Bio Lecture Exam 2
the main structures of the human heart and the path of blood flow through the heart
(valves, chambers and main blood vessels)
How carbon dioxide is transported in blood (three main ways)
1.Transported in solution in blood plasma 2. diffuses from plasma into erythrocytes and reacts with water, forming H2CO3. The H2CO3 readily dissociates into H+ and HCO3-. Most H+ binds to hemoglobin and other proteins, minimizing change in blood pH. Most HCO3- diffuses out of the erythrocytes and is transported to the lungs in the plasma. 3. some of the HCO3- Binds to hemoglobin and is transported in erythrocytes
Omnivore
A consumer that eats both plants and animals
Carnivore
A consumer that eats only animals.
Herbivore
A consumer that eats only plants.
cardiac cycle (including terms such as systole, diastole) as well as electrical control of heart beat (you only need to know pacemaker) and how electrical signals are detected (ECG)
A single cycle of cardiac activity can be divided into two basic phases - diastole and systole. Diastole represents the period of time when the ventricles are relaxed (not contracting). Systole represents the time during which the left and right ventricles contract and eject blood into the aorta and pulmonary artery, respectively. The rhythm of the heart is controlled by a group of autorhythmic cells located in the wall of the right atrium, near where the superior vena cava enters the heart. This cluster of cells is called the sinoatrial (SA) node, or pacemaker, and it sets the rate and timing at which all cardiac muscle cells contract. The SA node produces electrical impulses much like those produced by nerve cells. In an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG, from the German spelling), electrodes placed on the skin record the currents, thus measuring electrical activity of the heart.
The names of the three main proteins in blood and their key roles
Albumin: Besides having a nutritive role, albumin acts as a transport carrier for various biomolecules such as fatty acids, trace elements, and drugs. Another important role of albumin is in the maintenance of osmotic pressure and fluid distribution between blood and tissues. globulin: play an important role in liver function, blood clotting, and fighting infection. Fibrinogen: contains a number of enzymes such as acid phosphatase and alkaline phosphatase which have great diagnostic value
How is oxygen transported in blood?
Although oxygen dissolves in blood, only a small amount of oxygen is transported this way. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen, 98.5 percent, is bound to a protein called hemoglobin and carried to the tissues.
suspension feeders
An aquatic animal, such as a clam or a baleen whale, that sifts small food particles from the water
substrate feeders
An organism that lives in or on its food source, eating its way through the food
functions and unique features (lumen size, presence or absence of valves, thickness of walls) of the different types of blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries)
Arteries: - carry blood away from the heart - smaller lumens than veins - no valves - relatively thick walls due to the high pressure Veins: - carry blood to the heart - large lumens to allow blood flow in relatively low pressure - presence of valves - contain valves to ensure blood flow in one direction capillaries: - form the connection between the vessels that carry blood away from the heart (arteries) and the vessels that return blood to the heart (veins). - The primary function of capillaries is the exchange of materials between the blood and tissue cells. - very tiny lumens - no valves - one cell thick walls
What is the function of bile and pancreatic juices, and functions of salivary amylase, pepsin and lipases (plus pH at which they work)
Bile: helps with digestion. It breaks down fats into fatty acids; works at a a higher pH pancreatic juices: During digestion, your pancreas makes pancreatic juices called enzymes. These enzymes break down sugars, fats, and starches. Your pancreas also helps your digestive system by making hormones. These are chemical messengers that travel through your blood. works at about a pH of 8 salivary amylase: breaks the bonds between the monomeric sugar units of disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and starches; pH of 6.7 pepsin: stomach enzyme that serves to digest proteins found in ingested food. pH of 2 lipases: an enzyme the body uses to break down fats in food so they can be absorbed in the intestines; pH of 3-6
No need to memorize formula relating BP to CO and TPR, but understand the concepts (i.e. effects of cross sectional area and BP on cardiac output)
Blood Flow Like all fluids, blood flows from a high pressure area to a region with lower pressure. Blood flows in the same direction as the decreasing pressure gradient: arteries to capillaries to veins. The rate, or velocity, of blood flow varies inversely with the total cross-sectional area of the blood vessels
What is blood? Know composition of blood and main functions of blood and blood cells
Blood is a specialized body fluid. It has four main components: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Blood has many different functions, including: transporting oxygen and nutrients to the lungs and tissues. forming blood clots to prevent excess blood loss.
What influences affinity of Hemoglobin for oxygen when it gets to tissues?
By increasing the hydrogen ion concentration (and therefore the pH), the temperature, the carbon dioxide concentration or the amount of 2,3-BPG present in the red blood cell, we ultimately decrease the affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen and therefore shift the curve to the right side. This allows us to unload more oxygen to our tissues. On the other hand, by increasing the concentration of carbon monoxide, we actually increase the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen and we therefore shift the curve to the left side. This means that less oxygen will actually be delivered to our tissues.
Understand the levels of organization of cells to tissue, organs and organ systems
Cell - basic unit of structure and function Tissue - large group of cells with similar structure/function Organ - Many tissues coordinating to perform a body function Organ system - group of organs and tissues that perform a common function
differences between conducting and respiratory zones
Conductive Zone: Warms and humidifies the air, traps particles and microorganisms contains: nasal sinuses, pharynx, larynx (voice box), trachea, 2 bronchi, then extensive branching into bronchioles. Respiratory zone: thin walls for gas exchange contains: terminal bronchioles, alveoli (small sacs of air covered by capillary beds
the three embryonic germ layers (Endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm) and what they become
Endoderm: The inner layer; Will give rise to the EPITHELIAL layer cells lining the: - Gut (esophagus, stomach, S.I., L.I.) -Respiratory tract - Uro-genital organs -All cells of the Liver, Pancreas, Thymus, Thyroid ectoderm: the outer layer; Will give rise to: - Skin (epidermis) and associated glands and sensory receptors - Entire nervous system (brain, spinal cord, and nerves) mesoderm: the middle layer; Will give rise to: - Entire skeletal, muscular, circulatory, and immune systems - Reproductive organs (except the actual germ cells themselves) - Dermis of the skin
the major types of animal tissues, their unique characteristics and functions
Epithelial Tissue - sheets of tightly-packed cells that line the external surfaces of the body and internal surfaces of organs; sample functions - line, protect, lubricate; create water and air-tight seals; secrete hormones, enzymes, mucous Connective Tissue (CT) - Gives support, shape, and strength Muscle Tissue - long fibers of cells that are capable of mechanical contraction - Most abundant tissue in most animals - Consumes the most energy in most animals - Three types: skeletal, smooth, cardiac Nervous Tissue - cells that are highly specialized to transmit "nerve impulses" (electrical signals) - Central nervous system (CNS) = brain and spinal cord - Peripheral nervous system = motor and sensory nerves
internal and external respiration in terms of oxygen and carbon dioxide partial pressure differences
External respiration occurs as a function of partial pressure differences in oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and the blood in the pulmonary capillaries. Internal respiration is gas exchange that occurs at the level of body tissues (Figure 3). Similar to external respiration, internal respiration also occurs as simple diffusion due to a partial pressure gradient. However, the partial pressure gradients are opposite of those present at the respiratory membrane. The partial pressure of oxygen in tissues is low, about 40 mm Hg, because oxygen is continuously used for cellular respiration. In contrast, the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood is about 100 mm Hg. This creates a pressure gradient that causes oxygen to dissociate from hemoglobin, diffuse out of the blood, cross the interstitial space, and enter the tissue.
What is hematocrit (packed cell volume)?
Hematocrit (HCT) and packed cell volume (PCV) are used to measure red blood cell mass.
how does carbon dioxide concentration in blood affect pH and how does breathing (ventilation/hyperventilation) affect carbon dioxide amounts and consequently blood pH?
In the bloodstream, dissolved CO2 is neutralized by the bicarbonate-carbon dioxide buffer system where it forms a weak acid, carbonic acid (H2CO3). When CO2 levels are high, there is a right shift in the reaction mentioned above. As a result, the concentration of H+ ions in the bloodstream rises, lowering the pH and introducing a state of acidosis. In contrast, when CO2 levels are low, there is a left shift in the reaction, resulting in an alkalotic state. Practically all oxygen in blood is chemically bound to hemoglobin inside red blood cells. But the chemical binding of oxygen with hemoglobin is directly affected by the acidity and alkalinity of blood (i.e. the pH of blood). Hyperventilation causes loss of carbon dioxide from the body, causing the pH of blood to increase and become more alkaline. When blood is more alkaline, hemoglobin binds more tightly with oxygen. Oxygen bound to hemoglobin within red blood cells does nothing, because binding of oxygen to hemoglobin within red blood cells is no more than the body's method of transporting oxygen to the capillaries within the tissues of the body. Within the capillaries of the tissues of the body, the chemical bond between oxygen and hemoglobin is weak enough to allow oxygen to leave the blood and diffuse into the cells surrounding the capillaries, so providing oxygen for the vital, energy-generating chemical processes within the cells forming the tissues of the body. But when hyperventilation causes oxygen to bind more tightly to hemoglobin, less oxygen is released to diffuse into the tissues surrounding the capillaries. The oxyhemoglobin saturation curve demonstrates this effect, showing that hemoglobin binds oxygen more tightly during hyperventilation. This is why hyperventilation can cause less oxygen to enter the tissues of the body from the capillaries, so resulting in hypoxia of the cells outside the blood vessels, even though the blood contains more than sufficient oxygen.
Understand mechanisms endotherms use to regulate temperature (insulation, vasoconstriction, vasodilation, shivering, NST etc)
Insulation - layers of hair (which traps air), skin, and fat help reduce loss of body heat to environment Vasoconstriction - reducing blood flow in "superficial" (skin) vessels prevents heat loss Vasodilation - increased blood flow to superficial vessels PROMOTES heat loss to environment Bathing and Sweating allow "evaporative heat loss" Shivering produces immediate muscle-generated body heat Nonshivering thermogenesis (NST) - occurs in "brown fat" and uses E sources for pure heat generation, instead of ATP
roles of insulin, glucagon on Glucose homeostasis
Insulin: During digestion, foods that contain carbohydrates are converted into glucose. Most of this glucose is sent into your bloodstream, causing a rise in blood glucose levels. This increase in blood glucose signals your pancreas to produce insulin. The insulin tells cells throughout your body to take in glucose from your bloodstream. As the glucose moves into your cells, your blood glucose levels go down Glucagon: works to counterbalance the actions of insulin. About four to six hours after you eat, the glucose levels in your blood decrease, triggering your pancreas to produce glucagon. This hormone signals your liver and muscle cells to change the stored glycogen back into glucose.
how gas exchange relates to cellular respiration, external respiration, internal respiration and ventilation (breathing)
Internal respiration involves gas exchange between the bloodstream and tissues, and cellular respiration Cellular respiration: The oxygen supply for cellular respiration comes from the external respiration of the respiratory system External respiration: the formal term for gas exchange. It describes both the bulk flow of air into and out of the lungs and the transfer of oxygen and carbon dioxide into the bloodstream through diffusion
where mechanical, chemical digestion or both take place
Mechanical digestion occurs from mouth to the stomach while chemical digestion occurs from mouth to the intestine. A major part of both mechanical and chemical digestion occurs in the stomach.
the location & main functions of the major organs and accessory organs of the digestive system
Mouth - mastication, lubrication, digestion of starches begins with amlyase in saliva Pharynx (throat) - swallowing, last compartment that is shared by digest. and resp. systems! Esophagus - conveys food to stomach Peristalsis - rhythmic waves of smooth muscle contraction that propels food through the gut Sphincters - valves that separate different digestive compartments Accessory digestive organs: Liver, Pancreas, Gall Bladder Stomach - mechanical disruption (and low pH) completely dissolve all food. -Kills bacteria, denatures macromolecules & ECM - Pepsin begins breakdown of proteins - The stomach wall is lined with mucous to protect against self- digestion Small Intestine - The longest part of the gut. - Three parts: duodenum, Jujenum, Ilium (D.J.I.) - This is where the accessory organs dump their enzymes - Bile - Secreted from the liver, stored in gall bladder until needed. - This is the MAJOR organ for both digestion AND absorption Large Intestine (colon) - mostly for recovery (re- absorption) of water that is secreted into the lumen of the stomach and S.I. during digestion
Describe the main components of homeostasis (receptor, control center and effector) and the roles they play in positive and negative feedback
Receptor - detects that an internal change is occurring Control center - processes the input from receptor, directs a response Effector - physiological response to restore the balance Homeostasis requires Negative Feedback to counter-balance the rapidly changing external environment and keep a constant internal environment
meaning and relationship between Heart Rate (HR), Stroke Volume (SV) and Cardiac Output (know the formula and be able to do the basic calculations)
SV = CO/HR; Heart Rate: number of beats per minute; stroke volume: the amount of blood pumped by a ventricle in a single contraction; Cardiac Output: The volume of blood each ventricle pumps per minute
Epithelial tissue (classified based on shape of cells and number of layers)
Simple Epi. - a single layer of cells Stratified Epi. - multiple layers of cells Pseudostratified - one layer of cells that LOOKS like more because the cells are of varying size Also classified by shape - cuboidal, columnar, squamous (flat)
heart sounds (lub, dup) and why these sounds are made
The " lub" is the first heart sound, commonly termed S1, and is caused by turbulence caused by the closure of mitral and tricuspid valves at the start of systole. The second sound," dub" or S2, is caused by the closure of aortic and pulmonic valves, marking the end of systole
Which of the following features do all gas exchange systems have in common?
The exchange surfaces are moist
the ions that mediate fast and slow (cortical reaction) block to polyspermy
The fast block to polyspermy is achieved by changing the electric potential of the egg plasma membrane (depolarization) This brief potential shift is not sufficient to prevent polyspermy, which can still occur if the sperm bound to the vitelline envelope are not somehow removed. This removal is accomplished by the cortical granule reaction, a slower, mechanical block to polyspermy that becomes active about a minute after the first successful sperm-egg attachment.
What is the reason that fluid is forced from the bloodstream to the surrounding tissues at the arteriole end of systemic capillaries?
The hydrostatic pressure of the blood is greater than the osmotic pressure of the blood
how size and surface area of an organism affect thermoregulation (through its effect on metabolic rate) and how fluctuations in the environment affect thermoregulation
The larger the volume of the organism, the surface area of that organism will be smaller relative to its size. Because of this, heat loss from the body is harder. On the other hand, a small organism has a smaller volume, and a higher surface area. Since there is a high surface area where heat exchange can happen, these organisms need to have higher metabolic rate to generate more heat for it to stay warm. Poikilotherms are animals with constantly varying internal temperatures, while an animal that maintains a constant body temperature in the face of environmental changes is called a homeotherm.
the key factors that affect efficiency of gas exchange in animals (e.g. factors affecting , , ,temperature etc)
The movement of gases in a contained space (in this case, the lungs) is random, but overall diffusion results in movement from areas of high concentration to those of low concentration. The rate of diffusion of a gas is primarily affected by: Concentration gradient: The greater the gradient, the faster the rate. Surface area for diffusion: The greater the surface area, the faster the rate. Length of the diffusion pathway: The greater the length of the pathway, the slower the rate. Solubility: The more soluble a gas is, the faster it will diffuse. Moisture: respiratory surfaces must be moist partial pressure: the pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases. Determining partial pressures enables us to predict the net movement of a gas at an exchange surface: A gas always undergoes net diffusion from a region of higher partial pressure to a region of lower partial pressure. composition of air: air is much less dense and less viscous than water, so it is easier to move and to force through small passageways. As a result, breathing air is relatively easy and need not be particularly efficient. Humans, for example, extract only about 25% of the O2 in inhaled air. temperature: temperature affects the affinity, or binding strength, of hemoglobin for oxygen. Specifically, increased temperature decreases the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen.
what the numerator & denominator in blood pressure numbers mean (e.g. 120/80 mmHg) and what is happening in the heart during these each measurement
The top number (the numerator) represents your "systolic" pressure, which is the pressure when your heart contracts, or beats. The bottom number (denominator) is "diastolic" pressure, which is the pressure when your heart muscle rests in between beats.
Distinguish between totipotent and pluripotent cells
Totipotent cells can form all the cell types in a body, plus the extraembryonic, or placental, cells. Pluripotent cells can give rise to all of the cell types that make up the body; embryonic stem cells are considered pluripotent.
Distinguish between type I and type II diabetes and how they are managed
Type I: People with type 1 diabetes don't produce insulin. There's no cure for type 1 diabetes. People with type 1 diabetes don't produce insulin, so it must be regularly injected into the body. Type II: People with type 2 diabetes don't respond to insulin as well as they should and later in the disease often don't make enough insulin. Type 2 diabetes can be managed and even reversed with diet and exercise alone, but many people need extra support. If lifestyle changes aren't enough, your doctor may prescribe medications that help your body use insulin more effectively.
Distinguish between animal and vegetal poles
Vegetal pole - where yolk is concentrated Animal pole - where polar bodies are budded off
functions of some representative vitamins (Vit C, D and K), functions of some minerals (Calcium, Phosphorous, Iron).
Vitamins Water-soluble - Niacin, Biotin, Folic acid, Biotin, Vitamins C, and B1,2,6,12 Fat-soluble - Vitamins D, E, K, and A Vitamin C: Functions - collagen synthesis, antioxidant, detox Deficiency - scurvy Vitamin D: Functions - Calcium absorption, bone growth Deficiency - Rickets Vitamin K: Function - blood clotting Deficiency - poor wound healing Vitamin B1 (thiamine): Functions - coenzyme necessary for cellular respiration Deficiency - Beriberi Minerals Ca - required for bones (vertebrates), and nerve & muscle cell function P - bones, nucleotides, ATP Iron - hemoglobin, cytochromes Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Se, Mb are co-factors for certain enzymes I needed for thyroid hormone Na, K, Cl needed for salt/ion balance
why are some enzymes (called zymogens) produced in inactive form?
When cells make enzymes, especially proteases, they often make them as zymogen, an inactive form of the enzyme. This is so they don't go crazy and are only used when needed
relationship between blood pressure and osmotic pressure at capillary beds and how they influence exit from or re-entry of plasma into blood capillaries
Whereas hydrostatic pressure forces fluid out of the capillary, osmotic pressure draws fluid back in.
functions of amnion, chorion, yolk sac and allantois
amnion: arises by a folding of a mass of extra-embryonic tissue called the somatopleure. Lined with ectoderm and covered with mesoderm (both are germ layers), the amnion contains a thin, transparent fluid in which the embryo is suspended, thus providing a cushion against mechanical injury. chorian: derived from trophoblastic ectoderm and extraembryonic mesoderm (somatopleure). There is an intimate association between the forming chorion and amnion. These form by folding in domestic animals and by so-called cavitation in humans, mice, and rats. yolk sac: forms from proliferating hypoblast cells after implantation. The inner cell mass becomes a bilaminar disc as it divides into the hypoblast, which forms the yolk sac and the epiblast, which forms the amnion allantois: formed essentially from endodermal epithelium with associated mesoderm
fluid feeders
an animal that lives by sucking nutrient-rich fluids from another living organism
Positive feedback has occurred when...
an increase in calcium concentration increases the secretion of a hormone that stores calcium in bones
How is most carbon dioxide transported in the blood?
bicarbonate ions in the plasma
What is the role of Hemoglobin?
binds to blood and carries it to tissues
Which of the following is an example of connective tissue: skin, nerves, blood, cuboidal epithelium, or smooth muscles?
blood
When carbon dioxide levels in the blood increase, the...
blood becomes more acidic
Blood flows from ____ pressure to ____ pressure
blood flows from high pressure to low pressure
blood flow (in arteries) is due to what?
blood pressure (blood hydrostatic pressure)
Exchange of gases and nutrients occurs by diffusion between the...
capillaries and tissue cells
The nucleus of a typical nerve cell is found in the...
cell body
the terms/concepts involved in cellular respiration, external respiration, internal respiration and ventilation (breathing)
cellular respiration: the process by which energy is extracted from food (making energy using food & oxygen) ventilation: process of moving air IN and OUT of the lungs (from atmosphere into lungs and back) external respiration: process of moving air from lungs into the bloodstream and vice versa (gas exchange in lungs - oxygen moves from lungs into blood, carbon dioxide moves from blood into lungs) internal respiration: process of moving air from bloodstream into cells and vice versa (gas exchange in tissues - oxygen moves from the blood into cells, carbon dioxide moves from cells into blood.
GENERAL development phases after formation of zygote: cleavage (morulation), blastulation, gastrulation, organogenesis and the different characteristics of each phase etc
cleavage: - 1st phase of embryonic development - The zygote rapidly divides, without growing larger - Alternating S and M phases, no G1 or G2 - Morula - after 5-7 divisions, a solid sphere of cells - The divisions occur along alternating axes - The morula will have a "polarity" based on the starting polarity of the egg. ("poles" become "hemispheres" as embryo grows) blastulation: -the short phase where the morula transforms into a blastula - While the morula is a solid sphere of cells - the blastula is a hollow sphere - Again, no cell growth during this phase gastrulation: - MAJOR rearrangement of cells into the three germ layers - Gut is formed and embryo is called gastrula organogenesis:
difference between co-factors and coenzymes
co-factors are inorganic and coenzymes are organic
importance of glucose homeostasis
critical importance to human health due to the central importance of glucose as a source of energy, and the fact that brain tissues do not synthesize it. Thus maintaining adequate glucose levels in the blood are necessary for survival.
Deer mice in warm climates and penguins in cold climates differ in their energy budgets in that...
deer mice use a greater proportion of their metabolic energy to maintain body temperature
the mechanism of ventilation (breathing) in terms of muscle contraction (diaphragm & intercostals), volume and pressure changes and their effects on movement of air
diaphragm pushes the abdominal cavity down, expanding the thoracic cavity, creating negative pressure in the cavity which rushes air into the lungs exhalation is passive relaxation, and the positive pressure expels air.
the terms differentiation, founder cells, fate mapping
differentiation: the resulting specialization in structure and function founder cells: daughter cells created by asymmetric cell divisions resembling a stem cell divsion pattern during early cleavage of C. elegans (for example) that will give rise to specific sets of differentiated cells. fate mapping: a method used in developmental biology to study the embryonic origin of various adult tissues and structures
bulk feeders
eat relatively large pieces of food
macronutrients (plus examples)
elements required in relatively large amounts (e.g. protein)
micronutrients (plus examples)
elements required in very small amounts, typically have catalytic functions as cofactors of enzymes. (e.g. vitamins and minerals)
Be able to label parts of blastula (blastocyst) and know fate of its parts
embryoblast: begins to transform into two distinct epithelial layers just before implantation occurs blastocoel: gives rise to gastrula and premature egg sac trophoblast: eventually becomes placenta
the terms endotherm, ectotherm, metabolic rate, basal metabolic rate, standard metabolic rate
endotherm: capable of maintaining body temperature through metabolic activity ectotherm: absorb external heat as their main source of body heat (cold blooded) metabolic rate: the rate at which metabolism occurs in a living organism. basal metabolic rate: the fasting, resting, unstressed metabolic rate of an endotherm standard metabolic rate: The minimum metabolic rate needed to sustain life at a specified temperature
Compare and contrast fish, amphibian, reptile and mammalian (+ bird) circulatory systems
fish: blood travels through the body and returns to its starting point in a single circuit (loop), an arrangement called single circulation (Figure 42.4a). These animals have a heart that consists of two chambers: an atrium and a ventricle. Blood entering the heart collects in the atrium before transfer to the ventricle. Contraction of the ventricle pumps blood to a capillary bed in the gills, where there is a net diffusion of O2 into the blood and of CO2 out of the blood. amphibians: Frogs and other amphibians have a heart with three chambers—two atria and one ventricle. A ridge within the ventricle diverts most (about 90%)of the oxygen-rich blood from the left atrium into the systemic circuit and most of the oxygen-poor blood from the right atrium into the pulmocutaneous circuit. When a frog is underwater, it takes advantage of the incomplete division of the ventricle, largely shutting off blood flow to its temporarily ineffective lungs. Blood flow continues to the skin, which acts as the sole site of gas exchange while the frog is submerged. reptiles: In the three-chambered heart of turtles, snakes, and lizards, an incomplete septum partially divides the single ventricle into right and left chambers. Two major arteries, called aortas, lead to the systemic circulation. As with amphibians, the circulatory system enables control of the relative amount of blood flowing to the lungs and the rest of the body. In alligators, caimans, and other crocodilians, the ventricles are divided by a complete septum, but the pulmonary and systemic circuits connect where the arteries exit the heart. mammals: divided into three circuits: the systemic circuit, the pulmonary circuit, and the coronary circuit. Blood is pumped from veins of the systemic circuit into the right atrium of the heart, then into the right ventricle. Blood then enters the pulmonary circuit, and is oxygenated by the lungs. From the pulmonary circuit, blood re-enters the heart through the left atrium. From the left ventricle, blood re-enters the systemic circuit through the aorta and is distributed to the rest of the body. birds: Birds, like mammals, have a 4-chambered heart (2 atria & 2 ventricles), with complete separation of oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood. The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs, while the left ventricle pumps blood to the rest of the body. Because the left ventricle must generate greater pressure to pump blood throughout the body (in contrast to the right ventricle that pumps blood to the lungs), the walls of the left ventricle are much thicker & more muscular
What is food the source of and how does our body utilize it?
food is source of energy and nutrients. Different foods contain different amounts of energy (measured in Calories). Consuming more food energy than we utilize results in weight gain, consuming less food energy that we use/utilize results in weight loss.
Compared with the interstitial fluid that bathes active muscle cells, blood reaching these cells has a: higher PO2, higher PCO2, greater bicarbonate concentration, lower pH, or lower osmotic pressure?
higher PO2
Distinguish between homologous and vestigial structures
homologous structure: the existence of shared ancestry between a pair of structures, or genes, in different species vestigial structure: the structure in an organism that has lost all or most of its original function in the course of evolution
relate changes in pressure in different parts of the circulatory system (and importance of these differences & their consequences)
in arteries: high capillary beds: low low BP in capillaries allows slow flow so exchange can take place veins: very very low very low pressure in veins means that veins return relies on other strategies - skeletal muscle pump, one-way valves etc
Where would you expect to find the highest partial pressure of carbon dioxide?
in the intracellular fluid
key steps that food goes through in digestive system:
ingestion digestion (mechanical & chemical): macromolecules must be broken down, occurs EXTRAcellularly before absorption (for nearly all animals), Carried out by "hydrolytic enzymes" absorption: a specific process where small molecules are brought into cells from the digestive compartment elimination: undigested or un-useful material passes out of the digestive compartment
the role of insulin, ghrelin, PYY, CCK, and leptin in suppressing appetite or signaling hunger
insulin: suppresses appetite ghrelin: secreted by the wall of the stomach to signal hunger PYY: secreted by stomach and small intestine to signal satiety (suppress appetite) CCK: secreted by stomach and small intestine to signal satiety (suppress appetite) leptin: secreted by fat tissue to suppress appetite
differences between intracellular and extracellular digestion
intracellular digestion: a form of digestion which takes place within the cytoplasm of the organism. Intracellular digestion takes place in animals without a digestive tract, in which food items are brought into the cell for digestion extracellular digestion: a process in which organisms feed by secreting enzymes through the cell membrane onto the food. The enzymes catalyze the digestion of the food into molecules small enough to be taken up by passive diffusion, transport, osmotrophy or phagocytosis.
The best time to measure an animalʹs basal metabolic rate is when the animal...
is resting and has not eaten its first meal of the day
Cells in cartilage are found in special holes called...
lacunae
Connective tissue - understand the various categories, the types of cells, protein and nature of ground substance (solid, liquid, semi-solid) making them up and their functions
loose CT (ECM): most widely distributed of all connective tissues. It is the predominant type of connective tissue that joins the cells in the other main tissues (muscle, nerve, and epithelia) and that joins tissues into organs. It consists of a loose irregular network of elastin fibers and collagen fibers suspended within a relatively large amount of ground substance adipose (fat): a specialized connective tissue consisting of lipid-rich cells called adipocytes. As it comprises about 20-25% of total body weight in healthy individuals, the main function of adipose tissue is to store energy in the form of lipids fibrous: composed of parallel bundles of collagen fibers. It is found in the dermis, tendons, and ligaments and can also be referred to as dense connective tissue. cartilage: a form of connective tissue in which the ground substance is abundant and of a firmly gelated consistency that endows this tissue with unusual rigidity and resistance to compression bone: containing cells, fibers and ground substance. There are many functions in the body in which the bone participates, such as storing minerals, providing internal support, protecting vital organs, enabling movement, and providing attachment sites for muscles and tendons blood: The fluid portion of whole blood, its matrix, is commonly called plasma.
Why different pH exist in different parts of the digestive system
mouth pH is SLIGHTLY acidic because it is where chemical digestion begins stomach pH is low because it needs to be acidic to kill bacteria and dissolve food small intestine pH is high because of the enzymes that live their and their potential damage to the intestinal lining
pH of mouth, stomach and small intestines
mouth: ~ 6.7, stomach: ~ 2 small intestines: ~ 10
Nervous tissue - understand general functions and types of cells making this tissue (neurons and neuroglia), and general features of a neuron (cell body, dendrites, axons - and their functions)
neurons: cells that can transmit signals called nerve impulses, or action potentials - long, stringy axons that are attached to the muscle at neuromuscular junctions - branchy dendrites at the ends of axons which transport impulses - contains multiple mitochondria
the main components of mammalian respiratory system
nose (nasal cavity): functions to humidify, warm, filter, and act as a conduit for inspired air, as well as protect the respiratory tract through the use of the mucociliary system pharynx, larynx, esophagus, trachea (throat): pharynx: warms and humidifies air before it reaches the lungs larynx: forms the entrance to the lower respiratory system, prevents food or liquid from entering the lower respiratory tract while swallowing esophagus: the passage leading from your mouth and throat to your stomach trachea: serves as passage for air, moistens and warms it while it passes into the lungs, and protects the respiratory surface from an accumulation of foreign particles right lung and left lung, alveoli sacs: lungs: help oxygen from the air we breathe enter the red cells in the blood. Red blood cells then carry oxygen around the body to be used in the cells found in our body. The lungs also help the body to get rid of CO2 gas when we breathe out. alveoli sacs: where the lungs and the blood exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide during the process of breathing in and breathing out. Oxygen breathed in from the air passes through the alveoli and into the blood and travels to the tissues throughout the body. bronchus and bronchioles: bronchus: a passage of airway in the respiratory tract that conducts air into the lungs. The bronchus branches into smaller tubes called bronchioles bronchioles: deliver air to the exchange surfaces of the lungs. They are interrupted by alveoli diaphragm: pushes the abdominal cavity down, expanding the thoracic cavity, creating negative pressure in the cavity which rushes air into the lungs heart: Deoxygenated blood flows from the heart to the lungs where it gives up wastes and is freshly oxygenated. From there, the blood returns to the heart and is pumped to the rest of the body.
essential nutrients
nutrients necessary for normal body functioning that must be obtained from food. 1) essential amino acids, 2) essential fatty acids, 3) vitamins, 4) minerals
difference between open and closed circulatory systems
open circulatory system: the circulatory fluid, called hemolymph, is also the interstitial fluid that bathes body cells. Arthropods, such as grasshoppers, and some molluscs, including clams, have open circulatory systems. Contraction of the heart pumps the hemolymph through the circulatory vessels into interconnected sinuses, spaces surrounding the organs. Within the sinuses, the hemolymph and body cells exchange gases and other chemicals. Relaxation of the heart draws hemolymph back in through pores. closed circulatory system: a circulatory fluid called blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid. One or more hearts pump blood into large vessels that branch into smaller ones that infiltrate the tissues and organs. Chemical exchange occurs between the blood and the interstitial fluid, as well as between the interstitial fluid and body cells
Heterotroph
organism that obtains energy from the foods it consumes; also called a consumer
The Bohr shift on the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve is produced by changes in...
pH
Distinguish between protostomes and deuterostomes (with respect to blastopore fate - mouth or anus)
protostomes: when the blastopore (first opening) becomes the mouth (e.g., mollusks, arthropods) deuterostomes: when the blastopore (first opening) becomes the anus (e.g., all vertebrates)
the different types of circuits blood flows through
pulmonary: the right side of the heart pumps oxygen- poor blood to the capillary beds of the gas exchange tissues, where there is a net movement of O2 into the blood and of CO2 out of the blood systemic: begins with the left side of the heart pumping oxygen-enriched blood from the gas exchange tissues to capillary beds in organs and tissues throughout the body. Following the exchange of O2 and CO2, as well as nutrients and waste products, the now oxygen-poor blood returns to the heart, completing the circuit. coronary: provides blood to the heart
Stratified cuboidal epithelium is composed of...
several layers of boxlike cells
the epithelium type with the shortest diffusion distance is...
simple squamous epithelium
Muscle tissue (skeletal, cardiac, smooth) - know features e.g. number of nuclei, presence or absence of striations, shape of cells, functions and where they are found)
skeletal muscle - a form of striated muscle tissue which is under the voluntary control of the somatic nervous system, single nucleus cardiac muscle - an involuntary, striated muscle that constitutes the main tissue of the walls of the heart, single nucleus smooth muscle - a type of muscle tissue which is used by various systems to apply pressure to vessels and organs
Understand the process of fertilization (from , through fast and slow block to polyspermy and eventual fusion of male and female gametes to form zygote
sperm capacitation: the physiological changes spermatozoa must undergo in order to have the ability to penetrate and fertilize an egg. First, sperm dissolve or penetrate any protective layer surrounding the egg to reach the plasma membrane. Next, molecules on the sperm surface bind to receptors on the egg surface, helping ensure that fertilization involves a sperm and egg of the same species. Finally, changes at the surface of the egg prevent polyspermy, the entry 1of multiple sperm nuclei into the egg. The term used to describe the male and female gametes fusion is fertilization. Fertilization occurs in the Fallopian tube and results in the development of the zygote or fertilized egg cell.
Understand what homeostasis is, and why it is important to maintain homeostasis
steady-state or internal balance; important because it helps animals maintain stable internal and external environments with the best conditions for it to operate
All skeletal muscle cells are both...
striated and multi-nucleic
An ectotherm is more likely to survive an extended period of food deprivation than would an equally-sized endotherm because...
the ectotherm invests little energy in temperature regulation
What is the Bohr effect?
the effect that describes how ow pH decreases the affinity of hemoglobin for O2
The part of the respiratory tract that is involved in gas exchange is referred to as...
the respiratory zone
how metabolic heat is produced and why it is important for organisms to perform metabolic processes
to generate more heat, because heat is lost at many stages Insulation - layers of hair (which traps air), skin, and fat help reduce loss of body heat to environment Vasoconstriction - reducing blood flow in "superficial" (skin) vessels prevents heat loss
The movement of air into and out of the lungs is called...
ventilation
