bio 105 unit 3

Autosomes

1. 22 pairs in humens 2. do not differ between males and females

PCR: Similarities with DNA replication

1. A template strand is required 2. spare nucleotides 3. DNA Polymerase

what are the characteristics that are considered to be evidence of natural selection that Darwin observed aboard the Beagle?

1. Collecting fossilized remains of extinct animals along the west coast of South America challenged Darwin's idea that the Earth was young. 2. In regard to biogeography, Darwin discovered similar environments and animals with similar appearances in South America and Europe. 3. Darwin noted that unique island finch species are descendants from the mainland species that have developed adaptations to survive on the island's food source.

By recognizing the mechanisms through which organisms change over time, or evolve, we gain insight into what?

1. How to design better medications such as antiviral agents and vaccines 2. Resistance to insecticides and antibiotics 3. How the organization of life on our planet reflects evolutionary history

what are characteristics that explain the process of natural selection?

1. In a population, individuals vary in their heritable traits. 2. In a population, individuals struggle to exist. 3. In a population, individuals differ in their fitness. 4. Over multiple generations, populations become adapted to their environment.

circumstances are necessary for evolution to occur?

1. Variation for a particular trait exists within a population. 2. A particular trait must be able to be passed on to the next.

Traditional treatment

1. bone marrow transplant 2. a donor has to be identified so tissues may be removed and placed in the individual with sickle cell disease

Incomplete dominance

1. familial hypercholesterolemia 2. when two different alleles are inherited, both traits are expressed at the same time but the traits produce an intermediate phenotype rather than a dominant trait masking a recessive trait

Multiple genes influence a phenotype

1. height 2. traits are controlled by many genes instead of traits controlled by alleles from one gene.

Epistatic interaction

1. human eye color 2. two genes can interact to produce a phenotype, such that one gene can override another

Influenza evolution

1. influenza evolves due to changes in its genetic over time 2. evolution happens quickly in viruses due to rapid reproduction 3. the virus may evolve as it moves between animal hosts

statements true about evolution?

1. it is the unifying theme in the study of biology 2. it is a result of heritable changes in the DNA of an organism

Differences with DNA replication

1. leading and lagging strands 2. enzyme helicase 3. temperature cycle to cause denaturing and annealing of DNA strands 4. Specific DNA sequences are copied and not the entire genome

Autosomes and Sex Chromosomes

1. located in the nucleus 2. carry genes that do not determine the sex of the individual

The single-celled zygote divides by ____to produce a multicellular, ____ individual.

1. mitosis 2. diploid

In vivo gene therapy

1. occurs inside the body 2. a direct method of inserting the correct genetic material, via a vector, into the body

Ex vivo gene therapy

1. occurs outside the body 2. the host cells are removed, cluttered via a vector containing the gene of interest, and then reintroduced back into the body

Sex Chromosomes

1. one pair in humans 2. carrying sex determining genes 3. includes the X and Y chromeosome

The pattern for sickle-cell disease indicates it is a ____ incomplete codominance recessive dominant genetic disease because ____ One Two Three Four copies of the allele must be present in an individual for them to express the disease.

1. recessive 2. two

Unlike mitosis, meiosis____ the chromosome number of the daughter cells from diploid to haploid. It also means that gametes only contain ____ copy of each chromosome.

1. reduces 2. one

Codominance

1. two alleles are both expressed equally rather than a dominant allele taking complete control over a recessive allele. 2. A and B blood types 3.heterozgote

Which of the following statements concerning DNA replication is/are true?

1.Each of the parental strands of DNA acts as a template for the construction of a new daughter strand. 2.Starting off as a single cell with a combination of genetic information from both parents, copies of DNA are passed on from cell to cell in the bodies of multicellular organisms. 3. There is complementary base pairing between the DNA strands: a cytosine on one strand is paired to guanine on the other side, resulting in daughter strands that are complementary to the template strand. 4.The appropriate adjective to describe DNA replication is semiconservative since after replication, each new DNA double helix consists of one old strand and one newly synthesized strand.

number of chromosomes in gametes

23

Spanish flu killed how many?

30 to 50 million people

Number of chromosomes in somatic cells

46

Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase

A virus called a bacteriophage was labeled with either radioactive proteins or radioactive DNA and was allowed to infect bacteria. From the results, it was concluded that the DNA, and not proteins, entered the bacterial cells and was the genetic material.

nucleotides

Adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) are the __________ building blocks for DNA; they are organized in different combinations to code for all of the proteins needed to accomplish everything the cell does.

Biological systematics

An area of biology that studies biological diversity and the evolutionary relationships of organisms

Genetics

An area of biology that studies how genetic material changes over time

Ecology

An area of biology that studies how organisms have evolved to fill their roles within an ecosystem

Genetic Markers

An inheritance of a variation in the pattern of DNA nucleotide means that a person may be susceptible for a certain disease

______ occurs when a mutation causes a change in the H and N spikes on the influenza virus.

Antigenic drift

_____occurs when two different influenza viruses infect the same host cell, and a new form of the virus is manufactured.

Antigenic shift

DNA

Based on the structure and arrangements of nucleotides in the __________ molecule, the molecule is an information molecule. It stores instructions and is read to produce proteins that direct cellular reproduction, produce new cellular components, and initiate cellular reproduction.

Oswald Avery

By expanding the bacterial transformation experiment, this scientist added an enzyme DNase, to show when present, transformation did not occur. This evidence strongly suggested that DNA is the substance that causes bacterial transformation.

what is tightly packed up to fit in the nucleus of every eukaryotic cell.

DNA

antiparallel

DNA is a double helix consisting of two strands orientated in an __________ configuration meaning the 5' to 3' direction of one strand runs counter to direction of the other strand.

what occurs during the pcr cell process

DNA replication

hersey and chase drawn conclusion

DNA, not protein is the genetic information of cells

Direct DNA Sequencing

Determining the exact sequence of nucleotides, scientists are able to identify specific alleles associated with a disease

By the end of the second round of cell division, meiosis II, there are four daughter cells, each with a copy of a chromosome and its sister chromatids. T/F

FALSE

During the process of meiosis, alleles on chromosomes are randomly shuffled across chromosomes in meiosis II, prophase II. T/F

FALSE

Natural selection causes mutations. T/F

FALSE

The closer the genetic information is between two species, the more distant their evolutionary relationship.

FALSE

The closer two organisms are related, the more time there is for mutations to change their genetic information for a trait.

FALSE

The genetic material is not a history of the organism's evolutionary past. T/F

FALSE

sickle cell disease

Genetic disorder in which red blood cells have abnormal hemoglobin molecules and take on an abnormal shape. it is also caused by one amino acid

Oxyhemoglobin

Hemoglobin combined with oxygen

DNA Microarrays

Identifies a specific allele or patterns of gene expression between two cell types, tissues, or individuals

Why is Archaeopteryx important?

It has reptile and avian features

____are further condensed to form chromosomes during the process of cell division.

Nucleosomes

Frederick Griffith

Performed the first experiment suggesting that pneumonia-causing bacteria are capable of transferring genetic information through a process known as transformation.

Erasmus Darwin

Proposed that evidence from animal development and animal breeding shows that species may evolve over time

Charles Lyell

Proposed that the Earth's surface is dynamic and constantly changing

Georges Cuvier

Proposed the idea of catastrophism; he believed that all species were created at the same time, yet catastrophic events have caused some species to go extinct and studied the fossil record and noticed that fossils showed a succession of different forms of life over time

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

Proposed the idea referred to as inheritance of acquired characteristics

Thomas Malthus

Stated that populations sometimes increase at rates faster than their food supply can increase, thus creating competition

A comparison of genetic and biochemical similarities can indicate evolutionary relationships. T/F

TRUE

Chromosomes are shuffled during metaphase I of meiosis I as the homologous chromosomes line up randomly along the metaphase plate. T/F

TRUE

During meiosis II, there is the random separation of sister chromatids into each daughter cell. The daughter cells are genetically different from each other. T/F

TRUE

During the first round of cell division, meiosis, the cells are diploid but are reduced to haploid daughter cells. T/F

TRUE

Meiosis consists of two rounds of cell division and results in the formation of four haploid cells. T/F

TRUE

Meiosis is a form of cell division that reduces the chromosome number of the daughter cells from diploid to haploid and introduces variation into the daughter cells. T/F

TRUE

Mutations are constantly occurring in the genetic material. T/F

TRUE

Mutations represent the source of genetic variation in a population. T/F

TRUE

Natural selection favors variation, which increases the ability of the individual to reproduce and pass the trait on to the next generation, and acts against detrimental traits. T/F

TRUE

This process called crossing over is the first introduction of genetic variation by creating new combinations of alleles not present in the original chromosomes. T/F

TRUE

When comparing species, some traits are more common in closely related species than distantly related ones. T/F

TRUE

James Watson and Francis Crick

The first correct model of the structure of DNA, it was determined that the sugar and phosphate components of the nucleotides make up the helical strands of the DNA molecule, and the nitrogenous bases are located on the interior of the molecule.

Pedigree

The historic way in which an individual was determined to be susceptible to a genetic disease

covalent bonds

The nucleotides along one side of a DNA molecule are connected to each other by __________ between phosphate groups and sugar molecules.

Karyotype

Visualizing an individual's autosomes and sex chromosomes to determine if there are any changes on the chromosomes

Erwin Chargaff

When comparing the percentage of nitrogen bases of DNA from any species, the amount of adenine equals the amount of thymine, and the amount of guanine equals the amount of cytosine.

Rosalind Franklin

When examining the structure of DNA, a chemist used a process known as X-ray crystallography to determine that DNA was a double helix structure and highly repetitive.

On the____chromosome, there are 900 genes that produce proteins but many of those genes have nothing to do with sex; whereas the Y chromosome only contains about 60 protein-related genes.

X

In particular, the____chromosome contains a gene called the SRY gene that when switched on triggers the development of the male sexual characteristics.

Y

Gene Cloning

a gene is inserted into a bacteria and the cloned DNA is used to create copies of a gene and to locate a mutation

Genetic marker

a gene with a known location on a chromosome that can be used to identify mutations due to some variation seen at the genomic loci

hemoglobin

a protein found in the red blood cells of the circulatory system

DNA microarray

a tool used to determine patterns of gene expression from a particular individual and whether or not a mutation in genes exist due to the expression pattern

The interaction of the respiratory and circulatory systems occur where?

alveoli of the lungs

genes

are segments of DNA that contain instructions for the production of proteins and RNA molecules

Gene therapy involves the use of vectors to deliver the genetic material to the cells of interest.

both types of gene therapy

in the alveoli in the lungs, an enzyme called_____ converts the carbonic acid back to co2, which is exhaled

carbonic anhydrase

When two alleles for the same trait are equally expressed and neither allele can mask the expression of the other allele, this is an example of

codominance

hox genes

control the early embryonic development of all animals

PCR

copies of a specific genes are made so they may be analyzed to determine if a specific allele is mutated

Therefore, when the alleles of a particular gene are passed on to their descendants via gametes, a haploid sperm fertilizes a haploid egg producing a ____.

diploid zygote

Stem cells are removed from the bone marrow, mixed with a normal gene, inserted into a vector, and reintroduced into the bone marrow of the patient.

ex vivo gene therapy

The process of gene therapy occurs outside of the body

ex vivo gene therapy

directional selection

favors an extreme variant for a trait

stabilizing selection

favors the average, or most common variant for a trait

disruptive selection

favors two extremes selecting against the most common variant for a trait

Hemoglobin consists of

four polypeptide chains called globins

Sexual reproduction involves the use of specialized egg cells or sperm cells called?

gametes.

The process of __________ is when the information contained within the nucleotides of a DNA molecule is expressed as functional product called a protein.

gene expression

Although compact, the chromosome can be easily unwound to provide access to the individual____

genes.

Fertilization of two sex cells not only ensures that chromosome number is restored, but it generates ____ in offspring.

genetic variation

When gametes are produced by the organs of the reproductive system, they contain one copy of each chromosome or the cells are ____

haploid.

what does a gene do?

has information that produces a product, which may include proteins or RNA molecules

The double-stranded DNA molecule wraps around packing proteins _____, forming the nucleosome

histones

A type of gene therapy in which the correct gene is injected directly into the body

in vivo gene therapy

The vector with the functioning gene is injected into an area and genes are changed in the cells still in the body

in vivo gene therapy

Amniocentesis

is when a sample of amniotic fluid from the uterus of a pregnant woman is collected by passing a long needle through the abdominal and uterine walls in order to collect fetal cells.

Chorionic villus sampling

is when a sample of fetal cells are collected from the region where the placenta will develop.

Each gene has a specific location, or ____ on a chromosome

locus,

PCR is a technique used in the laboratory to ___.

make millions of copies of a gene of interest.

The type of cell division that produces gametes

meiosis

A modified form of cell division, called ____is used to produce the gametes in the organs of the reproductive system.

meiosis,

the embryo grows into a new individual by this process

mitosis

homologous structures examples

mouse, bat, and whale

There are two basic methods by which the influenza virus changes its genetic information_____ or reassortment.

mutations

Evolution is described as the change in heritable traits of a(n) __________ over a period of time.

population

genetic disease examples

scd and cystic fibrosis

homologous structures

structures that are similar in different species of common ancestry

analogous structures

structures that serve the same function and often appear the same , but evolved independently as adaptations to a specific environment

Human skin color is an example of __________ since sunlight can cause special cells in the skin called melanocytes to produce melanin, a protective pigment against UV radiation.

the environment influencing the phenotype

DNA sequencing

the process of determining the exact nucleic acid sequence in the gene of interest and determine if some variation is seen in the nucleic acid sequence

The largest chromosomes can have____ of genes, while the smallest may have as little as a few hundred.

thousands

fossils that provide information about intermediate organism's between groups, like birds and reptiles area called____fossils

transitional

some must direct evolution comes from fossils called ____ which can show relationships between groups

transitional

analogous structures examples

wings of birds, bats, insects

When fertilization occurs by the joining of a haploid sperm cell and a haploid egg cell, it creates a diploid____

zygote.