Bio 220: Exam 1 Study Guide

Mucous =

Adjective

Endoplasmic Reticulum

-The endoplasmic reticulum network is an organelle. -The ER is ALL over the cytoplasm. -Some ER is studded with ribosomes (Rough ER - granular) and some are not (Smooth ER - agranular). -ER is a series of membranes (double phospholipid membranes just like the cell membrane). -Its purpose is to compartmentalize; certain processes go on in the various compartments.

_____ = between cells

Intercellular

______ refers to the fluid that is located in an extracellular space (ie outside cell)

Interstitial fluid

What type of feedback is most common?

Negative Feedback

Cutting your finger is a good example of a _____ feedback mechanism.

Positive (the actual making of the clot)

If you move from a standard and continue to digress further and further away, this is called a _____ _____ mechanism.

Positive Feedback

What is a short loop?

Short loop is when only one side of a model is considered (shown).

Simple Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue

-simple meaning one cell layer thick; cuboidal meaning cells are not flat, but rather like a little cube -a lot of the time, ducts will be lined like this -important for absorption, secretion, osmosis, diffusion -they are a little thicker than the simple squamous -they can therefore, metabolically do more things -they are NOT found in long tubes because of the way the slide is "cut" -found in the kidney (if you cut through your kidney, you then cut through a bunch of tubes that contain urine) -the nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney and consists of the glomerulus and renal tubule; lined with simple cuboidal epithelial tissue

Simple Squamous Epithelial Tissue

-simple meaning one cell layer thick; squamous meaning flat cells -line spaces and covers organs in spaces that do not open to the outside world -this is very thin -slightly protects -its surface is mostly to allow things to enter it and to allow things to leave it (endocytosis, exocytosis, diffusion, osmosis, filtration) -it covers the lining of your blood vessels -it can be found in your intestines -it always has a basement membrane -you will find desmosomes (gap welding)

Elements

-there are 91 naturally occurring elements on earth Major Elements (account for 98.5% of the body's weight): 1. oxygen 2. carbon 3. hydrogen 4. nitrogen 5. calcium 6. phosphorus Lesser Elements (0.8%) 1. sulfur 2. potassium 3. sodium 4. chlorine 5. magnesium 6. iron Trace Elements (play vital roles in physiology and make up 0.7%) 1. chromium 2. cobalt 3. copper 4. fluorine 5. iodine 6. manganese

More on Osteocytes and Osteoblasts

1. Osteocytes and osteoblasts are VERY close together, and they are all close to the central blood source (Haversian canal) so they can use osmosis or diffusion to communicate with each other. It is called a dynamically alive piece of tissue 2. Osteocytes and osteoblasts make fibers that make the bone strong. These fibers, for the most part, are made of a protein called collagen. Upon these fibers will be deposited minerals (which come from blood), which are being released by the osteoblasts/osteocytes on the fibers. The healthier tour cells are, the more they can release appropriate collagen, the more mineral you take in and hormones to help out, deposits on these collagen fibers, to make strong bone. 3. Each cell (the circles) refers to a lacuna with ac ell trapped in it and they are busy depositing collagen and minerals outside themselves, forming spaces which they cannot get out of.

Osteocytes and Osteoblasts

1. Osteocytes: -The "spots" on the layers of the osteon are called osteocytes (if it is an old bone) 2. Osteoblasts: -they are called osteoblasts (if it's making bone) Osteocytes and Osteoblasts are both "star" shaped.

Give an example of the 1st homeostatic negative feedback mechanism given in class.

1. Right side of the model given in class: -When you wake up in the morning, you should have a normal fasting glucose level reading 90 mg/100ml of blood (set point/standard) 1) You get up in the morning and are in a rush, so you have a Snickers and a Dr. Pepper = digression from standard (90mg/100ml) towards "more" glucose level in blood (graph goes to the right and goes up) 2) Sensor (beta cells in Islets of Langerhahn in Pancreas) 3) Beta cells release insulin (water soluble hormone) which travels to target cell in blood via capillaries and then binds to receptor resulting in glucose entering cell for cellular respiration thereby lowering blood glucose levels 4) Mechanism has worked (recognized this digression and has brought it back to the standard of 90mg/100ml) (graph comes back down to standard) NOTE: this is often called a "LITTLE LOOP"

Types of Epithelial Tissues

1. Simple Squamous 2. Simple Cuboidal 3. Simple Columnar 4. Stratified Squamous 5. Pseudostratified 6. Transitional

Types of Muscle Tissues

1. Skeletal 2. Visceral (smooth) 3. Cardiac

What does the cell membrane do?

1. controls transport (what goes into cell and comes out of cell) 2. controls integrity (life) of the cell

Give an example of the 2nd homeostatic negative feedback mechanism given in class.

2. Left side of the model given in class: 1) A few hours after eating, fasting glucose level (90mg/100ml) is going down = digression from standard towards "less" glucose level of blood (graph goes to the left and goes up) 2) Sensor (alpha cells in Islets of Langerhahn in Pancreas; next to beta cells) 3) Product = glucagon 4) Glucagon goes to same target cell as FGL model above (NOTE: receptor is different than for insulin) 5) Out pops glucose and glucose level in blood comes back up (graph comes back down to standard)

Blast

A blast is a cell, typically, that is in the process of reproducing and growing; actually DOING something.

Inorganic Compounds

A compound that does not contain hydrocarbon groups

Cyte

A cyte is the adult or mature cell. Many cells have the ability to drift back and forth from blast to cyte.

Which type of cells are in this particular area (The Islets of Langerhahn)?

Beta Cells (therefore Beta Cells in Islets of Langerhahn in Pancreas produce insulin to control blood glucose levels)

Endochondrial Cartilage

Bone that comes from cartilage

Minerals and Hormones

Calcium and phosphates are mandatory in bone because they deposit into the fibers to give you the strength you need - the concrete in the driveway. You drink a glass of milk, to get the calcium and phosphates into your intestine and blood, you have to get it out of the lumen. It doesn't want to move on its own and the only way you can get them to come in is to have vitamin D

Why does glucose want to get into the cell?

Cellular respiration

Where can cilia be found? What do they do?

Cilia (hair-like) can be found on the apical surface of pseudostratified columnar epithelial cells which line the respiratory system. In the lungs, this cilia sweeps a layer of mucus that traps dirt particles and moves them toward the throat to be coughed out or swallowed. The cilia plays sensory roles.

A patch-like intercellular junction that mechanically links two cells together is called a _____.

Desmosome NOTE: desmosome = tight junction for this class

A form of cell division in which a cell divides once and produces two

Dia field A x TM field A / TM field B

Endocrine Glands

Endocrine make hormones that go directly into the blood and more specifically, the capillaries, that will travel to a target throughout the body

Any body fluid that is not contained in the cells (ie: blood lymph, and tissue fluid) =

Extracellular fluid

The process of transporting a chemical through a cellular membrane, down its concentration gradient, with the aid of a carrier that does not consume ATP; enables substances to diffuse throught the membrane that would do so poorly, or not at all, without a carrier is called ____ ____.

Facilitated diffusion

Functions of the skin

Functions of the skin: 1. Protection, excretion, and sensation 2. Helps maintain your fluid and electrolyte balance -Electrolytes are what your cells use to maintain voltages across cell membranes and carry impulses across themselves and to other cells. 3. Helps maintain optimum body temperature 4. Prevent microorganism invasion 5. Minimizes bodily injury to delicate structures below 6. Because of pigmentation, it helps protect you from excessive light rays and chemical penetration. -The purple on the skin under the microscope is the epidermis. The X's represent the dermis.

A junction between two cells consisting of a pore surrounded by a ring of proteins in the plasma membrane of each cell, allowing solutes to diffuse from the cytoplasm of one cell to the next; functions include cell-to-cell nutrient transfer in the developing embryo and electrical communication between cells of cardiac and smooth muscle.

Gap junction

An ion pore connecting one cell to another is called a _____ _____.

Gap junction

A monosaccharide aka blood sugar is ____.

Glucose

The end result of the docking of insulin to its receptor is that ____ is taken out of the environment and is pulled into the cell.

Glucose NOTE: it wants to go into the cell in the first place for cellular respiration

Hypertonic

Having a higher osmotic pressure than human cells or some other reference solution and tending to cause osmotic shrinkage of cells

Hypotonic

Having a lower osmotic pressure than human cells or some other reference solution and tending to cause osmotic swelling and lysis of cells

Isotonic

Having the same osmotic pressure as human cells or some other reference solution

The tendency of a living body to maintain relatively stable internal conditions in spite of greater changes in its external environment is known as _____.

Homeostasis

What is insulin?

Insulin is a water soluble hormone = goes into blood (Cardiovascular System) through capillaries = that lowers blood sugar levels by traveling to the target cell via the blood and binding to a receptor on the cell membrane that allow glucose to enter the cell thereby lowering blood sugar level

What is a long loop?

Long loop is when both sides of a model are considered (shown).

Where can microvilli be found? What do they do?

Microvilli (finger-like projections) can be found on apical surface of simple columnar epithelial cells lining the intestine. Microvilli increase the apical surface area (facing the lumen) for increased secretion and absorption.

Hyaline Cartilage

Most of long bone, and short, come from Hyaline Cartilage

3. Muscle Tissue

Muscle (third type of tissue) must have: cells that have contractility and named by location, appearance, and function

If you have a standard, digress from it, and a mechanism brings you back this would be called a _____ _____ mechanism.

Negative feedback

Is the receptor on the cellular membrane for insulin the same for glucagon?

No

Mucus =

Noun

Where can flagella be found? What do they do?

Only found on the sperm cell (one extension from the cell) which allow for motility.

Lacuna

Osteocytes/osteoblasts have a space in which it is confined, called a lacuna. Each layer consists of lacuna with their cells trapped inside.

Which organ is responsible for judging the glucose in the blood?

Pancreas

What is the cell membrane made of?

Phospholipid bilayer

The unit that is repeated the most in the plasma membrane is the _____ _____.

Phospholipid bilayer NOTE: composed of phosphate molecule (hydrophilic region) + 2 fatty acid molecules (hydrophobic region)

The transport of fluid into a cell by means of local infoldings by the cell membrane so that a tine vesicle or sac forms around each droplet, which is then taken into the interior of the cytoplasm is called _____.

Pinocytosis.

____ is the noncellular portion of the blood.

Plasma

What portion of this organ (Pancreas) in particular?

The Islets of Langerhahn

Reversible

can go in either direction under different circumstances

Ions

charged particles with unequal numbers of protons and electrons

Buffers

chemical solutions that resist changes in pH.

A hormone secreted by alpha cells of the pancreatic islets in response to hypoglycemia; promotes glycogenolysis and other effects that raise blood glucose concentration is called _____.

glucagon

Interstitial Lamella

in between the osteons

What is anatomy?

parts of the body

Intramembranous Ossification

• Develops from a tough fibrous connective tissue chunk. • The sutures from the skull are where one chunk connects to another chunk. Surrounding the tough fibrous connective tissue, it has an outer coating like a periosteum. The X's will become centers of ossification. What's breaking down here isn't cartilage, but fibrous connective tissue. There is a formation of bone making cells and fibroblasts are there, having made the collagen fibers. Those cells begin to deposit the substances necessary to make trabecular of spongy bone. The periphery (sides) begin to deposit compact bone. In the center of flat bone, you'll have red bone marrow. The two chunks grow each way and form a suture, which can help you determine the parts of the brain.

Vitamin C

• Get this from fruit; adequate amounts are necessary to make enough collagen - "wirework" of driveway. If you don't have enough, you'll have fragile bones.

Vitamin A

• If your osteoclasts not functioning adequately, you'll end up having slow widdling, which means slow bone growth.

4. Nervous Tissue

• Nervous (fourth type of tissue) contains a neuron, which is the basic unit of structure and function of the nervous system. For a neuron to be functioning, it must be able to send messages across itself, and those messages are called action potentials.

Parathormone and Thyrocalcitonin

• Parathormone (also known as parathyroid hormone) raises calcium in blood and thyrocalcitonin lowers calcium in blood o Regulate calcium and phosphate levels o This is a humoral example like the glucagon/insulin relationship. o RECOGNIZE THE ROLES OF THESE

Growth Hormone (GH)

• likes to go to the liver and have it make a series of chemicals (somatomedin, etc.) - encourages epiphyseal plate replacement. (Remember that the epiphyseal plate is the cartilage that remains when you can still grow before the epiphyseal line comes into play). o Too much of GH = giant o Too little of GH = dwarf

Thyroid Hormone

• too much of it and too little of it both mean stunted growth. Thyroxin hormone is the primary example. o Too little thyroxin says to the body "don't make more GH" too little GH stunted growth o Too much thyroxin quick replacement of epiphyseal plate stunted growth. o When someone goes through puberty, you must have adequate thyroxin levels so you can take advantage of growth.

Synthesis

(the opposite of decomposition) two or more small molecules combine to form a larger one; symbolically A+B--> AB

Ribosome

-A ribosome has a large subunit (enzyme) and a small subunit (rRNA) -On the ribosomes, we are going to make some proteins. -has no membrane

Sesmoid Bones

-Bones formed as a result of pressure and compression on connective tissue (tough fibrous irregular connective tissue) -example: knee cap

Fibroblast

-Cross section of the intestine - on the free surface of the intestine, simple columnar is present -The fibroblast is the cell responsible for making the matrix -The fibroblast is scattered about in the matrix -The matrix is made up of many things: it has some substances that are nonliving, fibers

Peroxisomes

-Endoplasmic reticulum thrives to a little organelle called peroxisome (present in the cytoplasm). -The peroxisome is filled primarily with the chemical peroxidase. -Peroxidase's job is to free up the cells internal environment from substances called free radicals. -The job of the peroxisome is to diffuse free radicals, which help "neutralize" the free radicals. -Free radicals are anything made within the cell that is somewhat unstable. If they are allowed to stay in the cell, they can misbehave inside the cell, and make the cell age. -Free radicals lead to premature aging type things (such as smokers-they have a greater level of free radicals, which causes them to age before their time). -The peroxisomes are to take these unstable chemicals (such as free radicals) and neutralize them. -Free radicals serve as anti-oxidants, which act as destroyers of free radicals.

Exocrine Glands

-Exocrine make stuff and puts it into a duct and puts it in an outside space -Examples of exocrine glands include gastric glands, salivary glands, and pancreatic glands -either unicellular, such as a goblet cell, or multicellular and are either tubular (simple, compound) or acinar (most of our cells are actually multicellular)

Matrix

-In the matrix, there will also be LIVING cells. -Cells are the only things that can do metabolic activities, such as reproducing and producing energy. These structures are in the matrix, to give strength, rigidity, resilience, and snap-back-able-ness. Some of these fibers vary (elastic fibers, collagen fibers). -Elastic fibers and collagen fibers tend to result in your ability to snap back. -One of the most important things to help keep the elastin and collagen healthy, is to have ample amounts of anti-oxidants (diffuse free radicals; if you don't manage your free radicals, that is what ages the fibers in the matrix).

Intramembranous

-Means that the bone came from a chunk of fibrous connective tissue, such as the kneecap -Most of the flat bones, but not all, come from Intramembranous

1. Epithelial Tissues

-either covering organs or covering a surface, lining a space (lining blood vessels), or glandular (can be endocrine or exocrine) -cells are very close together in epithelial tissues -must have little to no extracellular matrix/fluid (stuff in-between) -don't release much extracellular stuff, except desmosomes (they tend to protect and be released by osmosis and diffusion) -must be avascular for the most part (does not supply its own blood; no blood vessels; no capillaries) -must possess basement membrane (its purpose is to anchor to the connective tissue below)

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelial Tissue

-epithelial tissue has each cell touching the basement membrane -Looks stratified (bunch of cell layers), but it's false -Most important place to find this lining is the respiratory tract, especially the trachea -This has cilia -Some of these cells have also been modified to release mucin, and are therefore called goblet cells -Cilia are set up so that they beat up and out, so that they can get the dust, particles, and debris outside your body

Merocrine Glands

-glands include some salivary glands and some sweat glands -Most of these glands are going to be acinar shaped as well -These glands are also full of cells, but instead, the cell itself makes something special (ex. pancreatic juices) -The cells release their product from themselves, and out of the gland -The cell DOES NOT become part of the product -Can be found in the pancreas. (ex. cooling sweat glands).

Apocrine Glands

-glands include some sweat glands and mammary glands -These glands are acinar as well -These cells would make something and put that something in the apical surface (surface facing the free space) of the cell and they would pinch off, and the product with the pinched off cell would become the PRODUCT -These types of glands are a little of both: holocrine and merocrine -The cell repairs itself! (ex. mammary glands)

Holocrine Glands

-glands that secrete or release their substances -glands are oil glands (ex. sebaceous glands) -Most are going to be of the alveolar (simple, compound), acinar nature -These types of glands are filled with cells and they are enclosed in a type of membrane -When it is time for the cells to release the product that they made, the cells themselves breakdown and become the product (oily) -They are oily because they have cell membranes that are phospholipids -Once the cells are released, they have to regenerate; not all the cells because need product at one time; they have some cells that stay behind until the next time -As some cells leave, the cells reproduce, and the "bottom" cells move up -The cells tend to release its products sporadically, because it takes time to rebuild.

Smooth ER

-has no ribosomes -makes cholesterol and other fat-like solubles -detoxifies

Rough ER

-has ribosomes -compartmentalizes the cytoplasm -used in making proteins for use outside of the cell (protein synthesis)

Explain homeostasis.

-homeostasis is the body's ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions -homeostasis is basically the ability of a living system, such as us, to recognize change (not necessarily consciously) that's going on either inside or outside of us; it allows us to respond to that change so that at the end of the day we go back to that level of stability

Transitional Epithelial Tissue

-is mostly found in the urinary bladder (mainly in the ureters) -When the urinary bladder is empty, it is a tight tough muscular fist -As the urine enters, it makes it expand. IF the bladder is empty, it has many cells that are poofy and stacked on top of each other -As the bladder begins to fill, the cells start to slip down, so that when the bladder is really full, it may be down to two cell layers thick -Would not find desmosomes or gap junctions.

Lamella

-layer running around the central blood vessel (Haversian canal) that is why it is called concentric -blood supply will send amino acids to make collagen, testosterone and estrogen to encourage bone formation, etc -can repair quickly, unlike cartilage.

Explain the homeostatic negative feedback mechanism.

-most common homeostatic mechanism -a process in which the body senses a change and activates mechanisms that negate or reverse it -have a standard that is trying to be maintained -basically the digression from the standard as a response to stimuli in the environment (move away from set point); then something happens as a result to that response to change that therefore allows the return back to the standard -by maintaining stability, negative feedback is the key mechanism for maintaining health

Explain the homeostatic positive feedback mechanism.

-movement away from a standard which encourages more movement away with no attempt to bring it back to standard -could ultimately lead to catastrophic condition and death

2. Connective Tissue

-never found on free surface -Cells are scattered about and cells that make connective tissue release extracellular stuff (called matrix) -Matrix is the non-living portion and is the ground substance of the cell; it is made of fibers, ground chemicals, etc -The matrix can be liquid or solid, based upon what is inside of it -For the most part, it is vascular (all except cartilage) -Ranges from the runniest (blood) to the most firm (bone) -It connects, therefore you will never find connective tissue on a free surface

What is the difference between loose connective tissue and dense connective tissue?

The difference between loose connective tissue and dense connective tissue is how many fibers are present in the matrix. -If it has a few fibers, it is loose. -If it has a lot of fibers, it is dense.

What is the difference between regular connective tissue and irregular connective tissue?

The difference between regular connective tissue and irregular connective tissue is how the fibers are arranged. -Neat is regular -Crazy is irregular.

What is the fasting glucose level?

The level of glucose that is expected first thing in the morning = 90mg/100ml.

Osmosis

The net diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

Active Transport

The net movement of a solute through a cellular membrane, against its concentration gradient, involving a carrier protein that expends ATP

What is a zipper-like junction between epithelial cells that liits the passage of substances between them?

Tight junction NOTE: tight junction = desmosome for this class

The physiology of a cell is basically _____.

Transport

Volkmann's Canal

Volkmann's Canal branches off from the blood vessel that is located in the periosteum.

Articulated

When all the bones are together in place

Systemic Circulation

When an artery or arteriole enters a place it eventually has to form a capillary bed and then that forms into a venus system, or exiting cardiovascular system. That venus system is going to go back to a blood vessel called a vein. (This is called systemic circulation).

Decomposition

a large molecule breaks down into two smaller ones; symbolically AB--> A+B

Bonds

a molecule is held together, and molecules are attracted to others by forces. Those of the greatest physiological interests are ionic bond, covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds, and van der Waals forces.

Hydrolysis

a water molecule ionizes into OH- and H+. A covalent bond linking one monomer to another is broken, the OH- is added to one monomer, and the H+ is added to another one.

Metabolism

all the chemical reactions in the body

Cardiac Muscle Tissue

always found in the heart; a cross between skeletal and visceral; somewhat spindle shaped, but they tend to have multiple ends; parts of the cells usually lap over each other and communicate with gap junctions, desmosomes, and intercalated discs. One nucleus (like smooth); often have cross striations and t-tubules (wider than t-tubules of skeletal)

Electrolytes

are substances that ionize in water (acids, bases, or salts) and form solutions capable of conducting electricity

Osteon

basic unit of structure for compact bone. Years ago, they called osteons Haversian systems

Visceral

covering the organ and parietal is lining the space

All physiology is a combination of _____ mechanisms.

homeostatic mechanisms -homeostasis sets the main theme is physiology

Reduction Reactions

is a chemical reaction in which a molecule gains electrons and energy

Chemical Reactions

is a process in which a covalent or ionic bond is formed or broken. The course of this reaction is symbolized by a chemical equation that typically shows the reactants on the left, the products on the right, and an arrow pointing the reactants to the products. These reactions can be classified as decomposition, synthesis, or exchange reactions.

Oxidation Reactions

is any chemical reaction in which a molecule gives up electrons and releases energy

Organic Compounds

is any member of a large class of gaseous, liquid, or solid chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon

Stratified Squamous Epithelial Tissue

is found in the epidermis of skin

Amphoteric

means that it has a potential to be charged; proteins can be amphoteric

Visceral (Smooth) Muscle Tissue

o (smooth) - a part of the visceral organs; smooth - involuntary; found lining the intestinal tract, also found lining other tubes, ducts, and passageways; spindle shaped, only one nucleus (usually in center), no cross striations or t-tubules

In order for all these vitamins, minerals, and hormones to help you correctly you have to:

o Have an adequate diet o Have adequate rest ♣ Hormones released only during sleep. ♣ If you aren't sleeping properly, your cortisol (stress hormone) level will go up - consequences include putting fat on and affecting metabolism. o Exercise ♣ Helps deposit minerals correctly

Sex Hormones

o Testosterone & estrogen ♣ Testosterone is to the male as estrogen is to the female. Both hormones are present at various stages of one's development. Different times mean different amounts of the hormone. Somewhere around puberty, the hormones become increased and are important in stimulating the epiphyseal plates to get crackin' and start growing. The one thing they have in common is that they are the hormones that say to the male and say to the female "It's time to stop growing and form the epiphyseal line!" For men, testosterone does not shut down the growth factory for a long period of time. Female growth time is normally less. Both hormones stop the process and end the process.

• Endochondrial Bone Formation

o The beginning of bone formation occurs before birth and continues until after puberty. o Bone starts out in a fetus as a piece of hyaline cartilage, which is called endochondrial bone formation. Chondroblasts and chondrocytes are the cells, which are trapped in the spaces called the lacuna. When it is time for this part of hyaline cartilage to become bone, certain things start to happen. The first place things begin to happen is called the primary site of ossification, located in the diaphysis. In the primary site of ossification, the cells begin to lose their integrity (which means they begin to lose their ability to control what comes into and what goes out of their cells). When they lose their integrity, they start to get poofy, because they start to take in water. When these cells die, the "stuff" in the center starts to become mushy and you end up with spicules in the center. (Cartilage has spicules of collagen in them). The chondrocytes are dead and dying, but while this is happening you are going to have the invasion of the blood vessels. When the blood comes in, it brings in some bone making cells, osteoblasts that are on the outside. o The secondary sites of ossification are located in both epiphysis'.

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

o attached to the skeletal system; striated - voluntary (has to be zapped by a neuron to do it); each cell tends to be like a cylinder-blunt at the end, multi-nucleated, nuclei tends to be close to the surface of the membrane (sarcolemma is the membrane); noted for having cross striations and numerous t-tubules

These mechanisms can be a ____ mechanism or a ____ mechanism.

positive feedback mechanism or negative feedback mechanism

*Be able to write a flow chart representing a negative and positive feedback mechanism*

refer to notes and page 16 and 17 in book

pH

terms acidity is expressed in. It is a measure derived from the molarity of H+.

Dehydration Synthesis

the joining of monomers to form polymers. A hydroxyl (-OH) group is removed from one monomer and a hydrogen (-H) from another producing water as a by-product.

Histology

the study of tissues (groups of similar cells that do a specific job for you that the individual cell cannot do by itself)

Exchange

two molecules exchange atoms or groups; symbolically AB+CD--> AC+BD

What is physiology?

way in which organs function or how the body functions

Adipose Connective Tissue

• A good place to find adipose tissue is the trachea. The top is pseudostratified epithelial with cilia and columnar. You also have a piece of C-shaped cartilage in your trachea. You will see big swatches of "white cotton balls dipped in pink" - which is adipose tissue with some fat. How big they are is determined by how much fat you are trying to store. This is used as storage, to keep warm, or as padding for movement.

Vitamin D

• Ca++ absorption in intestine (phosphate also comes with it); It is used to take minerals out of the source and into the body. Vitamin D doesn't come from the cow in your milk. You can get it through the sun also.

Cartilage Connective Tissue

• Cartilage is an example of connective tissue that is an exception to the rule. 1. Elastic cartilage is found in the outer ear and you would be able to see the fibers under the microscope. 2. Fibrous cartilage is found in between your vertebrae and you would be able to see the fibers under the microscope. It has discs. 3. Hyaline cartilage is the most common and it is a type of cartilage that will eventually become bone when you get older. (ex. trachea, attachment of the ribs to the sternum, part of the nose, and the ends of long bones are wrapped in hyaline cartilage). The cells that make hyaline cartilage are called the chondroblasts, which conjure up cartilage, chondrocytes, which are the mature chondroblasts, and chondroclasts that destroy. It has a solid matrix. The lacuna is the space in the matrix and that has one or two chondroblast (or chondrocytes - depends on if the cell is finished growing or not). Chondroblast/chondrocyte makes hard matrix. Doesn't have blood vessels running though it, it is avascular. You would see space is hyaline cartilage. -A lack of blood vessels keeps from mending or healing of cartilage. In hyaline cartilage you can see holes in the cell, and in elastic and fibrocartilage you can stain to see

What are the four types of membranes?

-Membranes have an epithelial layer with a connective tissue layer underneath - together they carry out a function that neither could do alone. -There are four types of membranes: *Mucus Seriously Sucks Crazy!* 1. Mucous - lining body cavities that DO open to the outside world; has layer of ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium (trachea) OR stratified squamous epithelium (mouth) OR simple columnar epithelium (stomach) and a kind of connective tissue; the mucous membrane releases a mucous substance for slipping and sliding purposes as well. 2. Serous - found lining spaces that DO NOT open to the outside world (pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum); allows stuff to slip and slide by watery fluid; releases a LITTLE of watery (serous) fluid; has thin layer of simple squamous epithelium and a kind of connective tissue (between loose and dense irregular connective tissue - tends to be more loose though); contains visceral and parietal. 3. Synovial - oddball of all membranes; it only contains connective tissue and DOES NOT have epithelial tissue. It is fluid that you find lubricating joints (knees). 4. Cutaneous - membrane of skin; the epidermis and dermis make up the cutaneous membrane.

Polyribosomes

-Polyribosomes that are spread throughout the cytoplasm (in clusters of ribosomes) are used for proteins that will stay inside the cell, and not exported.

Skin

-Skin is an organ because it is made up of more than two tissues. Skin consists of three main parts: 1. Epidermis - stratified squamous epithelium; (Cutaneous - epidermis and dermis); There are several layers of the epidermis: 1) Stratum corneum - when you touch your skin, you are touching this layer. TOTALLY dead. These cells are mostly fat. They have accumulated a protein called keratin, which is a type of protector. It is a waterproof layer. **Stratum lucidum - located on hands and feet; produces more keratin** 2) Stratum granulosum - the organelles are no longer functioning; look like clumps/dead cells with granules in them. 3) Stratum spinosum - when the cells begin to crenate (shrink) and die 4) Stratum germinativum (basalis) - right above the basement membrane. These cells are nice and poofy, healthy, normal, and reproducing by mitosis. As long as these cells are healthy and reproducing, you can replenish and rejuvenate your skin. These cells are going to be taking a journey to the surface and during that journey they begin to die. One of the first signs of a cell dying is the membrane losing its ability to control what comes in and out of the cell. Removing the stratum corneum during exfoliation encourages mitosis reproduction. 2. Dermis - mostly dense irregular connective tissue, but can be loose areolar In this layer of CT will be hair shafts, glands, blood vessels, pressure receptors, pain receptors, and capillaries. Together as a cutaneous membrane, they are going to help with protection, sensation, and secretion. 3. Subcutaneous - underlying tissue

Golgi Apparatus

-The Golgi Apparatus consists of stacks/layers called cisterna -The purpose of this organelle is to get the substance close to the membrane, so the cell membrane can encapsulate it, and turn it into a vesicle which pinches off, makes its way to the cell membrane and the vesicle goes into the cell membrane and the substance is ejected (as exocytosis) -This is Active Transport (requires ATP energy). -The Golgi apparatus is the primary organelle in your cell that packages and sends things out. -It is the secretory organelle.

Cell

-The cell is the basic unit of structure and function that carries out the activities of life. -Cells on the outside of your skin have to be really close together so nothing comes out of your body. *Desmosomes (tight junctions) make the skin cells stay close together. *Gap junctions have a connection so that ions can travel between cells.

Cell Membrane

-The cell membrane is an organelle. -Its number one responsibility is to control what goes in and what comes out. -When the cell membrane can no longer do this, we say it is losing its integrity and it is on its way to death. -One of the first signs of a cell dying is shrinking (crenation) or if it's poofy (lysis). -Cell membrane is also responsible for keeping the cell's structure and resting membrane potential -Transport: how things get in and out of the cell membrane.

Lysosome

-The lysosome is the organelle present in the cytoplasm (similar in appearance to peroxisomes) and ride off of the Golgi apparatus. -Lysosomes only have a single phospholipid layer. -Lysosomes are filled with a group of chemicals whose job it is to work on organic matter (intermediate organic matter, that has been broken down and getting rid of old organelles, pieces of protein, membranes = anything that needs to be taken care of). -These chemicals deal with proteolipic enzymes as on proteins. -Lysosomes also known as the suicide packet. Sometimes when a person is under a lot of stress for a long period of time (high levels of cortisol hormone), the stress tends to weaken the membrane of the lysosomes and if the lysosomes would open inside the cell itself, it could destroy the whole cell (that's why it is called a suicide packet). -It is important to try and maintain the strength of the lysosomes membranes (stress management can help keep the membranes strong).

Mitochondria

-The mitochondrion is the powerhouse of the cell -This is where we make our ATP; in the inner matrix DNA and RNA is present; they allow this organelle to divide by fission. Most of our organelles cannot be made by fission.

Adipocyte

-Tissue is made up of MANY cells that are similar -An adipocyte is a single cell of fat.

Haversian Canal

-a central blood vessel in an osteon and it is the blood vessel branching off of the Volkmann's canal -the presence of these blood vessels is what makes bones so easily repaired and allows it to grow

Give an example of homeostasis.

-an example given in class) if you are sitting on a park bench and some guy comes up to you with a machete, and you do not hurry to get up and run or scream, then there is something wrong with you -an example given in the book) 1. a person rises from their bed in the morning 2. as they stand, blood drains from their upper body, creating homeostatic imbalance 3. baroreceptors above heart detect and respond to change (drop in blood pressure) 4. baroreceptors send signals to cardiac center of brainstem 4. cardiac center then accelerates heartbeat 5. this allows the blood pressure to rise to normal and therefore homeostasis is restored

Simple Columnar Epithelial Tissue

-tissue are found lining the small intestines (from the stomach all the way to the anal canal) -NOT the esophagus -held together by extremely tight junctions (if tight junction breaks down, stuff that could not pass through before can now) -Lines the lumen which opens to the outside world -Simple meaning every cell is going to touch the basement membrane -Have microvilli, which increase the surface area -Some of the individual cells can become modified, so that they can release mucin, these cells are called goblet cells -Goblet cells serve as a uni-cell exocrine gland. Goblet cells release the mucin (made of mostly protein) so that it can float along the surface -Protein molecules can act as a buffer; they are amphoteric. So, since mucin is made of mostly protein, it can therefore act as an acid OR a base and protects the lining -Some brushed border cells, release enzymes, release hormones, or let nutrients in.

There are four different neuroglial cells which protect and support neurons in the CNS:

1. Astrocytes - regulate the extracellular composition of brain fluid; release chemicals that promote the formation of tight junctions between the endothelial cells of capillaries. 2. Ependymal - responsible for lining ventricular cavities (of brain) and central canal (of spinal cord). 3. Macroglial - part of the immune system; its job is to run around and pick up pathogens and fight off infection. 4. Oligodendrocyte - important in forming a fatty sheet around the axon, or myelin sheath.

Give examples of the homeostatic positive feedback mechanism given in class.

1. Blood Clotting -you cut your finger -do not want to bleed to death, so cutting of that tissue sets up a series of responses -you start to make a clot and then more and more clots -get to the point where clot heals the wound and you don't bleed to death -moving away with no intention of going back to standard (cut of finger) -problem: has to be a mechanism to eventually shut down the blood clotting because too much clotting of the blood can lead to death 2. Childbirth -when baby gets to the point of delivery, its head presses way down in the cervix of the uterus -pressure goes up to the brain and tells the brain to release oxytocin -oxytocin then runs down and tells the muscles to contract -when the muscles contract, it causes more pressure -more pressure means more oxytocin, which allows baby to come out -problem: in some 3rd world countries, when the baby is breeched, they do not know what to do = therefore birth does not occur and baby dies 3. Cancerous Mass -makes more and more if there isn't a stop to it by either chemicals or removal from surgery -problem: if there isn't a stop to it, it will eventually take up all of the energy of your normal cells and result in death

How bones are made

1. Endochondrial - bone started out as a piece of hyaline cartilage; you end up with spongy and compact bone. (ex. long bones) 2. Intramembranous - bone started out as dense fibrous connective tissue; (ex. mostly flat bones such as the skull, sternum, parts of the hip).

List the organelles in a generic cell.

1. Endoplasmic Reticulum 2. Mitochondria: ATP production 3. Golgi Apparatus: packaging and removing 4. Lysosomes: organic matter breakdown 5. Peroxisomes: free radical control 6. Ribosomes 7. Nucleus (NOTE that pores in nuclear membrane are rather large) 8. Cell Membrane: structure, resting membrane potential 9. Polyribosomes

4 types of tissues

1. Epithelial 2. Connective 3. Muscle 4. Nervous

The fluid contained within a cell is _____.

1. Intracellular 2. Cytoplasm 3. Cytosol

Types of bone

1. Long (femur, humerus - compact bone all over - center is spongy) 2. Short (carpals, tarsals) 3. Flat (skull, sternum, hip bones, ribs) 4. Irregular (vertebrae; some facial bones) 5. Sesmoid (knee cap)

What are the cells that are always going to be in the matrix if you are healthy?

1. Macrophage is a type of white blood cell that can be found in connective tissue and doesn't have to be in the blood stream. Their job is to make sure that bad things don't get into the blood stream. It is a defense cell. 2. Plasma cells are also defense cells that are lymphocytes and are loaded with antibodies. They are like bullets and recognize an antigen and fires its "bullets" at the E. coli. 3. Mast cells produce heparin and release histamines. o You will have these cells (macrophages, plasma cells, and mast cells) in certain connective tissues, you will have fibers present in different numbers and different arrangements and made form different chemical substances. The matrix is supposed to provide a nice environment for blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics. All of these structures are delicate and you have to nestle and secure these structures. o Connective tissue is usually loose areolar around blood vessels and is more dense irregular in other areas. The dense regular is going to be more like tendons and ligaments.

The cell's _____ usually dictates function.

Shape

Skeletal System Functions of the Skeletal System

Skeletal tissue does several things: 1. Supports soft tissue 2. Protects delicate structures (brain, heart, etc.) 3. Serve as levers for movement 4. Storage for minerals and fat (yellow bone marrow) 5. Blood cell production in red bone marrow (Hemopoesis)

Diffusion

Spontaneous net movement of particles from a place of high concentration to a place of low concentration