagle?
1. Collecting fossilized remains of extinct animals along the west coast of South America challenged Darwin's idea that the Earth was young. 2. In regard to biogeography, Darwin discovered similar environments and animals with similar appearances in South America and Europe. 3. Darwin noted that unique island finch species are descendants from the mainland species that have developed adaptations to survive on the island's food source.
By recognizing the mechanisms through which organisms change over time, or evolve, we gain insight into what?
1. How to design better medications such as antiviral agents and vaccines 2. Resistance to insecticides and antibiotics 3. How the organization of life on our planet reflects evolutionary history
what are characteristics that explain the process of natural selection?
1. In a population, individuals vary in their heritable traits. 2. In a population, individuals struggle to exist. 3. In a population, individuals differ in their fitness. 4. Over multiple generations, populations become adapted to their environment.
circumstances are necessary for evolution to occur?
1. Variation for a particular trait exists within a population. 2. A particular trait must be able to be passed on to the next.
Traditional treatment
1. bone marrow transplant 2. a donor has to be identified so tissues may be removed and placed in the individual with sickle cell disease
Incomplete dominance
1. familial hypercholesterolemia 2. when two different alleles are inherited, both traits are expressed at the same time but the traits produce an intermediate phenotype rather than a dominant trait masking a recessive trait
Multiple genes influence a phenotype
1. height 2. traits are controlled by many genes instead of traits controlled by alleles from one gene.
Epistatic interaction
1. human eye color 2. two genes can interact to produce a phenotype, such that one gene can override another
Influenza evolution
1. influenza evolves due to changes in its genetic over time 2. evolution happens quickly in viruses due to rapid reproduction 3. the virus may evolve as it moves between animal hosts
statements true about evolution?
1. it is the unifying theme in the study of biology 2. it is a result of heritable changes in the DNA of an organism
Differences with DNA replication
1. leading and lagging strands 2. enzyme helicase 3. temperature cycle to cause denaturing and annealing of DNA strands 4. Specific DNA sequences are copied and not the entire genome
Autosomes and Sex Chromosomes
1. located in the nucleus 2. carry genes that do not determine the sex of the individual
The single-celled zygote divides by ____to produce a multicellular, ____ individual.
1. mitosis 2. diploid
In vivo gene therapy
1. occurs inside the body 2. a direct method of inserting the correct genetic material, via a vector, into the body
Ex vivo gene therapy
1. occurs outside the body 2. the host cells are removed, cluttered via a vector containing the gene of interest, and then reintroduced back into the body
Sex Chromosomes
1. one pair in humans 2. carrying sex determining genes 3. includes the X and Y chromeosome
The pattern for sickle-cell disease indicates it is a ____ incomplete codominance recessive dominant genetic disease because ____ One Two Three Four copies of the allele must be present in an individual for them to express the disease.
1. recessive 2. two
Unlike mitosis, meiosis____ the chromosome number of the daughter cells from diploid to haploid. It also means that gametes only contain ____ copy of each chromosome.
1. reduces 2. one
Codominance
1. two alleles are both expressed equally rather than a dominant allele taking complete control over a recessive allele. 2. A and B blood types 3.heterozgote
Which of the following statements concerning DNA replication is/are true?
1.Each of the parental strands of DNA acts as a template for the construction of a new daughter strand. 2.Starting off as a single cell with a combination of genetic information from both parents, copies of DNA are passed on from cell to cell in the bodies of multicellular organisms. 3. There is complementary base pairing between the DNA strands: a cytosine on one strand is paired to guanine on the other side, resulting in daughter strands that are complementary to the template strand. 4.The appropriate adjective to describe DNA replication is semiconservative since after replication, each new DNA double helix consists of one old strand and one newly synthesized strand.
number of chromosomes in gametes
23
Spanish flu killed how many?
30 to 50 million people
Number of chromosomes in somatic cells
46
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase
A virus called a bacteriophage was labeled with either radioactive proteins or radioactive DNA and was allowed to infect bacteria. From the results, it was concluded that the DNA, and not proteins, entered the bacterial cells and was the genetic material.
nucleotides
Adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) are the __________ building blocks for DNA; they are organized in different combinations to code for all of the proteins needed to accomplish everything the cell does.
Biological systematics
An area of biology that studies biological diversity and the evolutionary relationships of organisms
Genetics
An area of biology that studies how genetic material changes over time
Ecology
An area of biology that studies how organisms have evolved to fill their roles within an ecosystem
Genetic Markers
An inheritance of a variation in the pattern of DNA nucleotide means that a person may be susceptible for a certain disease
______ occurs when a mutation causes a change in the H and N spikes on the influenza virus.
Antigenic drift
_____occurs when two different influenza viruses infect the same host cell, and a new form of the virus is manufactured.
Antigenic shift
DNA
Based on the structure and arrangements of nucleotides in the __________ molecule, the molecule is an information molecule. It stores instructions and is read to produce proteins that direct cellular reproduction, produce new cellular components, and initiate cellular reproduction.
Oswald Avery
By expanding the bacterial transformation experiment, this scientist added an enzyme DNase, to show when present, transformation did not occur. This evidence strongly suggested that DNA is the substance that causes bacterial transformation.
what is tightly packed up to fit in the nucleus of every eukaryotic cell.
DNA
antiparallel
DNA is a double helix consisting of two strands orientated in an __________ configuration meaning the 5' to 3' direction of one strand runs counter to direction of the other strand.
what occurs during the pcr cell process
DNA replication
hersey and chase drawn conclusion
DNA, not protein is the genetic information of cells
Direct DNA Sequencing
Determining the exact sequence of nucleotides, scientists are able to identify specific alleles associated with a disease
By the end of the second round of cell division, meiosis II, there are four daughter cells, each with a copy of a chromosome and its sister chromatids. T/F
FALSE
During the process of meiosis, alleles on chromosomes are randomly shuffled across chromosomes in meiosis II, prophase II. T/F
FALSE
Natural selection causes mutations. T/F
FALSE
The closer the genetic information is between two species, the more distant their evolutionary relationship.
FALSE
The closer two organisms are related, the more time there is for mutations to change their genetic information for a trait.
FALSE
The genetic material is not a history of the organism's evolutionary past. T/F
FALSE
sickle cell disease
Genetic disorder in which red blood cells have abnormal hemoglobin molecules and take on an abnormal shape. it is also caused by one amino acid
Oxyhemoglobin
Hemoglobin combined with oxygen
DNA Microarrays
Identifies a specific allele or patterns of gene expression between two cell types, tissues, or individuals
Why is Archaeopteryx important?
It has reptile and avian features
____are further condensed to form chromosomes during the process of cell division.
Nucleosomes
Frederick Griffith
Performed the first experiment suggesting that pneumonia-causing bacteria are capable of transferring genetic information through a process known as transformation.
Erasmus Darwin
Proposed that evidence from animal development and animal breeding shows that species may evolve over time
Charles Lyell
Proposed that the Earth's surface is dynamic and constantly changing
Georges Cuvier
Proposed the idea of catastrophism; he believed that all species were created at the same time, yet catastrophic events have caused some species to go extinct and studied the fossil record and noticed that fossils showed a succession of different forms of life over time
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Proposed the idea referred to as inheritance of acquired characteristics
Thomas Malthus
Stated that populations sometimes increase at rates faster than their food supply can increase, thus creating competition
A comparison of genetic and biochemical similarities can indicate evolutionary relationships. T/F
TRUE
Chromosomes are shuffled during metaphase I of meiosis I as the homologous chromosomes line up randomly along the metaphase plate. T/F
TRUE
During meiosis II, there is the random separation of sister chromatids into each daughter cell. The daughter cells are genetically different from each other. T/F
TRUE
During the first round of cell division, meiosis, the cells are diploid but are reduced to haploid daughter cells. T/F
TRUE
Meiosis consists of two rounds of cell division and results in the formation of four haploid cells. T/F
TRUE
Meiosis is a form of cell division that reduces the chromosome number of the daughter cells from diploid to haploid and introduces variation into the daughter cells. T/F
TRUE
Mutations are constantly occurring in the genetic material. T/F
TRUE
Mutations represent the source of genetic variation in a population. T/F
TRUE
Natural selection favors variation, which increases the ability of the individual to reproduce and pass the trait on to the next generation, and acts against detrimental traits. T/F
TRUE
This process called crossing over is the first introduction of genetic variation by creating new combinations of alleles not present in the original chromosomes. T/F
TRUE
When comparing species, some traits are more common in closely related species than distantly related ones. T/F
TRUE
James Watson and Francis Crick
The first correct model of the structure of DNA, it was determined that the sugar and phosphate components of the nucleotides make up the helical strands of the DNA molecule, and the nitrogenous bases are located on the interior of the molecule.
Pedigree
The historic way in which an individual was determined to be susceptible to a genetic disease
covalent bonds
The nucleotides along one side of a DNA molecule are connected to each other by __________ between phosphate groups and sugar molecules.
Karyotype
Visualizing an individual's autosomes and sex chromosomes to determine if there are any changes on the chromosomes
Erwin Chargaff
When comparing the percentage of nitrogen bases of DNA from any species, the amount of adenine equals the amount of thymine, and the amount of guanine equals the amount of cytosine.
Rosalind Franklin
When examining the structure of DNA, a chemist used a process known as X-ray crystallography to determine that DNA was a double helix structure and highly repetitive.
On the____chromosome, there are 900 genes that produce proteins but many of those genes have nothing to do with sex; whereas the Y chromosome only contains about 60 protein-related genes.
X
In particular, the____chromosome contains a gene called the SRY gene that when switched on triggers the development of the male sexual characteristics.
Y
Gene Cloning
a gene is inserted into a bacteria and the cloned DNA is used to create copies of a gene and to locate a mutation
Genetic marker
a gene with a known location on a chromosome that can be used to identify mutations due to some variation seen at the genomic loci
hemoglobin
a protein found in the red blood cells of the circulatory system
DNA microarray
a tool used to determine patterns of gene expression from a particular individual and whether or not a mutation in genes exist due to the expression pattern
The interaction of the respiratory and circulatory systems occur where?
alveoli of the lungs
genes
are segments of DNA that contain instructions for the production of proteins and RNA molecules
Gene therapy involves the use of vectors to deliver the genetic material to the cells of interest.
both types of gene therapy
in the alveoli in the lungs, an enzyme called_____ converts the carbonic acid back to co2, which is exhaled
carbonic anhydrase
When two alleles for the same trait are equally expressed and neither allele can mask the expression of the other allele, this is an example of
codominance
hox genes
control the early embryonic development of all animals
PCR
copies of a specific genes are made so they may be analyzed to determine if a specific allele is mutated
Therefore, when the alleles of a particular gene are passed on to their descendants via gametes, a haploid sperm fertilizes a haploid egg producing a ____.
diploid zygote
Stem cells are removed from the bone marrow, mixed with a normal gene, inserted into a vector, and reintroduced into the bone marrow of the patient.
ex vivo gene therapy
The process of gene therapy occurs outside of the body
ex vivo gene therapy
directional selection
favors an extreme variant for a trait
stabilizing selection
favors the average, or most common variant for a trait
disruptive selection
favors two extremes selecting against the most common variant for a trait
Hemoglobin consists of
four polypeptide chains called globins
Sexual reproduction involves the use of specialized egg cells or sperm cells called?
gametes.
The process of __________ is when the information contained within the nucleotides of a DNA molecule is expressed as functional product called a protein.
gene expression
Although compact, the chromosome can be easily unwound to provide access to the individual____
genes.
Fertilization of two sex cells not only ensures that chromosome number is restored, but it generates ____ in offspring.
genetic variation
When gametes are produced by the organs of the reproductive system, they contain one copy of each chromosome or the cells are ____
haploid.
what does a gene do?
has information that produces a product, which may include proteins or RNA molecules
The double-stranded DNA molecule wraps around packing proteins _____, forming the nucleosome
histones
A type of gene therapy in which the correct gene is injected directly into the body
in vivo gene therapy
The vector with the functioning gene is injected into an area and genes are changed in the cells still in the body
in vivo gene therapy
Amniocentesis
is when a sample of amniotic fluid from the uterus of a pregnant woman is collected by passing a long needle through the abdominal and uterine walls in order to collect fetal cells.
Chorionic villus sampling
is when a sample of fetal cells are collected from the region where the placenta will develop.
Each gene has a specific location, or ____ on a chromosome
locus,
PCR is a technique used in the laboratory to ___.
make millions of copies of a gene of interest.
The type of cell division that produces gametes
meiosis
A modified form of cell division, called ____is used to produce the gametes in the organs of the reproductive system.
meiosis,
the embryo grows into a new individual by this process
mitosis
homologous structures examples
mouse, bat, and whale
There are two basic methods by which the influenza virus changes its genetic information_____ or reassortment.
mutations
Evolution is described as the change in heritable traits of a(n) __________ over a period of time.
population
genetic disease examples
scd and cystic fibrosis
homologous structures
structures that are similar in different species of common ancestry
analogous structures
structures that serve the same function and often appear the same , but evolved independently as adaptations to a specific environment
Human skin color is an example of __________ since sunlight can cause special cells in the skin called melanocytes to produce melanin, a protective pigment against UV radiation.
the environment influencing the phenotype
DNA sequencing
the process of determining the exact nucleic acid sequence in the gene of interest and determine if some variation is seen in the nucleic acid sequence
The largest chromosomes can have____ of genes, while the smallest may have as little as a few hundred.
thousands
fossils that provide information about intermediate organism's between groups, like birds and reptiles area called____fossils
transitional
some must direct evolution comes from fossils called ____ which can show relationships between groups
transitional
analogous structures examples
wings of birds, bats, insects
When fertilization occurs by the joining of a haploid sperm cell and a haploid egg cell, it creates a diploid____
zygote.