BIO 6 SPRING EXAM 2

lec 8: Describe the function of the light reactions (Photo).

"trapping" of solar energy by "excitation" of chlorophyll molecules (light converted to potential energy in electrons) of the photosystems in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts

lec 10: Briefly describe three functions of cell division.

(1) the reproduction of an entire unicellular organism, (2) the growth and repair of tissues in multicellular animals, and (3) the formation of gametes (eggs and sperm) for sexual reproduction in multicellular animals.

lec 8: Describe the two main stages of photosynthesis and where in the plant chloroplast each stage occurs.

-light reactions, which occur in the thylakoids, - Calvin cycle, which occurs in the stroma.

lec 9: List the 3 stages of cell signaling

1. reception 2. transduction 3. response

Lec 6: Define reactant

A reactant in biology are the starting materials for a chemical reaction. Reactants go through chemical reactions to form products.

lec 8: e. Indicate the products of the Calvin cycle that are reactants of the light reactions.

ADP and NADP+

Lec 6: Structurally compare and contrast ATP and ADP and relate each to the ATP/ADP cycle. Include relative energy levels, endergonic and exergonic reactions, high-energy bonds, cellular uses of energy released.

ATP - 3 phosphate ADP - 2 phosphate When ATP (high energy) is changed to ADP a phosphate group is removed. This removal releases energy in the cell. Goes from catabolism exergonic ATP to anabolic endergonic ADP

lec 8: d. Identify the products of the light reactions that are reactants in the Calvin cycle.

ATP and NADPH

Lec 6: Describe the role of ATP in metabolism and relate it to the original energy source of the cell (chemical energy or light energy).

ATP powers metabolic reaction because ATP is the form energy the cell can use. The cells extract the chemical energy from various nutrient molecules like proteins, carbohydrates and proteins, and use the chemical energy to make ATP. Or in pants use light energy to create ATP

lec 7: Describe the following terms: ATP synthase

ATP synthase is an enzyme that creates the energy storage molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the most commonly used "energy currency" of cells for all organisms. It is formed from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate inorganic phosphate created by the action of the electron transport chain in mitochondria. It transports a proton down the gradient and uses the energy to complete the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP

Lec 6: Describe the importance of energy to living organisms

All living organisms need energy to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments.

lec 7: Describe the following terms: electron transport chain (ETC; also known as electron transport system-ETS)

An electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox (both reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously) reactions, and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H+ ions) across a membrane.

The enzyme is currently functioning at its optimal pH of 7 and optimal temperature of 32∘C. Which of the following could result in an increase in the reaction rate? A. Placing the reactants in an environment at 10∘C. B. Increasing substrate concentration C. Providing an environment with a pH of 9 D. Decreasing enzyme concentration

B. Increasing substrate concentration

lec 10: Describe and outline the steps of Binary Fission in bacteria.

Binary Fission is used to divide cells in bacteria steps: 1. DNA of bacterium uncoils and duplicates. 2. DNA is pulled to separate poles of the bacterium. 3. a growing (new) cell wall begins to separate the bacterium. 4. the complete development of the cell wall results in the. split of the bacterium. 5. the daughter cells have tightly coiled DNA rods, ribosomes, and. plastids.

lec 8: The reactants of photosynthesis.

CO2 + H2O + Energy (Light)

lec 8: Write the summary equation of photosynthesis

CO2 + H2O + Energy (Light) --> SUGAR + Oxygen

lec 7: Briefly describe how polysaccharides, lipids, proteins, and nuclei acids can be used as energy sources by the processes of cellular respiration and fermentation.

Carbohydrates other than glucose - starch & glycogen are hydrolyzed to release glucose which can then enter glycolysis; other sugars may enter glycolysis at various stages Lipid catabolism - lipases hydrolyze fats into glycerol & fatty acids, oxidation of fatty acids yields products that enter part of glycolysis or Krebs cycle Protein catabolism - amino acids are converted to products that enter glycolysis or the Krebs cycle; note the possible toxic reactions that may when amino acids are used for cell respiration!

lec 8: b. Describe carbon fixation

Carbon fixation is the process by which inorganic carbon is added to an organic molecule. Carbon fixation occurs during the light independent reaction of photosynthesis and is the first step in the C3 or Calvin Cycle. CO2 is added to a five-carbon sugar, ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP), in a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme RuBP carboxylase (rubisco)

lec 7: Describe the role of oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions in the cell and recognize examples. Recall OIL-RIG

Catabolic pathways release stored energy by breaking down complex molecules in a series of steps ▪Electron transfer plays a major role in these pathways ▪Chemical reactions that transfer electrons between reactants are called oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions. In oxidation, a substance loses electrons, or is oxidized. In reduction, a substance gains electrons, or is reduced (the amount of positive charge is reduced) Some redox reactions do not transfer electrons but change the electron sharing in covalent bonds and release energy. ▪An example is the reaction between methane and O2

lec 9: Describe how external signals are converted to responses within cells.

Cells have proteins called receptors that bind to signaling molecules and initiate a physiological response Cells can signal to each other and interpret the signals they receive from other cells and the environment •Signals are most often chemicals •The same small set of cell -signaling mechanisms shows up in diverse species and processes

lec 7: Compare and contrast fermentation and cellular respiration in terms of reactants and products, reaction sequences, and maximum ATP yield per glucose.

Cellular respiration and fermentation both start with sugar ; however ,cellular respiration also requires oxygen. Cellular respiration produces carbon dioxide, water and energy. Fermentation produces energy and alcohol or lactic acid. Fermentation produces far less ATP (2 ATP) than cellular respiration (2-38 ATP).

LEC 8: Summarize the function and process of chemiosmosis.

Chemiosmosis involves the pumping of protons through special channels in the membranes of mitochondria from the inner to the outer compartment. The pumping establishes a proton (H+) gradient. After the gradient is established, protons diffuse down the gradient through a transport protein called ATP synthase form molecules of ATP, which are used for the formation of sugar molecules in the second stage of photosynthesis..

lec 7: Describe the following terms: chemiosmosis

Chemiosmosis is when ions move by diffusion across a semi-permeable membrane, such as the membrane inside mitochondria. Accounts for the most MOST ATP synthesis Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane, down their electrochemical gradient. An example of this would be the generation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the movement of hydrogen ions (H+) across a membrane during cellular respiration or photosynthesis.

Lec 6: Explain how cofactors/coenzymes, competitive inhibitors, and noncompetitive inhibitors influence enzyme function.

Coenzymes - Certain enzymes need coenzymes to bind to the substrate and cause a reaction. Since the coenzymes are changed by the chemical reaction, these are considered to be secondary substrates of the reaction. not specific to substrate Cofactor - Cofactors are inorganic substrates. Some cofactors are required to produce a chemical reaction between the enzyme and the substrate, while others merely increase the rate of catalysis. Cofactors are sometimes attach to the enzyme, much like a prosthetic limb. Others are loosely bound to the enzyme. Competitive inhibitors - compete with the substrate for the active site of the enzyme Noncompetitive ( e.g., allosteric) inhibitors - decrease enzyme's ability to combine with substrate by acting on other parts (not the active site) of the enzyme

Compare and contrast the process of cytokinesis in typical animal and plant cells

Cytokinesis is the process in which the cytoplasm of a single eukaryotic cell is divided to form two daughter cells. Animal cells divide by a cleavage furrow. Plant cells divide by a cell plate that eventually becomes the cell wall. Cytoplasm and cellmembranes are necessary for cytokinesis in both plants and animals.

Lec 6: Define the term "energy" and describe its importance to living organisms

Defined as capacity to do work, included process such as building complex molecules and moving substances in and out of the cells Energy is defined as the ability to do work - which, for biology purposes, can be thought of as the ability to cause some kind of change. w/o a source of energy, all life on earth would stop All living organisms need energy to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Energy can not be created

Lec 6: State the FIRST law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy), relate its importance to living organisms, and provide or recognize examples of it.

Energy can be transformed but neither created nor destroyed (ex) Bear eating a fish

Lec 6: Describe the role of energy coupling (coupled reactions) relate it to free energy Δ G

Energy released from catabolic pathways is stored by ATP for use in anabolic pathways.

Lec 6: Describe the importance of enzymes in metabolism and predict how other molecules can affect their function.

Enzymes are biochemical catalysts that lower the activation energy needed to initiate chemical reactions. In doing so, enzymes increase the rate of chemical reactions. Living cells control metabolism by manipulating enzyme avtivity. Catalysts lower the Energy of Activation for a chemical equation to occur. Enzyme activity can be affected by a variety of factors, such as temperature, pH, and concentration. Enzymes work best within specific temperature and pH ranges, and sub-optimal conditions can cause an enzyme to lose its ability to bind to a substrate.

Lec 6: Define and relate the following terms: catalyst, substrate, reactant, product, active site, energy of activation (activation energy).

Enzymes: are proteins produced by cells that catalyze (speed up) chemical reactions by lowering energy barriers (activation energy) - have characteristic shapes (due to 3-D protein structure) resulting in substrate-specificity; an enzyme's active site will only match a particular type of substrate - names end with - ase, e.g., hydrolase (lipase, sucrase), DNA ligase Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions involving the substrate(s). In the case of a single substrate, the substrate bonds with the enzyme active site, and an enzyme-substrate complex is formed.

Lec 6: State the second law of thermodynamics, relate its importance to living organisms and to the concept of entropy, and provide or recognize examples of it.

Every energy transformation increases entropy (disorderliness) (ex) Bear giving of heat after running

Lec 6: Compare and contrast endergonic and exergonic reactions, and provide or recognize examples of them

Exergonic is energy released, spontaneous example: cell respiration Endergonic is energy required, non spontaneous example: protein/lipid synthesis

lec 9: Identify different types of signal receptors (in the plasma membrane and intracellular) and explain how they function

G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) - are extremely diverse and widespread in their functions. Ex:embryonic development, vision, smell, taste Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) -Involved in Cell growth and reproduction -ex: HER2 and cancer -the receptor tyrosine kinases function in transmembrane signaling, whereas tyrosine kinases within the cell function in signal transduction to the nucleus. Tyrosine kinase activity in the nucleus involves cell-cycle control and properties of transcription factors. Ligand-gated ion channel -Involved in nervous system -When a signal molecule binds as a ligand to the receptor, the gate allows specific ions, such as Na+ or Ca2+, through a channel in the receptor

lec 7: State the maximum number of ATPs produced per glucose during glycolysis, the transition (intermediate) step, citric acid (Krebs) cycle, and ETC, and the grand total from the complete oxidation of glucose to CO2 and H2O during cellular respiration

Glycolysis - 2 ATP Transition - 2 ATP Krebs Cycle - 2 ATP ETC electron transport chain - about 34 ATP total 34 of the 36 ATP molecules produced from the conversion of glucose to CO2.

lec 7: Name the three main reaction sequences of cellular respiration that convert glucose (C6H12O6) to pyruvate, pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, and acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide (CO2), state where they occur in the cell, and list their reactants and products.

Glycolysis - converts glucose (C6H12O6) REACTANT to pyruvate PRODUCT, occurs in cytoplasm Transition - pyruvate REACTANT to acetyl-CoA PRODUCT, occurs in mitochondrion Krebs Cycle - acetyl-CoA REACTANT to carbon dioxide (CO2)PRODUCT, occurs in matrix

Lec 9: Compare and contrast local and long distance signaling. State the similarities and differences.

In both local and long-distance signaling, only specific target cells recognize and respond to a given signaling molecule. Local regulators and hormones are both physical molecules in the cell. Local signaling includes Paracrine signaling (when animal cells communicate using secreted messenger molecules that travel only short distances) and Synaptic Signaling (occurs in the animal nervous system when a neurotransmitter is released in response to an electric signal). Long-distance signaling includes Hormonal signaling (celled endocrine signaling in animals, specialized cells release hormones, which then travel to target cells via the circulatory system)

lec 10: Describe, draw, or label a diagram of the structure of a replicated eukaryotic chromosome.

KNOW THE STEPS OF MITOSIS

lec 8: Describe the characteristics of light as related to the electromagnetic spectrum. Illustrate how wavelength is related to the amount of light energy available.

Light is a wave of alternating electric and magnetic fields. Our brain interprets the various wavelengths of light as different colors shorter the wavelength the greater/higher the energy of each photon of that light The longer the wavelength the lower the energy of each photon of that light

LEC 8: Trace the electrons through Photosystem II and Photosystem I.

Linear electron flow is the electrons that pass through the two photosystems from water to NADP+. Cyclic electron flow are the electrons excited from P700 in PSI are passed from Fd to the cytochrome complex and back to P700.

Describe the function of the light reactions (Photo). a. Relate the general components of a photosystem and their respective functions.

Located in the thylakoid membrane, contain a number of light-harvesting complexes and a reaction center complex, which is a protein complex with two special chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor; The chlorophyll a molecule at the reaction center of photosystem II (PSII) is called P680, after the wavelength of the light (680 nm) it absorbs best. At the reaction center of photosystem I (PSI) is a chlorophyll a molecule called P700.

Lec 6: Describe the regulation of enzyme activity in a cell and how it helps control metabolism. Explain feedback inhibition.

Metabolism is generally regulated by feedback inhibition, allosteric inhibition or cooperativity (allosteric activation). Cells have evolved to use feedback inhibition to regulate enzyme activity in metabolism, by using the products of the enzymatic reactions to inhibit further enzyme activity. Metabolic reactions, such as anabolic and catabolic processes, must proceed according to the demands of the cell Feedback inhibition: occurs when the end product of a reaction interferes with the enzyme that helped produce it. The inhibitor does this by binding to a second active binding site that's different from the one attached to the initial reactant. The enzyme then changes its shape and can't catalyze the reaction anymore.

lec 8: Describe and identify the structure of the organelle (chloroplast) that carries out photosynthesis.

Molecular structure of chlorophyll: Porphyrin ring- light-absorbing "head" of molecule, note Mg atom at center Hydrocarbon tail- interacts w/ hydrophobic regions of proteins inside thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts; H atoms not shown Physically made up of stroma, grana, thylakoid, thylakoid space.

Lec 6: Compare and contrast potential energy and kinetic energy, and provide or recognize examples of them.

Potential energy - associated with location or structure as well as being stored. example: chemical energy may released during exergonic reactions Kinetic energy - is associated with motion for example light, thermal

Lec 6: Define product

Products are the species formed from chemical reactions. During a chemical reaction reagents are transformed into products after passing through a high energy transition state.

lec 9: Identify the proteins involved in signal transduction, and explain the roles of phosphorylation, dephosphorylation, and second messengers in phosphorylation cascade.

Proteins involved in signal transduction are: - protein kinase -protein phosphate Phosphorylation plays critical roles in the regulation of many cellular processes including cell cycle, growth, apoptosis and signal transduction pathways. Dephosphorylation is the removal of a phosphate (PO43−) group from an organic compound by hydrolysis. It is a reversible post-translational modification. Dephosphorylation and its counterpart, phosphorylation, activate and deactivate enzymes by detaching or attaching phosphoric esters and anhydrides. role of Second Messenger Targets: Protein Kinases and Phosphatases. Second messengers typically regulate neuronal functions by modulating the phosphorylationstate of intracellular proteins

lec 7: Describe the role of fermentation in metabolism, list its reactants and products, state where it occurs in the cell, and the likely cellular conditions that would result in it occurring.

Role of: The purpose of fermentation is to regenerate the electron carriers used in glycolysis and produce a small amount of ATP. reactants: 2 pyruvate, NADH, (glucose and lactose) products: ethanol, alcohol, carbon dioxide, lactate, and NAD+ (alcohol and acid) occurs: occur in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate does not enter the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells cellular condition: under anaerobic conditions

lec 8: The products of photosynthesis

SUGAR + Oxygen

Describe how cells respond to signaling that relates to regulation of transcription or cytoplasmic activities. b. Describe signal amplification, specificity, and coordination.

Signal amplification -enzyme cascades amplify the cell's response to the signal; at each catalytic step in the pathway, number of activated products is much greater than in preceding steps Signal specificity - response depends on a cell's particular collection of signal receptor proteins, relay proteins and proteins needed to carry out the response (e.g., the same hormone epinephrine causes liver cells to breakdown glycogen into glucose but causes heart muscle cells to contract) signal coordination - Signal coordination means that vehicles traveling along the main road tend to progress or move through downstream signalized intersections without having to stop. There are several situations where signalized intersections adjacent to each other should be coordinated.

Lec 8: Identify the parts of this organelle (chloroplast): stroma, grana, thylakoid, thylakoid space.

Stroma: colorless fluid surrounding the grana within the chloroplast. Grana: a stack of thylakoids Thylakoid: sheet-like membrane-bound structure that is the site of the light-dependent photosynthesis Thylakoid space: is the space on the inside of the thylakoid.

lec 7: Describe substrate level phosphorylation

Substrate level phosphorylation is when ADP is converted to ATP by the direct transfer of a phosphate group.

Lec 6: Describe and recognize graph illustrating how temperature, pH, enzyme concentration and substrate concentration affect enzyme activity.

Temperature: activity of most enzymes peaks at moderate temperature, low enzyme activity at high temperature (denaturation) or at low temperature pH: most enzymes have optimal pH at pH=7 Changing the pH outside of this range will slow enzyme activity. Extreme pH values can cause enzymes to denature. Enzyme concentration: Increasing enzyme concentration will speed up the reaction, as long as there is substrate available to bind to. Once all of the substrate is bound, the reaction will no longer speed up, since there will be nothing for additional enzymes to bind to. Substrate concentration: within limits, enzyme activity increases with increasing substrate concentration

lec 10: Compare and contrast sexual and asexual reproduction

That is the main difference between sexual and asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction just means combining genetic material from two parents. Asexual reproduction produces offspring genetically identical to the one parent. Asexual: - Cells divide by Fission, budding , or regeneration -Time Efficient; no need to search for mate, requires less energy -No variation - if the parent has a genetic disease, offspring does too. Sexual: - Cells divide by Meiosis -Variation, Unique., organism is more protected

Lec 6: Define energy of activation (activation energy)

The activation energy is the energy required to start a reaction. Enzymes are proteins that bind to a molecule, or substrate, to modify it and lower the energy required to make it react

lec 8: c. Indicate the key enzyme in the Calvin cycle and its function.

The enzyme that catalyzes this specific reaction is ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (RuBisCO).RuBP In stage 1, the enzyme RuBisCO incorporates carbon dioxide into an organic molecule. In stage 2, the organic molecule is reduced. In stage 3, RuBP, the molecule that starts the cycle, is regenerated so that the cycle can continue. In summary, it takes six turns of the Calvin cycleto fix six carbon atoms from CO2.

lec 9: Use apoptosis as an example to illustrate normal development in an organism. See figure 11.21 Effects of apoptosis during paw development in the mouse.

The formation of the fingers and toes of the fetus requires the removal, by apoptosis, of the tissue between them.

lec 7: Describe the following terms: metabolic intermediate (or just intermediate)

The intermediate steps within the cells in which the nutrient molecules or foodstuffs are metabolized and converted into cellular components catalysed by enzymes. 1) to obtain energy from fuel molecules 2) to convert exogenous nutrients into precursors of macro-molecular cell components 3) to assemble precursors into proteins,nucleic acids, lipids & other cell components 4) to form & degrade biomolecules required in specialized cellular functions

LEC 8: Distinguish the functions of Photosystem I and Photosystem II.

The primary function of the photosystem I is in NADPH synthesis, where it receives the electrons from PS II. The primary function of the photosystem II is in the hydrolysis of water and ATP synthesis.

Lec 8: Explain the function of Calvin cycle (Synthesis).

The reactions of the Calvin cycle add carbon (from carbon dioxide in the atmosphere) to a simple five-carbon molecule called RuBP. These reactions use chemical energy from NADPH and ATP that were produced in the light reactions. The final product of the Calvin cycle is glucose.

lec 9: Describe how cells respond to signaling that relates to regulation of transcription or cytoplasmic activities.

There are three main steps in this pathway: signal reception, which is when the target cell receives a signaling molecule; transduction, which is a series of events that converts the signal to something the target cell can respond to; and cellular response, which is when the target cell responds to the signal.

LEC 8: Describe how ATP is made by photophosphorylation. (see figure 10.18 The light reaction and chemiosmosis)

This process which converts light energy into chemical energy is called photophosphorylation. Light induced electron transfer from H2O to NADP+ pumps protons through the thylakoid membrane to the inner compartment. On the outer surface of thylakoid membranes, there are two protein complexes, CF0and CF1, that make up an enzyme called ATP synthase. CF0 acts as a proton channel across the membrane whereas CF1acts as a binding site for the joining of ADP and Pi to make ATP. Because 6 turns of non cyclic photophosphorylation will produce 12 NADPH2 and 6 ATP molecules. And cyclic photophosphorylation will produce 12 ATP molecules.

lec 7: Describe the process of chemiosmosis in oxidative phosphorylation, including its cellular location, reactants and products, the role of electron carriers, ATP synthase and H+ ions.

__1__ Electron transport chain pumps H+ across inner membrane of mitochondria resulting in the build up of H+ in the area between the outer and inner mitochondrial membrane. __2__ H+ ions diffuse across the mitochondrial inner membrane back into matrix via ATP synthase. __3__ Exergonic (energy-releasing) flow of H+ is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP producing ATP molecules. Location: inner membrane of the mitochondrion reactants: electron, H+, O2 products: H2O Overall, the process produces the 2 pyruvate plus 2 molecules of water, 2 ATP, 2 molecules of NADH, and 2 hydrogen ions (H+)

lec 9: b. Describe the steps involved signal transduction

a change in protein stimulates other changes including signal-transduction pathways. When the signaling molecule binds the receptor it changes the receptor protein in some way. This change initiates the process of transduction. Signal transduction is usually a pathway of several steps. Each relay molecule in the signal transduction pathway changes the next molecule in the pathway conformational change in receptor proteins triggers the first step in the chain of molecular interactions (signal-transduction pathway) •protein phosphorylation via protein kinases is a major mechanism of signal transduction; note that another type of enzymes (protein phosphatases) remove phosphate groups from proteins -Multistep pathways can greatly amplify a signal -Multistep pathways provide more opportunities for coordination and regulation of the cellular response

lec 9: cell signaling a. Describe the steps involved during signal reception

a protein at the cell surface detects chemical signals a signal molecule (local regulators or hormones) act as a ligand, binding to a receptor protein, causing the protein to change its shape most receptors are plasma membrane proteins, e.g., G protein -coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest family of cell-surface receptors, receptor tyrosine-kinases (RTKs) & ion-channel receptors but some are proteins located in the cytoplasm or nucleus (intracellular receptors)

Lec 6: Define catalyst

a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change.

Quiz 5: In the absence of oxygen, yeast cells can obtain energy by fermentation, resulting in the production of _____. a. ATP, CO2, and ethanol (ethyl alcohol) b. ATP, CO2, and lactate c. ATP, NADH, and pyruvate d. ATP, pyruvate, and acetyl CoA

a. ATP, CO2, and ethanol (ethyl alcohol)

Quiz 5: Which of the listed statements describes the results of the following reaction?C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy a. C6H12O6 is oxidized and O2 is reduced. b. O2 is oxidized and H2O is reduced. c. CO2 is reduced and O2 is oxidized. d. O2 is reduced and CO2 is oxidized.

a. C6H12O6 is oxidized and O2 is reduced.

Quiz 4: Which term most precisely describes the cellular process of breaking down large molecules into smaller ones? a. catabolism (catabolic pathways) b. metabolism c. anabolism (anabolic pathways) d. dehydration

a. catabolism (catabolic pathways)

Lec 6: __________ accelerate vital chemical reactions in living organisms. a. enzymes b. proteins c. amnio acids d. carbohydrates

a. enzymes

lec 7: Describe the role of electron carriers in metabolism and provide or recognize examples of each.

are small organic molecules that readily cycle between oxidized and reduced forms and are used to transport electrons during metabolic reactions. There are two electron carriers that play particularly important roles during cellular respiration: NAD+ and FAD

Lec 6: What is potential energy

associated with location or structure as well as being stored example chemical energy may released during exergonic reactions

Lec 6: describe autotrophs and heterotrophs

autotrophs: capture and transform the energy of sunlight by photosynthesis heterotrophs: obtain energy by eating other organisms

lec 8: Distinguish between autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.

autotrophs: capture and transform the energy of sunlight by photosynthesis heterotrophs: obtain energy by eating other organisms

Quiz 5: Starting with one molecule of glucose, the energy-containing products of glycolysis are _____. a. 2 NAD+, 2 pyruvate, and 2 ATP b. 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate, and 2 ATP c. 2 FADH2, 2 pyruvate, and 4 ATP d. 6 CO2, 2 pyruvate, and 2 ATP

b. 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate, and 2 ATP

Quiz 5: Comparing photosynthesis to cellular respiration, a. Photosynthesis is a catabolic pathway and cellular respiration is an anabolic pathway. b. During photosynthesis, carbon is reduced and it is an anabolic and endergonic pathway. Cellular respiration is the opposite. c. Photosynthesis is a pathway in which carbon is oxidized and cellular respiration is a pathway in which carbon is reduced. d. Photosynthesis is an exergonic pathway and cellular respiration is an endergonic pathway.

b. During photosynthesis, carbon is reduced and it is an anabolic and endergonic pathway. Cellular respiration is the opposite.

Quiz 6: Which correctly describes the use of ligand-gated ion channel receptors? a. Ligand binding is irreversible, resulting in a permanent change in this ion channel's activity. b. Once the ligand is bound, the ion channel activity can alter the concentration of the ion. c.The binding site of this type of receptor is most often in the middle of the membrane. d. The ligand involved is often a phosphate group that is covalently added to the cytosolic side of this ion channel. e. Once activated, this receptor will cause G proteins to bind with GTP.

b. Once the ligand is bound, the ion channel activity can alter the concentration of the ion.

Some species of bacteria can live in hot springs. Their cells contain enzymes that function best at temperatures of 70C degrees or higher. How will the enzymes in these bacteria most likely change if the temperature is lowered to 45 C degrees? a. The enzymes will lose their structure and fall apart. b. The enzymes will not catalyze reactions as efficiently. c. The enzymes will be able to lower the activation energy of their reactions more easily. d. The enzymes will bind to more substrate.

b. The enzymes will not catalyze reactions as efficiently.

Quiz 5: The oxygen consumed during cellular respiration is involved directly in which process or event? a. glycolysis b. accepting electrons at the end of the electron transport chain c. the citric acid cycle d. the oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA

b. accepting electrons at the end of the electron transport chain

Quiz 6: What is the best explanation for the disappearance of cells between segments of a palm leaf? a. action of a G protein b. apoptosis c. amplification d. a steroid receptor

b. apoptosis

Quiz 4: The lock-and-key analogy for enzymes applies to the specificity of enzymes _____. a. as they form their tertiary and quaternary structure b. binding to their substrate c. interacting with water d. interacting with ions

b. binding to their substrate

Quiz 4: Anabolic pathways _____. a. are usually highly spontaneous chemical reactions b. consume energy to build up polymers from monomers c. release energy as they degrade polymers to monomers d. consume energy to decrease the entropy of the organism and its environment

b. consume energy to build up polymers from monomers

Lec 9: Explain the communication among bacteria, yeast cells, plant cells, and animal cells. Give an example of each.

bacteria cell - use chemical signals example quorum sensing/biofilm yeast cell - use chemical signals example mating plant cell - use of hormones animal cell - different tissues

LEC 8: Compare and contrast the similarities and differences between making ATP by photophosphorylation of photosynthesis and oxidative phosphorylation of cellular respiration.

both: -electrons are transferred through a series of membrane proteins. the electrons provide energy to pump protons (H+) to one side of the membrane. -the protons flow back through a special enzyme (ATP-synthase) which makes ATP Difference: when it occurs:oxphos occurs during cellular respiration ↔photophosphorylation occurs during photosynthesis where it occurs: oxphos occurs inside mitochondria ↔ photophosphorylation occurs inside thylakoids (in chloroplasts) energy source: the energy source for oxphos is glucose ↔the energy source for photophosphorylation sunlight. electron acceptor: in oxphos the final electron acceptor is molecular oxygen ↔in photophosphorylation the final electron acceptor is NADP+

Quiz 4: Which of the following is true of enzymes? a. Enzyme function is increased if the 3- D structure or conformation of an enzyme is altered. b. Enzyme function is independent of physical and chemical environmental factors such as pH and temperature. c. Enzymes increase the rate of chemical reaction by lowering activation energy barriers. d. Enzymes increase the rate of chemical reaction by providing activation energy to the substrate.

c. Enzymes increase the rate of chemical reaction by lowering activation energy barriers.

Quiz 4: How do living organisms create macromolecules, organelles, cells, tissues, and complex higher-order structures? a. The laws of thermodynamics do not apply to living organisms b. Living organisms create order by recycling and reusing energy from the sun. c. Living organisms create order locally, but the energy transformations generate waste heat that increases the entropy of the universe. d. This concept was not discussed in class.

c. Living organisms create order locally, but the energy transformations generate waste heat that increases the entropy of the universe.

Quiz 6: If you were given a slide and told that the cells on it were performing cytokinesis, how would you tell if you had plant cells or animal cells? a. Look for condensed or decondensed chromosomes. b. Look for an intact or a dispersed nuclear membrane. c. Look for a cell plate or a cleavage furrow. d.Look for more or less layers in the cell wall.

c. Look for a cell plate or a cleavage furrow.

Quiz 6: At what part of the cell cycle would you see a chromosome that looks like this? (see image) Has sister chromatids and centromeres, one on each sister chromatid a. S b. G2 c. M d. G1

c. M

Quiz 6: A new cell is found and separation of its chromosomes is examined. If the darker patches in the yellow lines are places where the spindle was bleached with a laser, what do these images tell us? LOOK AT QUIZ 7 QUESTION 7 FOR PICTURES a. Microtubules shorten at the chromosome end. b. Chromosomes are not separated. c. Microtubules shorten at the centrosome end. d. Chromosomes are separated by microfilaments.

c. Microtubules shorten at the centrosome end.

Quiz 5: Which one of the following is formed by the removal of a carbon (as CO2) from a molecule of pyruvate? a. glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate b. oxaloacetate c. acetyl CoA d. citrate

c. acetyl CoA

Quiz 6: A steroid hormone is bound by an intracellular receptor. The resulting complex is most likely to do what? a. mediate the transfer of phosphate groups to/from ATP b. enable water-soluble molecules to diffuse across membranes c. act as a transcription factor in the nucleus d. open channels in the membrane for other substances to enter e.open channels in the nuclear envelope for cytoplasmic molecules to enter

c. act as a transcription factor in the nucleus

Quiz 4: Which of the following is most similar in structure to ATP? a. a pentose sugar b. a sugar with three phosphates c. an RNA nucleotide d. an amino acid with three phosphate groups attached

c. an RNA nucleotide

Quiz 6: The chromosome begins M phase looking as shown. When does it split? Has sister chromatids and centromeres, one on each sister chromatid a. prophase b. telophase c. anaphase d. prometaphase e. metaphase

c. anaphase

Quiz 6: Binary fission is more like animal cell division than plant cell division because a. bacteria and animals have more organelles than plants. b. bacteria and animals use microfilaments to divide the cell. c. bacteria and animals both pinch in to separate the cytoplasm into two pieces. d. bacteria and animals both have two copies of each chromosome, while plants have four.

c. bacteria and animals both pinch in to separate the cytoplasm into two pieces.

Quiz 4: A chemical reaction that has a positive ΔG is best described as _____. a. spontaneous b. exergonic c. endergonic d. enthalpic

c. endergonic

Quiz 5: Which of the following organisms is an autotroph that can make organic molecules from water and carbon dioxide? a. bear b. mushroom c. wheat d. crayfish

c. wheat

lec 10: Define and recognize examples of the following terms: chromatin, sister chromatids, centromere, kinetochore, centrosomes, replicated chromosome, un-replicated chromosome.

chromatin - a complex of DNA and protein that condenses during cell division sister chromatids - refers to the identical copies (chromatids) formed by the DNA replication of a chromosome, with both copies joined together by a common centromere. In other words, a sister chromatid may also be said to be 'one-half' of the duplicated chromosome. centromere - the region of a chromosome to which the microtubules of the spindle attach, via the kinetochore, during cell division. kinetochore - a complex of proteins associated with the centromere of a chromosome during cell division, to which the microtubules of the spindle attach. centrosomes - packaged DNA molecules in a cell replicated chromosome - A replicated chromosome contains two identical double strand -DNA- molecules, the chromatids, that are joined at their centromere. Two single sets of pairs (daughter) chromosomes are formed by separation of the pair of chromatids during cell division (from anaphase on in mitosis and anaphase II in meiosis) un-replicated chromosome - An unreplicated chromosome contains one double strand -DNA molecule. A replicated chromosome contains two identical double strand -DNA- molecules, the chromatids, that are joined at their centromere

Quiz 4: Which of the following is a statement of the first law of thermodynamics? a. The entropy of the universe is decreasing. b. The entropy of the universe is constant. c. Energy cannot be transferred or transformed. d. Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

d. Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

Quiz 4 When chemical, transport, or mechanical work is done by an organism, what happens to the heat generated? a. It is used to power yet more cellular work. b. It is used to store energy as more ATP. c. It is used to generate ADP from nucleotide precursors. d. It is lost to the environment.

d. It is lost to the environment.

Quiz 5: Which of the following statements about NAD+ is true? a. NAD+ has more chemical energy than NADH. b. In the absence of NAD+, glycolysis can still function. c. NAD+ can donate electrons for use in oxidative phosphorylation. d. NAD+ is reduced to NADH during glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, and the citric acid cycle.

d. NAD+ is reduced to NADH during glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, and the citric acid cycle.

Quiz 5: What is a function of the light reactions (Photo reaction)? a. To produce glucose. b. To use CO2 and produce water. c. To produce NADP+ from NADPH d. To transform solar energy into chemical energy.

d. To transform solar energy into chemical energy.

Quiz 6: Which can be second messengers? a. cAMP b. Ca2+ c. IP3 d. all are correct

d. all are correct

Lec 6: How does an enzyme influence a chemical reaction? a. its used as a reactant to form a product b. it raises the activation energy so that a rxn can occur c. it provides the substrate needed for the rxn to occur d. it speeds up the rxn rate

d. it speeds up the rxn rate

Quiz 4: Catabolic pathways _____. a. combine molecules into more energy-rich molecules b. are endergonic c. are spontaneous and do not need enzymes d. supply energy, primarily in the form of ATP, for the cell's work

d. supply energy, primarily in the form of ATP, for the cell's work

Quiz 5: Most of the CO2 from the catabolism of glucose is released during _____. a. glycolysis b. electron transport c. chemiosmosis d. the citric acid cycle

d. the citric acid cycle

Quiz 6: Which is the best example of amplification of signal? a. activation of a receptor by a hormone b. activation of a specific gene by a transcription factor c. production of many molecules by many signal molecules d. conversion of the signal into many other types of molecules e. activation of 100 molecules by a single signal binding event

e. activation of 100 molecules by a single signal binding event

Lec 6: Interpret and label graphs representing endergonic and exergonic reactions. Include energy of activation, energy of reactants and products, and overall energy changes of them during the reaction. When looking at a graph the number is positive (+#) and Δ G > 0 is it endergonic or exergonic rxn?

endergonic rxn

Lec 6: Energy is ________ in an exergonic reaction. Give an example

energy released, spontaneous example: cell respiration

Lec 6: Energy is ________ in an endergonic reaction. Give an example

energy required, non spontaneous example: protein/lipid synthesis

Lec 6: Interpret and label graphs representing endergonic and exergonic reactions. Include energy of activation, energy of reactants and products, and overall energy changes of them during the reaction. When looking at a graph the number is negative (-#) and Δ G < 0 is it endergonic or exergonic rxn?

exergonic rxn

lec 8: what gets reduced in the photosynthesis reaction equation

he CO2 is reduced(gains electrons).

Lec 6: Provide examples of energy coupling (coupled reactions). Relate it to free energy Δ G. See figure 8.6 Free energy changes (Δ G) in exergonic and endergonic reactions

i.e., exergonic (net release of free energy) & endergonic (absorbs free energy reactions) tend to occur simultaneously in cells ▪A living system's free energy is energy that can do work when temperature and pressure are uniform, as in a living cell

Lec 6: What is kinetic energy

is associated with motion example - light, thermal

lec 9: a. Explain how the response is regulated, including fine-tuning of the response.

may regulate activities in the nucleus by activating a transcription factor (which turns gene expression on or off) • or in the cytoplasm by regulating protein activity (e.g., rearrangement of cytoskeleton, opening or closing or protein channels or some metabolic changes) pathways • can also affect the overall behavior of a cell; for example, a signal could lead to cell division Regulation of the Response • A response to a signal may not be simply "on" or "off". • There are four aspects of signal regulation: -Amplification of the signal (and thus the response) - Specificity of the response - Overall efficiency of response, enhanced by scaffolding proteins - Termination of the signal

lec 8: Compare and contrast the reactants and products of photosynthesis with the reactants and products of cellular respiration.

photosynthesis: reactant - CO2 + H2O+ ENERGY (LIGHT) products- SUGAR + O2 cellular respiration: reactant - Glucose + O2 products - CO2 + H2O+ ATP

lec 8: Describe photosynthetic pigments, and discuss their roles in photosynthesis.

photosynthetic pigments are the means by which the energy of sunlight is captured for photosynthesis. Because they interact with light to absorb only certain wavelengths, pigments are useful to plants and other autotrophs --organisms which make their own food using photosynthesis.

lec 9: Apoptosis definition

programmed cell death •Cells that are infected, damaged, or at the end of their functional lives often undergo apoptosis

lec 8: a. Identify the reactants and products of the Calvin cycle.

reactants=CO₂, NADPH, and ATP products=Sugar(G3P.), ADP and a third phosphate group, and NADP.

lec 10: Define somatic and gametic cells

somatic: Somatic cells are basically every cell in the body besides the gametes gametic: egg and sperm, reproduction cells

Lec 6: Define active site

the active site is the region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction. The active site consists of amino acid residues that form temporary bonds with the substrate (binding site) and residues that catalyse a reaction of that substrate (catalytic site).

Lec 7: Describe the relationship between energy, food and ATP, and describe how ATP works.

the energy in food can be harvested from its sugars (glucose), which is used in cellular respiration to produce ATP. stands for adenosine triphosphate. it is a molecule that comes from energy that cells can use.

lec 9: c. Describe the steps involved cell response.

the signal triggers a specific cellular response. may regulate activities in the nucleus by activating a transcription factor (which turns gene expression on or off) •or in the cytoplasm by regulating protein activity (e.g., rearrangement of cytoskeleton, opening or closing or protein channels or some metabolic changes) pathways •can also affect the overall behavior of a cell; for example, a signal could lead to cell division A response to a signal may not be simply "on" or "off". •There are four aspects of signal regulation: -Amplification of the signal (and thus the response) -Specificity of the response -Overall efficiency of response, enhanced by scaffolding proteins -Termination of the signal

Lec 6: Define substrate

the substrate is a molecule upon which an enzyme acts. Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions involving the substrate(s). In the case of a single substrate, the substrate bonds with the enzyme active site, and an enzyme-substrate complex is formed.

lec 6; what is the ultimate source of energy

the sun

lec 8: what gets oxidized in the photosynthesis reaction equation

the water is oxidized (loses electrons)

Lec 6: Explain how certain drugs, pesticides, and poisons can affect enzymes

these can act as inhibitors that can interfere with the enzyme's ability to function as an active site. The enzyme by itself does not function as an active site. the inhibitors damage the enzyme's shape, therefore hindering its ability to function properly in the organism

lec 8: Describe the importance of photoautotrophs to the rest of the biosphere

these organisms feed not only themselves but the rest of the world

Describe how cells respond to signaling that relates to regulation of transcription or cytoplasmic activities. c. Explain why a signal should only last a short period of time.

to remain capable of responding to an incoming signal, each molecular change in the signaling pathway must last only a short time; if a component gets locked into one state, consequences can be dire, i.e., out of control response

Predict the possible consequences of errors that occur in the cell cycle. Describe how this relates to cancer.

transformed body cells that have escaped the cell-cycle control -divides excessively & produce tumors (interphase shortened) -may invade other tissues (metastasis) Cancer is uncontrolled cell division caused by mutations -change in the nucleotide sequence