Bio 1B - Organismal Biology

Q: Fungi are similar to animals than plants because:

-Carbon storage as glycogen -Heterotrophic (getting food from other living things) model of life

What's in a cone?

-Cones are the gymnosperm reproductive structures -Comes are anatomically similar to compressed fern fronds or lycophyte strobili -scales of cones are modified leaves with sproangia (sporophylls and part of the 2n sporophytes)

Evolution of seeds

-Ferns and lycophytes is a reduction of the gametophyte-->less tissue to protect the embryo from desiccation (drying out) Evolution of seeds - protect the early sporphyte better than sporopollenin (protects spores) Solution to adapting to life on land -Fertilization through pollen -Gymnosperms produce seeds and pollen in cones

Early land bryophytes embryo

-Hydrated to allow motile sperm to enter from the environment to fertilize the egg. -Retaining the zygote (fertilized egg) in the archegonium (the gametangium that produces eggs), the young sporophyte embryo develops protected (and dependent on) by the gametophyte

Vascular seedless (Lycophytes)

-Leaves and roots evolved independently in lycophyte relative to the rest of vascular plants -Leaves are microphylls with a single unbranched vein; branching only occurs at shoot tip

Vascular seedless (monilophytes)

-Leaves are megaphylls with branched veins -potential for stem branching not limited to shoot tip

Bryophytes (mosses)

-Most common in moist forests and wetlands -But can also be incredibly tolerant of desiccation, more so than most any other plant. Some can lose 98% H2O (high capacity for hydration and dehydration) bc.... -Chemicals called phenolics in moss cell walls protect them from UV radiation in desert or at high altitude ex. peat moss -major component of deposits of peat (decayed organic material in boggy wetlands), decomposition slowly and partially -Carbon-rich (high latitude areas peat is harvested for fuel) -high water retention capacity (>20x their weight in water) -3% of Earths surface but store 25% of all soil in carbon 2x as much Climate change -as the planet warms and dries, peatlands susceptible to fires (sinks of plant matter develop over 100s-1000s of years, but can release carbon in a relative instant

Prokaryotes

-No nucleus -not membrane-bound organelles -DNA in circular chromosome and plasmids -Most of the tree of life (bacteria or archea) -obtain energy in diverse ways -reproduce asexually

Rise of Seed Plants

-Not immediate -250-280 mya -formation of Pangea and uplift -->more arid land area -Heyday in the Jurassic and still dominate certain biomes (boreal and alpine forests)

Seed Plants

-Seed and vascular systems -Gymnosperms (cones) -Angiosperms (flowering plants)

Question: when you observe a large fern you potentially can observe/find:

-Spores -2n tissue -1n structures -the sprorphyte

Dinoflagellates (unicellular)

-Two flagella (one of which is a spiral that can make them spin) -some have transitioned to heterotrophy; others are mixotrophs that can switch back and forth between modes of acquiring nutrition (autotrophes to heterotrophes) -Bad red tides (dinoflagellate blooms produce toxins that leave massive fish kills and, when concentrated by mollusks, can poison humans) -Good symbiosis between corals and zoox (provide nutrients to corals and coral reefs) -but causes warming

Algal Innovations

-cell walls produces polysaccharide compounds call phycoclloids (prevent drying out/dessiccation) -used in food, cosmetics, lab science, and medical applications -Brown algae: alginate -Red algae: agar and carrageenan ex. 60% of cali vineyards have algae in soil

Green Algae

-closest relatives to the plant kingdom -very diverse forms of life cycles unicellular to multicellular -fresh, seawater, high elevation snow fields

Bryophytes (hornworts)

-form symbiotic associations with cyanobacteria to fix nitrogen -can carry with them their won organic nitrogen producers be early colonists and soil formers ~ to lichens

Mycelial networks

-huge and ancient (grow until stopped) problems to solve 1) finding nutrition when non-motile -growth is indeterminate-no defined end structure 2) directing growth without central info processor swarms of sensitive hyphal (tips that spread to release enzymes and absorb nutrients) connected by parallel processing into one being (mycelium network of hyphae) 3) moving resources great distances ex. Mind Flayer in Stranger Things releases particles are superficially similar to Fungal Spores, and when in favorable conditions will germinate into the Vines. Vines=mycelium

Q: Features/functions associated with biological task of living?

-obtaining energy (grow, move) -reproducing (need offspring) -coordinating functions within (biochem) and between cells (microbes tissues) -having a defined life cycle ex. malaria: 2 hosts mosquito bites human then in human (liver and blood cells), multiple stages create complexity -means to remove toxic/waste products -dispersal to new environments -perception of environment -recognizing mates -defense mechanisms (protect resources or defense from parasites

Fungi characteristics

-uni or multicelluar -chintin (strong exoskeleton)-rich cell walls -Heterotrophs (consume food made by others) that engage in absorptive nutrition by secreting enzymes outside of bodies to digest food externally -many fungi break down lignin (structural molecule in wood and plants) of falling trees and plants ex. dry rot infections (cause black mold=respiratory issues) long, thin filaments -non-motile (don't move by themselves) and filamentous -single filament = hypha -network of hyphae = mycelium -spread through soil to maintain network of fungi

Gymnosperm seed parts

1) Embryo (offspring sporophyte) = Zygote + mitosis (2n) 2) Food supply (haploid female gametophyte) = remaining female gametophyte tissue in spore wall (n) 3) Seed coat (maternal tissue from sporophyte) = hardened integument (2n) KEY the seed pre=adapts gymnosperm to take over Greenhouse Earth--> Withstanding desiccating conditions that free-living gametophytes cannot

Angiosperms Notable changes

1) Flowers = pollination/protection 2) Endosperm (food supply) Seedling Establishment 3) Fruits=(tissue that forms around the seed) protection/dispersal (attract animals to disperse the seeds)

Sporophytes rule the vascular plant life cycle

1) Gametophyte phase: free-living, small water absorbing gametophyte, has green tissue, rhizoids then 2) gametangia: gameophytes make gametes in either antheridium (sperm) or archegonium (egg) 3) realized through water column into hydrated archegonium to fertilize egg 4) Sporophyte generation: still have embryo retention by maternal gametophyte (embeded while zygote) DIVERSION FROM BRYOPHTES Now the sporophyte is not nutritionally dependent on gametophyte bc it developed own roots vascularized stems and leaves (so...gametophyte dies off so sporophyte can be free-living) a) sporophylls - leaves that form sporangia b) sorus - clustered groups of sporangia

Seed Facts summary

1) Heterospory and gametophyte retainment: Both gametophytes (male and female) highly reduced and sheltered by in spore wall 2) Male gametophyte (pollen) does become free-living but disperses by wind 3) No motile sperm or antheridia. Instead sperm shuttled down pollen tubes 4) Ovule protects the female gametophyte, which subsequently nourishes the sporophyte embryo even after seed dispersal

Plant Sexual Life Cycle

1) Meiosis involves spores (not gametes) 2) Fertilization = zygote 3) Spores and zygotes can undergo mitosis in plants Two types of life cycles a) Gametophyte: haploid organism that produces gametes by mitosis b) Sporophyte: diploid organism that produces spores by meiosis

Animal Sexual Life Cycles

1) Meiosis production of cells (n gametes in animals) from (2n) over two rounds of cell division 2) Fertilization: n+n haploid gametes = a 2n zygote 3) 2n zygote undergoes mitosis to produce bigger multicellular organism

Summary of bryophyte Sexual Life Cycle

1) Rhizoids and Phyllids Solved staying hydrated a) Gametangia (eggs and sperm protected/preserved here) - b) Retained Embryos (on gametophyte in archegonium c) Waterproofed by cuticle Sporophytes and Spores and gametangium Problem: CANNOT transport water over long distances! because they are non-vascular

Flower Anatomy

1) Sepals: offer protection to the bud -enclose and protect 2) Petals: often bright, large and attractive to pollinators 3) Stamens: (first sprorphyll), fertile organs that bear pollen 4) Filament: stalk that bears the anthers 5) anthers: sac that contains the microsporangia where microspores form and germinate to become pollen (gametophyte) 6) Pistil: single carpel or collection of fused carpels 7) Carpels: sporophyll fused into a container within which the ovules are found a) Stigma: sticky surface where pollen lands and pollen tube germinates b) Style: tract down which the pollen tube migrates to reach ovules c) Ovary: protective container around the ovules

Pollen Cone Sexual Life Cycle

1) The sporophyte (2n) makes pollen cones made up of sporophyll (scales, 2n) that hold 2) Microsporoangia (2n) make microspores (n) by meiosis that 3) Germinate to develop into pollen grains (n) that is 4) Encased in sporopollenin. Has undergone 2 cell divisions Solves Problem of Life on Land - Fertilization 1) Microspores are NOT dispersed 2) Free-living male gametophyte moves by wind NOT water Notable Changes 1) No more motile sperm (Hydrated to allow motile sperm to enter from the environment to fertilize the egg) 2) NO antheridia (gametangia that produce sperm).

Fungi Sexual Life Cycles

1) haploid phase is predominant fungal stage and can be multicellular 2) Meiosis produces spores (n) or sporogenesis (spore formation) Then some differentiate via mitosis with hyphae into gametes or Gametogenesis (gamete formation) And then fertilized (2n) zygote 3) NO mitosis after fertilization (multicellular diploid phase) - straight to meiosis producing spores

Gametophytes rule the Bryophyte life cycle

1) spores germinates (become non-dormant) 2) via mitosis creates male or female gametophyte (Rhizoid) Have problems: a) aquiring and distributing water -phyllids: thin leaf-like (not leaves) growths that absorb water through direct contact with ground or trapped moisture -rhizoids: long tubular single cell (not roots) or filaments that do some water/nutrient uptake but mainly function to anchor plants ~ to arbuscular mycorrhyzal 3)Antherdia or archegonia form to protect the gametes and new sporophyte as they develop a) Staying hydrated: solution gametangia (new multicellular protective tissues where gametes form antheridia (gametangia that produce sperm) archegonia (gametangia that produce eggs b) embryo: the zygote (fertilized egg) is also retained in the archegonium and develops embedded in and dependent on nutrition from maternal tissue 4)Fertilization sperm have to brave the water but the egg is retained in the archegonium 5) Sporophyte waterproof for airborne life a) new waterproofing for the sporophyte generation (waxy cuticle) b) multicellular sproangia (capsule) c) evolutionary co-option of sproropollenin (polymer that prevents desiccation/dehydration of charophyte zygotes, to make plant spores resistant to harsh environments and dispersal by air

Endosymbiont Theory

1)Archea-derived ancestor evolves a nucleus 2) new organism engulfs Mitochondrion (bacterial symbiont capable of aerobic respiration) 3) Mitochondrion + nucleus organism enter into an endosymbiotic relationship -Endosymbiotic cyanobacterium went on to become the plastid EVIDENCE -organelles (mitochondria and chloroplasts) have their own DNA on circular chromosomes (similar to phylogeny of bacteria) -organelles divide by binary fission like bacteria

Fungal Diversity

2.2-3.8 million species estimated-->only 6% described -All fungi united by chitin-rich cell walls -Diverged from common ancestor with animals (most recent common ancestor) ~ 1 bya -Multiple separate origins of multicellularity distinct from that in animals or plants -shift from water to (land) wind based spore dispersal -spore dispersal solution: fruiting body (above surface, spores float in wind to disperse)

Recall Ecology

Algae are huge contributors to global (Net Primary Productivity) in the environment happens in the ocean

Multicellular fungi life cycles

Asexual Reproduction (clonal) -mycelia produce sporogenesis -Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (penetrate root cells and crease structures called arbuscles) ONLY REPRODUCE ACE ex. Mucuromycota (mycelium forms sporangia with genetically ID spores) ex. Unicellular yeast (haploid cells just bud off additional haploid cells) ex. Multicellular ascomycetes (strings of spores called conidia form as hyphal tip structures) No distinct binary 'gametes' hyphal tips merge to start fertilization Mitosis: spore germination to plasmogamy Fertilization is a TWO-STEP process -dependent on environmental signaling (production quick/in response to influx of moisture) a) Plasmogamy: cytoplasms fuse to become heterokaryon, one mycelium with two distinct haploid nuclei types in each cell or floating around (n+n) b) Karygomy: zygote maker; the different haploid nuclei share the same cytoplasm fuse to make the diploid zygote c) zygote undergoes meiosis to produce spores

Animal Pollination

Attracting pollinators (90%) -floral scent -Color and Color Patterning -Nectar and Pollen Rewards -Flower Shape, Size, Number -Nectar guides: markings that attract and orient pollinators Depositing and Withdrawing Pollen -Floral shape -Organ Placement -Precise "Triggers"

*Coming Ashore

Benefits -light is unfiltered by water -more accessible C02 in air than dissolved in water KEY many solutions implemented through adoption of and modifications within the alternation of generations (haplodiplontic) life cycle ex. in haploid (gamete) or diploid (zygote/fert) Challenges -much less water STAYING HYDRATED: water evaporates quickly in air, raising danger of desiccation (drying out) 2) AQUIRING then DISTRIBUTING WATER: by not being available to all cells directly, need a water distribution system 3) Building Support: without water, no buoyancy

Basidiomycetes

Club Fungi -best decomposers of wood -basidium (zygote 2n forms prior to meiosis) -basidia line the gills of the basidiocarp or fruiting body/mushroom cap -Single mushroom produces a billion spores. -The heterokaryon (cytoplasms fuse: one mycelium with two distinct haploid nuclei types in each cell or floating around (n+n)) -this will eventually produce a basidiocarp by mitosis that continues to have n+n ploidy before karyogamy occurs in the basidia on its gills

Flower Anatomy o/v

Determinate structure (growth axis, with pre-specified # of appendages before reaching a defined end -The flower's parts are arranged on that axis in a sequential order in whorls of one or more organs of the same type

Organismal Bio

Diverse ways to live (thrive, survive reproduce) -evolution: -ecology: niches (biotic/abiotic) -how orgs adapt/come together KEY evolutionary innovations that distinguish their anatomies and life cycles to diversify AND connects bt., critical roles in envirn., human health AND how plants sense and respond through growth in envirn. ex. plants, fungi, microbes and algae (foundations for environmental science and conservation), (agriculture and food science), (energy and engineering), (medicine and public health), (anthropology) ex. taxol-breast and ovarian cancer drug from tree bark

Bryophytes

Earliest diverging land plants (liverworts, mosses, hornworts) -non-vascular plants KEY 1) leafy structures pressed close to the moist soil are gametophytes 2) stem-like structures rising up are or contain the sporophytes (depend to gametophyte for nutrition, not free-living or attached)

Post-Terrestrialization

Environmental Consequences 1) rise in O2 levels due to photosynthesis also means that Co2 is being fixed 2) Plants greatly expand 2 CO2 sinks

Table

Gymnosperms Staying Hydrated -origin of ovule (protect female gametophyte) -retention of spores -lost antheridium -Food supply (nutrition when the disperse) Fertilization -Pollen

Mycelial networks 2

Hyphae can be specialized when interacting with plant roots Specialized structures a) Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi: penetrate root cells and crease structures called arbuscles b) Ectomycorrhizal Fungi: form nets around the whole root and cell surfaces within root but do not enter cells

Flowers are often found together

Inflorescence - the flower stalk variations in number, shape, size, arrangement, fusion, color, patterning, and symmetry of organs per floral whorl and the number of clustering of flowers on inflorescence are the basis for the breath of angiosperm floral diversity

Question: Why did Conchocelis keep popping up on shells tanks with Porphyra?

It's not a separate species but the sporophyte generation of the Porphyra -typhoon disturbed oysters (which house/protect sporophytes) -harvest diploid 'zygospores' in the wild and culture in seawater tanks with suspended oyster shells -transition tank from summer to fall release haploid 'conchospores' that attach to nets and moved out to ocean KEY life cycles whole picture increases crop production

Fertilization Process

KEY sperm meets egg in one well hydrated and protected ovule. NO STANDING WATER REQUIRED Process 1) Pollen cone in ovule, aperture of ovule closes up, contained in well-hydrated environment 2) pollen extend pollen tube through megasporangium to fuse with the female gametophyte (archegonium) Notable changes 1) female gametophyte stays within spore wall 2) 100s-1000s of cells in female gametophyte

Terrestrialization

Life on land ~500 mya Challenges of land -KEY change rock to SOIL -initially comes from lichens weathering rocks -KEY need for land plants: enhanced capacity to get nutrients from soil through mycorrhizal fungi ex. arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi present early plants and essential (send hyphae into roots and cell wall)

Seedless Vascular Plants

Lycophytes (club mosses, spike-mosses, quillworts and ferns -vascular and seedless KEY they are all sporophyte, gametophyte takes a back seat, they branch! Solved aquire and distribution of water AND Building Support a) development of an increasingly complex vascular system to conduct water from soil through the plant specialized cells and tissues to transport water, sugars and nutrients (tracheids, xylem, phloem) -sporophyte gains roots -lignification of stem vascular tissue increases functional strength (strong cell wall/rigid) -sporophyte gains leaves with veins increased dominance of the sporophyte where all these innovations have taken place

Fungi as Pathogens

Mycosis fungal infection -many pathogens of amphibians and insects ex. Chytrids ex. Ophiocordyceps (spores infects, go up and clamp leave, stem erupts from the plants head and produces spores) -Human fungal infections are rarely lethal bc of human body temp -except: Cocciodides immitis (valley Fever) - symptomatic

Cyanobacteria

Photoautotrophs (light-->food) that capture light energy through O2 photosyn. Co2+H20-->sugar+O2 -O2 binds to iron (creating rust and precipitates out in large bands) --> Oxygen Revolution (adding O2 to the atm, created a UV protective O2 layer) -Evolved capacity to fix nitrogen (N2)

Lichenized

Photobiont (eukaryotic alga or prokaryotic cyanobacteria) provides sugars (and fixed nitrogen if cyanobacteria) Mycobionts provides moisture, shelter, UV protection, and minerals obtained from dust or leached from substrate -secrete acids like usnic acid

Wind Pollination in Gymnosperms

Pollination-the transfer of pollen to the part of a seed containing the ovules -Ovulate cones are pollinated when they are small -Pollen cones produce heaps and heaps of pollen -Aerodynamically adapted but still just numbers game to get that grain to the megasproangium

Seed free plants - More tissue

Problem (staying hydrated) Solution -make free-living tissue more and more dependent on well-hydrated maternal plant Notable Changes 1) Megasporangium 2) Integument (Ovule megasporangium surrounded by the protective structure that will become the seed coat)

What is an ovulate cone?

Process 1) A sporophyte (2n) makes ovulate cones made up of sporophylls (2n) that hold 2) Megasporangia (2n) that make megaspores (n) by meiosis which, 3) Germinate to develop into female gametophytes (n) Solution to Life on land - Staying Hydrated 1) Megaspore is also NOT dispersed 2) Retained on the sporophyte and protected! Notable Changes 1) Ovule megasporangium surrounded by the protective structure that will become the seed coat (integument)

Post-Fertilization

Process 1) Haploid eff +Haploid Sperm = zygote 2) zygote stays in ovule forming embryo 3) embryo surrounded by remaining haploid gametophyte tissue (packed with proteins, fats and carbohydrates Notable Changes 1) Nourishment encapsulated with embryo even after dispersal 2) retains food supply

Angiosperms From meiosis to fertilization - pollen

Process 1) sporophyte holds onto microspores in microsporangium 2) Microspore germinates to become the pollen grain (male gametophyte), which is then dispersed 3) of cells in initial pollen grain, tube cell becomes pollen tube, and generative cell becomes TWO sperm cells 4) Pollen transferred to pollination to carpal of another flower, sperm travel down pollen tube through style 5) Two sperm travel down tube to ovule

Red Algae

Red because their pigments are tuned to absorb blue light and reflect red light because only the reformer penetrates to lower depths -can come in diverse colors and forms though ex. nori (sushi wrap) -Japanese diet for millennia; seaweed form is gametophyte (produce both eggs and sperm); makes spores asexually -decreased species bc of typhoon: oyster shells placed in tanks with Porphyra; colonized by algal species conchocelis

Summary of Ferns+Lycophytes Sexual life cycle

Solved staying hydrated a) Gametangia (eggs and sperm protected/preserved here) - b) Retained Embryos (on gametophyte in archegonium c) Waterproofed by cuticle Sporophytes and Spores and gametangium Solved aquiring then distributing water AND Building support a) vascular system (move water and nutrients) b) lignification of cell walls (more rigid)

Seed-free Consequences

TWO Earth periods by creating new material or organic carbon sinks 1) Carboniferous -seed plants dominate the landscape 2) Azolla Event -Burning up fossil fuel sinks as well as peat is causing rapid heating of atm

Heterospory

TWO TYPES OF SPORES each from a different type of sporangium KEY spores stay put in sporangia 1) Megasporania make megaspores that germinate to become the female gametophyte 2) Microsporangia make microspores that germinate to become the male gametophyte (pollen) Each sporangium type is produced by a different type of cone

Carboniferous Period

The first time plants get TALL 1) Root acids weather continental rock -increases release of calcium and magnesium -these react with Co2 to form the minerals CaCO3 and MgCO3 that are ultimately deposited in marine rocks (CO2-->increase deposition of minerals) 2) Boggy soils of the Carboniferous were highly water logged, stagnant and anoxic -Dead trees decay slowly and incompletely to become peat (partially decayed inorganic material) -Covered by marine sediments (peat)--> coal over millions of years 3) Lower Co2 levels -BIG drop in Global Temperature (Icehouse)

Bacteria

Type of Prokaryote -highly diverse group that contains species that live by virtually every mode of nutrition and metabolism possible -SOME are parasites and pathogens -many others play critical ecological roles as decomposers of organic matter that recycle nutrients in the environ.

Binary fission

Type of asexual reproduction -after doubling in size, single cells splits into cells KEY not the same as mitosis because there is no splitting of a nucleus

Archea

Type of prokaryote -generally extremeophiles (live in extreme conditions ex. high salinity) with anaerobic metabolisms (absence of O2) ex. SF bay salt ponds archea photo-heterotrophs (thrive by using light energy to break down organic molecules from envir.) ex. chemoautotrophs (volcanic cents support deep ecosystems) ex. Taq (isolated DNA poly key to isolate DNA)

Algae Sexual Life Cycles

Unicelluar Algae -haplontic life cycle: divide and reproduce through mitosis (spores-->mitosis-->gametes) then either asexually or fertilization Multicellular Algae haplodiplontic (alternation of generation -evolved multiple times independently in the red, brown and green algae common ancestor of land plants) -multicellular haploid and diploid (spores produced by meiosis, gametes are produced by mitosis, and fertilization results in zygote)

Earth History recap

Unstable bc astroids until ~3.8 bya atmosphere rich in N2, NH4, and CO2 but lacked O2 (anaerobic atmosphere) -~3.5 bya first fossils -Life starts in oceans -oceans also contained all other anaerobic models of life ex. methanogens (give off methane and water as byproducts of CO2 and H2) -enter cyanobacteria added O2 to atm) -Oxygen Revolution (increased protection of anaerobic life from UV rays by accumulating (O3)) -first eukaryote ~1.8 bya (then bacteria symbiont invades aerobic archaea to create eukaryotic) -Still zero soil (the continents are big rocks, oceans limited nutrient content ex. low phosphorus KEY to DNA and RNA) -Snowball Earth (twice): earth cools, ice grows, ice reflects incoming light back out into space, less heat in atmosphere, less heat entrapment -then volcanos erupt more Co2/greenhouse gas to warm up earth -rock weathered and enters oceans -weathering increases nutrients in ocean and on land -life plants only ~500 mya

Azolla

Water fern (aquatic) -forms a symbiotic association with (nitrogen fixing) cyanobacteria that it makes a home for within pouches in its leaves -doubles its biomass in 1.9 days so...continents clumped, thin freshwater layer allowed Azolla to cover ocean with huge mats, as they died mats accumulate as stagnant sediment, taking 80% of CO2 out of atm and sinking it to ocean floor-->Alaskan oil deposits -part of organic rice farming in SE Asia ex. Azolla fixes nitrogen + ducks eat weeds + dead Azolla fertilize

Cytoplasmic streaming

a mechanism to distribute pressure, water, nutrients, organelles, nuclei -send information through filaments (high surface area to find and absorb nutrition)

Ecological Group

a set of taxa that share common ways of life, in a community context ex. decomposers (prokaryotes or fungi) ex. cushion plants (species in many plant groups have evolved) ex. unicellular-->phytoplankton multicellular --> seaweeds

Seed-free plants

a)Bryophytes and b)seedless vascular plants (ferns/lycophytes). Gametophyte is the (n) haploid generation, which produce gametes in gametangia by mitosis Sporophyte is the (2n) diploid generation, which will produce spores in sporangia by meiosis

Angiosperm

angios=container sperma=seed -estimated 300-400K, the most dominant plant group today ~80% of all plants outside are angiosperms -Highest diversity in the tropics -Fossils and molecular dating suggest origins of several subfamilies in the Triassic (~250 mya). -Huge explosion in new diversity happened in the Cretaceous (75-125 mya) Darwin (said species change gradually overtime) -he was confused how the angiosperms got so diverse so quickly

Human Gut

as more microbes come in through both vertical and horizontal transfer -influences gut development -changes with age and diet -when one bacterial species takes over, often after antibiotic treatment its bad news ex. ulcers

Aerobic

can do metabolism in presence of oxygen

Anaerobic

can't do metabolism in presence of oxygen because oxygen causes reactions that are toxic ex. not all photo-autotrophs do oxygenic photosynthesis

Eukaryoutes

cells with linear chromosomal DNA packed into membrane-bound nucleus -also contain membrane enclosed organelles (mitochondria and plastids)

Lichens

combo of species in an ecological group -combo of at least one heterotrophic fungus (mycobiont) and one phototrophic alga or cyanobacterium (photobiont) - Both species take on a form completely distinct from how they would grow individually -evolved multiple times (no monophyletic) -Non-exclusive associations: fungi/algae and cyanobacteria mix

Heterotrophs (chemo-)

consume food produced by other organisms -Chemo-energy comes directly from chemical reactions ex. humans (chemo-heterotroph)

Quroum Sensing 2 (Virulence)

ex. Baccillus cerus (food poisoning) -ingested something growing a high enough density you will get food density -Pseudomonas aer. infections in cystic fibrosis and other lung/immuno compromised patients -Staphylococcus auer. infections

Autotrophs (phototrophs)

generate their own food from inorganic molecules ex. from methane, Co2, H20 Photo-energy comes from light ex. plants (photo-autotrophs)

Mycelial Applications

grow fast and surrounding chitin -fabricate fire and water resistant fabrics or buildings -break down plastics ex. diaper eating fungi (decomposed in 2 months)

Gymnosperms

gymnos=naked sperms=seed -only 1,000 species today, but much more diverse in the past ex. gnetophytes, cycads, gingko, and mostly conifers (coastal redwood, giant sequoias) - chemical resins resistant to drought and insects

Vertical transmission

how microbes establish -passed down directly from parent to offspring ex. germline transmission of intracellular symbionants ex. during passage through the birth canal

Horizontal transmission

how microbiomes establish -acquired from environ. overtime ex. common cold spreads through the air

Plastids

key metabolic double membrane organelle in plants and algae ex. chloroplasts are a type of plastids. -surrounded by 2 membranes. -derived from primary endosymbiosis, one derived from the endosymbiont's cell membrane and one derived from the host's cell membrane that pinched off when the endosymbiont was engulfed. -closely related to free-living prokaryotes in the lineage where photosynthesis first evolved

Stromatolite

layered rocks that form from prokaryotes binding thin films of sedimented minerals together -photoautotrophs but without O2 photosyn.

Brown algae

marine algae including kelps -Kelps are keystone species of intertidal and deepwater -Can grow up to 200 ft long

Evolution review

monophyletic group: contains a common ancestor AND all its decedents ex. fungi are monophyletic group ex. solely unicellular fungi are NOT monophyletic because splits from ancestral protist

Summary Prokaryotic ways of life

obtaining energy - diverse ways reproducing - binary fission coordinating functions with and between cells - metabolic cross feeding, filamentous chains, biofilms and quorum sensing

Algae

photosynthetic organisms that are NOT land plants -not a monophyletic group -not even confined to one -All live in aqueous environments ex. heterotrophic eukaryote

Microbiome

refers to all micro-orgs found in a given well-defined habitat -bacteria and archaea but also fungi, algae, or other unicellular eukaryotes -dynamic, environment-dependent -can contain mutualists, commensals, pathogens-->interactions among species in the microbiome community can determine relative balance -if in or on an organismal host, can be very important for development, acquiring nutrition, health and more

Symbiosis

relationship in which two species live closely together -3 types mutualism, commensalism, parasitism -Symbiont: depend on sometime entirely for survival

Plasmids

small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is distinct from cell's chromosomal DNA (singular circular chromosome) ex. carry genes for replicating DNA (cloning plasmids) -in bacteria carry antibiotic resistance

Bryophytes (liverworts)

stalks with umbrella are the gametangia (still haploid), and short sporophytes develop on them

Pollination

the transfer of pollen to the part of a seed plant containing the ovules PRO: Capacity to partly or fully self-pollinate may be very helpful at times -low pollinator availability -high competition for pollinators -dispersal to new habitats (first pioneer species) -in-crop breeding (ex. wild sunflower out-cross, domesticated self-pollination) ANTI: 1) Inbreeding depression: deleterious recessive mutations are exposed in offspring, lowering fitness 2) Evolutionary benefit to sex--> maintaining higher levels of genetic

LIchen reproduction

together and asexually (fragmentation) soredia -bundle of fungi and algae Alone and sexually -fungi produce their own fruiting body

Fungi importance

understand terrestralization and life on land -key in agricultural, biotech, medicine antibiotics ex. penicillium -decomposers/fermenters ex. convert sugars to Co2 and alchol

Diatoms (unicellular)

unique glass-like cell walls (silica) in organic matrix -25% of global NPP -deposits accumulate on the ocean floor -Uplifted fossil deposts are harvested (as gritty, chalky substance) ex. toothpaste components (clean biofilms on teeth)

Quorum Sensing

way microbes interact -If enough other microbes of the same type nearby (hit quorum), a new density-dependent activity (voting) is induced (enacted) ex. induced activity includes bioluminescence -through the concentration of secreted auto-inducer molecules (high density more imported then exported so... proteins bind to receptors turning on genes to promote group behavior ex. Bobtail squid and aliibrio fischeri -establishes a colony of biolum. bacteria right after hatching -horizontal transmission though a canal that regresses only if bacteria establish -bacteria only biolum. at high density (hit quorum) -squid squirts most but not all of the colony back out

Biofilm

way microbes interact -a surface coating colony of one or more species of microbes that engage in metabolic cooperation -mats of cells that secrete and become stuck to each other in a matrix of polysaccarides and protein ex. stromatolites (calcified biofilm) ex. plaque/tarter in your mouth antibiotic ex. resistance/drug delivery problems (kill microbes and disrupt biofilms

Metabolite cross-feeding

way microbes interact -interaction between bacterial strains in which molecules resulting from the metabolism of one strain (waste) and further metabolized by another strain (waste eaten) ex. sandwich --> give cheese to someone else -can be mutidirectional (waste beneficial to another or og orgs)

Filamentous Chains

way microbes interact (divide labor/split functions) -in cyanobacteria (learned to nitrogen fixate) some cells in chain will differentiate becoming heterocysts (different cells) -allows separation between nitrogen fixation (anaerobic process) and photosyn. (aerobic process) ex. Anabaena