Biology 112 Chapter 4 Definitions

Cancers are Classified:

According to the type of tissue from which they arise.

Nervous System

All bodily activities, voluntary and involuntary, are controlled by the nervous system. Two major components: Central Nervous System (CNS): made up of the brain and spinal cord and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): made up of all the nerves that leads into and out of the (CNS). Organ system consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and associated nerves that coordinates the other organ systems of the body.

Loose Fibrous Connective Tissue

Also called areolar tissue. Tissue composed mainly of fibroblasts widely separated by a matrix containing collagen and elastic fibers. Loose connective tissue is not particularly tough, but (supports epithelium) surrounds blood vessels and provides support to internal organs.

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Appearance of layering in some epithelial cells when, actually, each cell touches a baseline and true layers do not exist. Are found in the lines of the trachea as well as the upper respiratory tract. Non-ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelia are located in the membranous part of male vas deferens. Function: Secretion, particularly of mucus; propulsion of mucus bu ciliary action.

Stem Cell

Divides to produce other types of cells (Loose Fibrous Connective Tissue)

Integumentary System: The skin has 3 main regions:

Epidermis (outer most), Dermis (middle) and Subcutaneous layer (is between the dermis and internal structure where fat is stored), also known as the hypodermis (lower layer).

How do we name epithelial tissue? Squamous

Fattened. Can combine

Ground Substance (Loose Fibrous Connective Tissue)

Fills spaces between cells and fibers. A noncellular material that separates the cells. It varies in consistency from solid (bone) to semifluid (cartilage) to fluid (blood).

Tissue Fluid

Fluid that surrounds the body's cells; consists of dissolved substances that leave the blood capillaries by filtration and diffusion.

Tissue

Group of similar cells that perform a common function.

Striated

Having bands; in cardiac and skeletal muscle, alternating light and dark crossbands produced by the distribution of contractile proteins.

Stimulus

Is an action that has an impact or influenece

Gland

Is an organ that produce a product; to hide and release; To generate and separate a substance from cells or bodily fluids. (Think about a lemon when your squeeze it the fluids secretes. Epithelial cell or group of epithelial cells specialized to secrete a substance.

The Skin: Integumentary System

It protects underlying tissues from physical trauma, pathogen invasion, and water loss. It also helps regulate body temperature. The skin even synthesizes certain chemicals that affect the rest of the body. Skin contains sensory receptors such as touch and temperature receptors. Thus it helps us to be aware of our surroundings and communicate with others

Basement Membrane

Layer of nonliving material that anchors epithelial tissue to underlying connective tissue

Meninges

Membrane coverings that protect the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord ).

Mucous Membrane

Membrane lining a cavity or tube that opens to the outside of the body; also called mucosa.

Smooth (visceral) muscle

Nonstriated, involuntary muscle tissue found in the walls of internal organs.

How do we name epithelial tissue? Simple

One layer of cells; cells in a single layer

Urinary System

Organ system consisting of the kidneys and urinary bladder; rids the body of nitrogenous wastes and helps regulate the water-salt balance of the blood.

Cardiovascular System

Organ system in which blood vessels distribute blood powered by the pumping action of the heart.

Skin

Outer covering of the body; can be called the integumentary system because it contains organs such as sense organs.

Spongy Bone

Porous bone found at the ends of long bones where (blood cells are formed) red bone marrow is sometimes located.

Nail

Protective covering of the distal part of fingers and toes.

Dermis

Region of skin that lies beneath the epidermis.

Mast Cell

Releases chemicals after an injury or infection (Loose Fibrous Connective Tissue)

Vitamin D

Required for proper bone growth.

Sweat Gland

Skin gland that secretes a fluid substance for evaporative cooling; also called sudoriferous gland.

Tendon

Strap of fibrous connective tissue that connects skeletal muscle to bone. Is a tough band of fibrous connective tissue that usually connects muscle to bone and is capable of withstanding tension. Tendons are similar to ligaments and fasciae; all three are made of collagen. Ligaments join one bone to another bone; fasciae connect muscles to other muscles.

Cardiac Muscle

Striated, involuntary muscle found only in the heart.

Skeletal Muscle

Striated, voluntary muscle tissue found in muscles that move the bones.

Skeletal System

System of bones, cartilage, and ligaments that works with the muscular system to protect the body and provide support for locomotion and movement.

Subcutaneous Layer

Tissue layer that lies just beneath the skin and contains adipose tissue.

Nervous Tissue

Tissue that contains nerve cells (neurons), which conduct impulses, and neuroglia, which support, protect, and provide nutrients to neurons.

Squamous Epithelium

Type of epithelial tissue that contains flat cells.

Inter-vertebral disc

a layer of cartilage separating adjacent vertebrae in the spine.

White Blood Cell (leukocyte)

also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. All white blood cells are produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a hematopoietic stem cell. There are five different types of white blood cells, or leukocytes, in our bodies, and we can break them up into two main categories. These are granulocytes and agranulocytes. These terms simply refer to how these cells look when stained. Granulocytes have visible granules in their cell bodies, and agranulocytes do not. There are three types of granulocytes. They are neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils. Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cell in our body. These are primarily responsible for killing off foreign bacteria. Neutrophils are the first responders when we are injured or sick, and they help keep us healthy by phagocytizing (or consuming) bacteria in our bodies. Eosinophils are responsible for fighting infections of parasitic worms. These cells release toxins that kill the worms and are also involved in the inflammatory response when we have an allergic reaction. Basophils release two chemicals, histamine and heparin. Histamine is also involved in allergic reactions, and heparin is an anticoagulant. Anticoagulants keep blood from clotting, which helps bring more blood to a damaged area in our body, which, in turn, helps promote healing. The two remaining types of leukocytes are agranulocytes. These are monocytes and lymphocytes. Monocytes are the largest of the white blood cells. These are the cells that 'clean up' our blood the most. Monocytes also employ phagocytosis to 'eat' foreign particles, bacteria and dead neutrophils. Type of blood cell that is transparent without staining and protects the body from invasion by foreign substances and organisms; also called a leukocyte. They engulfs pathogens and produces antibodies (Loose Fibrous Connective Tissue).

Positive Feedback

A means to an end. A positive feedback mechanism is the exact opposite of a negative feedback mechanism. With negative feedback, the output reduces the original effect of the stimulus. In a positive feedback system, the output enhances the original stimulus. A good example of a positive feedback system is child birth. During labor, a hormone called oxytocin is released that intensifies and speeds up contractions. The increase in contractions causes more oxytocin to be released and the cycle goes on until the baby is born. The birth ends the release of oxytocin and ends the positive feedback mechanism. Another good example of a positive feedback mechanism is blood clotting. Once a vessel is damaged, platelets start to cling to the injured site and release chemicals that attract more platelets. The platelets continue to pile up and release chemicals until a clot is formed. Just remember that positive feedback mechanisms enhance the original stimulus and negative feedback mechanisms inhibit it. Mechanism in which the stimulus initiates reactions that lead to an increase in the stimulus.

Blood

A type of connective tissue in which cells (red and white) are separated by a liquid matrix called plasma. Blood is considered a connective tissue because it consists of a non-living fluid in which living cells are suspended. The blood matrix surrounding the cells is known as plasma, which accounts for about 55% of our blood volume. There are three types of living cells in blood: red blood cells (or erythrocytes), white blood cells (or leukocytes) and platelets (or thrombocytes). These make up the remaining 45% of our blood volume.

How do we name epithelial tissue? Pseudostratified

Appears to have multiple layers but only has one layer; one layer stacked on top of other

Muscles

Are red, fleshly mask of the body located under deep fascia. They are also found in heart and in various organs like stomach, intestine, urinogential organs and also in blood vessels.

Inherited Connective Tissue Disorder

Arise when people inherit genes that lead to malformed fibers. For example, in Marfan syndrome, there are mutations in the fibrillin gene. Fibrillin is a component of elastic fibers. The mutation results in decreased elasticity in connective tissues normally rich in elastic fibers, such as the aorta. Individuals with this disease often die from aortic rupture, which occurs when the aorta cannot expand in response to increased blood pressure.

Red Blood Cell (Erythrocyte)

Blood has three main functions: transportation, regulation and protection. Red blood cells are made inside your bones, in the bone marrow. They typically live for about 120 days, and then they die. Our erythrocytes, or red blood cells, are the most abundant cell type in the human body. Additionally, erythrocytes are anucleated, which means they don't have a nucleus. This extra room allows for more hemoglobin to be stored in our red blood cells. Hemoglobin is a respiratory pigment, which binds to either oxygen or carbon dioxide. This allows oxygen to be transported around our body to our tissues and organs (and carbon dioxide to be taken away). Hemoglobin is largely comprised of iron, which when combined with oxygen, gives blood its red color. Additionally, blood helps cycle nutrients and hormones throughout our bodies. Blood also helps us maintain homeostasis by regulating our internal body pH and temperature as well as how much water is in our bodies at a given time. Plasma, our connective tissue matrix, is about 90% water. Blood is also vital in protecting our bodies. Blood loss is controlled with clotting mechanisms, and white blood cells provide immune response. The vertebrate organism's principal means of delivering oxygen (O2) to the body tissues—via blood flow through the circulatory system. Formed element that contains hemoglobin and carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues; also called erythrocyte.

Negative Feedback

Body resets its self. Almost all homeostatic control mechanisms are negative feedback mechanisms. These mechanisms change the variable back to its original state or "ideal value". A good example of a negative feedback mechanism is a home thermostat (heating system). The thermostat contains the receptor (thermometer) and control center. If the heating system is set at 70 degrees Fahrenheit, the heat (effector) is turned on if the temperature drops below 70 degrees Fahrenheit. After the heater heats the house to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, it shuts off effectively maintaining the ideal temperature. The control of blood sugar (glucose) by insulin is another good example of a negative feedback mechanism. When blood sugar rises, receptors in the body sense a change . In turn, the control center (pancreas) secretes insulin into the blood effectively lowering blood sugar levels. Once blood sugar levels reach homeostasis, the pancreas stops releasing insulin. Mechanism of homeostatic response in which a stimulus initiates reactions that reduce the stimulus.

Nerve

Bundle of long axons outside the central nervous system.

How do we name epithelial tissue?

By the number of cell layers and the shape of the cells: Number of cells: Simple, Pseudostratified, and stratified. Shape of cells: Cuboidal, Columnar, Squamous

Carcinoma Cancer

Cancer of epithelial tissue. The most common type.

Sarcomas Cancer

Cancers arising in muscular or connective tissue (especially bone or cartilage). A sarcoma (from the Greek σάρξ sarx meaning "flesh") is a cancer that arises from transformed cells of mesenchymal origin. Thus, malignant tumors made of cancellous bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, vascular, or hematopoietic tissues are, by definition, considered sarcomas.

Lymphomas Cancers

Cancers of lymphoid tissue.

Leukemiase Caners

Cancers of the blood

Hyaline Cartilage

Cartilage whose cells lie in lacunae separated by a white, translucent matrix containing very fine collagen fibers; fibers not easily visible. Most are surrounded by a dense connective tissue. Function: Flexibility, support, reduces friction, and absorbs shock. Most abundant cartilage in the body. Found in nose, connects ribs to sternum, long end of bones, embryonic skeleton. The weakest of the 3 types of cartilage.

Fibroblast

Cell in loose fibrous connective tissues that produces fibers and other (ground ) substances. Fibroblasts are cells that generate any connective tissue that the body needs, as they can move throughout the body and can undergo mitosis to create new tissues.

Muscular Tissue

Characterists are: Most are attached by tendons to bones, cells are multinucleate, striated, voluntary Contractile: Type of tissue composed of fibers that can shorten and thicken. Excitability: Ability of muscle tissue to receive and respond to stimuli. Extensibility: Ability of the muscle to stretch Elasticity: Ability of the muscle tissue to return to its original shape after contraction

How do we name epithelial tissue? Columnar

Column-Shaped; resemble a rectangle

Organ

Combination of two or more different tissues performing a common function.

Platelet (Thrombocyte)

Component of blood necessary to blood clotting; also called a thrombocyte. The normal platelet count is 150,000-350,000 per microliter of blood, but since platelets are so small, they make up just a tiny fraction of the blood volume. The principal function of platelets is to prevent bleeding. Red blood cells are the most numerous blood cell, about 5,000,000 per microliter

Adipose Tissue (Cells)

Connective tissue in which fat is stored. Is loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes. It is a loose fibrous connective tissue

Cartilage

Connective tissue in which the cells lie within lacunae separated by a flexible proteinaceous matrix. Firm, whitish, flexible connective tissue found in various forms in the larynx and respiratory tract, in structures such as the external ear, and in the articulating surfaces of joints. It is more widespread in the infant skeleton, being replaced by bone during growth.

How do we name epithelial tissue? Cuboidal

Cube-Shaped

Diaphragm

Dome-shaped horizontal sheet of muscle and connective tissue that divides the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. 2. A birth control device consisting of a soft rubber or latex cup that fits over the cervix.

Endocrine Gland

Ductless organ that secretes a hormone or hormones into the bloodstream.

Epithelial Tissue

Fibrous connective tissue, densely pack type of tissue that lines hollow organs (body cavities) and covers (skin) surfaces, and is found in glands; also called epithelium. This type of tissue Protects. These cells are able to repair and renew themselves -stem or germinative cells are found in deepest layer of epithelium near basement membrane

Lymph

Fluid, derived from tissue fluid, that is carried in lymphatic vessels.

Peritonitis

Generalized infection of the lining of the abdominal cavity. (itis - mean swelling or infection) Inflammation of the peritoneum, typically caused by bacterial infection either via the blood or after rupture of an abdominal organ.

Oil Gland

Gland of the skin associated with hair follicle; secretes sebum; also called sebaceous gland.

Exocrine Gland

Gland that secretes its product to an epithelial surface directly or through ducts.

Organ System

Group of related organs working together. digestive system - breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates solid waste. respiratory system - takes in oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. circulatory system - carries needed materials throughout the body and picks up wastes. excretory system - filters metabolic wastes from blood and eliminates wastes. integumentary system - protects from injury and infection, produces vitamin D, regulates body temperature, sense of touch. muscular system - enables the body to move. skeletal system - protects internal organs, produces blood cells, gives shape and support. reproductive system - enables body to produce offspring. endocrine system - produces hormones that help regulate some of the body's activities nervous system - controls the body's activites; responds to internal and external stimuli. immune system - fights disease and infection

Epithelia Tissue: Simple Cuboidal

Location: Lining of kidney tubules, various glands; absorbs molecules. Basement Membrane

Epithelia Tissue: Simple Squamous

Location: Lining of lungs, blood vessels; protects. Basement Membrane

Epithelia Tissue: Stratified Squamous

Location: Lining of nose, mouth, esophagus, anal canal, vagina. Protects. Basement Membrane.

Epithelia Tissue: Simple Columnar

Location: Lining of small intestine, oviducts; absorbs nutrients. Goblet cell secretes mucus; basement membrane.

Epithelia Tissue: Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar

Location: Lining of trachea; sweeps impurities toward throat. Cilia, goblet cell secrets mucus; basement membrane.

Areolar Tissue

Loose Fibrous connective tissue

Serous Membrane

Membrane that covers internal organs and lines cavities without an opening to the outside of the body; also called serosa.

How do we name epithelial tissue? Stratified

More than one layer of cells; one single laye

Internal Organs Include:

Muscles, blood vessels, and nerves.

Neuron

Nerve cell that characteristically has three parts: dendrites, cell body, and axon. (transport signal/impulses)

Neuroglia

Nonconducting nerve cells that are intimately associated with neurons and function in a supportive capacity. (no transport signal/impulses)

Lymphatic System

Organ system consisting of lymphatic vessels and lymphatic organs that transport lymph and lipids; aids the immune system.

Integumentary System:

Organ system consisting of skin (the largest organ) and various (accessory) organs, such as hair, nails, sweat glands and sebaceous (oil) glands. This system is important for maintaining homeostasis.

Respiratory System

Organ system consisting of the lungs and tubes that bring oxygen into the lungs and take carbon dioxide out. The respiratory system is the set of organs that allows a person to breathe and exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide throughout the body. An example of respiratory system is the human's nasal passages, larynx, trachea, bronchial tubes and lungs.

Digestive System

Organ system including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine (colon) that receives food and digests it into nutrient molecules. Also has associated organs: teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.

Endocrine System

Organ system involved in the coordination of body activities; uses hormones as chemical signals secreted into the bloodstream.

Reproductive System

Organ system that contains male or female organs and specializes in the production of offspring. The reproductive system or genital system is a system of sex organs within an organism which work together for the purpose of sexual reproduction. Many non-living substances such as fluids, hormones, and pheromones are also important accessories to the reproductive system.

Epidermis

Outer region of skin that lies above the dermis. Outer region of the skin composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

Melanocyte (layers of Epidermis: Skin)

Produce Melanin that lend to skin color and protection from UV light; Some cells convert cholesterol to Vitamin D. Melano - means skin color. Melano - change protein into Vitamin D; Vitamin D can also come from the sun. And Melanin are layers of (the skin) epidermis. It produce the pigment melanin, which they can then transfer to other epidermal cells. Melanin can be yellow, brown, or black in color, and the more of it that is produced by melanocytes, the darker is the skin. Melanin-producing cell found in skin.

Intercalated Disk

Region that holds adjacent cardiac muscle cells together; disks appear as dense bands at right angles to the muscle striations.

Pleura

Serous membrane that encloses the lungs.

Fibrocartilage

Similar to hyaline cartilage but its matrix contains many coarse (strong) collagen fibers running parallel to each. It is found in pubic symphysis, inter-vertebral disc and the menisci of knees.

Lacuna

Small pit or hollow cavity, as in bone or cartilage, where a cell or cells are located. An unfilled space or interval; a gap.

Langerhans Cell

Specialized epidermal cell that assists the immune system.

How a homeostatic control system works

Stimulus- produces a change to a variable (the factor being regulated). Receptor- detects the change. The receptor monitors the environment and responds to change (stimuli). Input- information travels along the (afferent) pathway to the control center. The control center determines the appropriate response and course of action. Output- information sent from the control center travels down the (efferent) pathway to the effector. Response- a response from the effector balances out the original stimulus to maintain homeostasis. Think of it as an extremely complex balancing act.

Muscular System

System of muscles that produces movement, both within the body and of its limbs; principal components are skeletal (voluntary), smooth (involuntary), and cardiac (heart; involuntary) muscle.

Aorta

The largest artery in the body; the aorta carries oxygenated blood away from the left ventricle of the heart to be distributed by branch arteries through the body.

Keratine

The major protein found in hair and nail struture

Homeostasis

The nervous and endocrine systems are key in maintaining homeostasis. "The tendency of an organism or cell to regulate its internal environment and maintain equilibrium, usually by a system of feedback controls, so as to stabilize health and functioning". Generally, the body is in homeostasis when its needs are met and its functioning properly. To maintain ________, communication within the body is essential. Every organ in the body contributes to _________. A complex set of chemical, thermal, and neural factors interact in complex ways, both helping and hindering the body while it works to maintain homeostasis.

Ligament

Tough cord or band of dense fibrous connective tissue that joins bone to bone at a joint. The ligaments provide joint stability. Their primary function is to prevent movement that might damage a joint.

Hair Follicle

Tubelike depression in the skin in which a hair develops.

Compact Bone

Type of bone that contains osteons consisting of concentric layers of matrix and osteocytes in lacunae.

Elastic Cartilage

Type of cartilage composed of elastic fibers, allowing greater flexibility.

Dense Fibrous Connective Tissue

Type of connective tissue containing many collagen fibers packed together; found in tendons and ligaments, for example.

Cuboidal Epithelium

Type of epithelial tissue with cube-shaped cells.

Columnar Epithelium

Type of epithelial tissue with cylindrical cells.

Connective Tissue

Type of tissue that binds structures together, provides support and protection, fills spaces, stores fat, and forms blood cells; adipose tissue, cartilage, bone, and blood are types of connective tissue.

Matrix

Unstructured semifluid substance that fills the space between cells in connective tissues or inside organelles. It includes ground substance and fibers. It gives the tissue its density. When a connective tissue has a high concentration of cells or fibers, it has a proportionally-less-dense matrix. The organic portion, or protein fibers, found in connective tissues are either collagen, elastic, or reticular fibers.

Reticular Protein Fiber

Very thin collagen fibers in the matrix of loose fibrous connective tissue, highly branched and forming delicate supporting networks.

Immune System

White blood cells and lymphatic organs that protect the body against foreign organisms and substances and also cancerous cells.

Collagen Protein Fiber

White fiber in the matrix of connective tissue; gives flexibility and strength. Is a type of protein fiber found abundantly throughout our body. It provides strength and cushioning to many different areas of the body, including the skin. More specifically, collagen is found in our various types of connective tissue such as cartilage, tendons, bones, teeth and ligaments. Unbranched, strong but flexible

Protein Fibers

Wool and silk. Elastic Fibers, Reticular Fiber and Collagen Fibers

Elastic Protein Fiber

Yellow fiber in the matrix of loose fibrous connective tissue, providing flexibility. Not as strong as collagen but is more elastic. Branched and stretchable. Able to stretch and recoil.

Stimuli

___ are any changes in an organisms environment that causes a response.

Efferent Pathways

carry nerve impulses away from the central nervous system to effectors (muscles, glands). The feeling of heat would travel through an afferent pathway to the central nervous system. It would then interact with the effector and travel down the efferent pathway, eventually making the person remove their hand from the scorching heat.

Afferent Pathways

carry nerve impulses into the central nervous system. For instance, if you felt scorching heat on your hand, the message would travel through afferent pathways to your central nervous system.

Menisci of knees

is a thickened crescent-shaped cartilage pad between the two joints formed by the femur (the thigh bone) and the tibia (the shin bone). The meniscus acts as a smooth surface for the joint to move on.

Pubic symphysis

the slightly movable inter-pubic joint of the pelvis, consisting of two pubic bones separated by a disk of fibrocartilage and connected by two ligaments. Also called symphysis pubis. The mid-line cartilage.