Biology 221 Exam 1

Define biodiversity and the different types of extinction.

Biodiversity is the variety or number of different species in a given area.There are three different types of extinction: local, global and a mass extinction. A mass extinction occurs when there is a sharp increase in the rate of extinction. There have been five previous mass extinction events and we are currently in the Sixth Mass Extinction events. Note that mass extinctions occur over an extended geological time period. The sixth mass extinction has most likely been occurring for the past 20,000 or so years.

Be able to describe IN DETAIL the process of science using the information presented in your text, notes and the two readings that were assigned.

By my understanding of "The Process of Science" Is there is not a set step by step instructions. Scientists change directions in their experiment often and re-analyze. An experiment can be revisited at any point. The experiment might even take of in a completely new direction after testing or feedback. Experiments start my exploring and discovering; randomly alternating and skipping around: inspiration, questions, observations, data, ideas and exploration of literature. All of these can start the process and recur at any time. Creating a hypothesis, expected results/ observations and the getting actual observations leads to: opposing and revising, supporting, surprising and inspiring a new discovery. From there you can start to see benefits and outcomes or getting community analysis and feedback. Growing new theories, new unanswered questions or reviews. Growing knowledge, technology and fixing everyday issues.

List and briefly describe the structural levels (hierarchy) of biological organization.

Cellular level: molecules/compounds, organelles, cells1. The lowest level is composed of molecules. These molecules are combined to make up the structures that compose cells. 2. Molecules make up Organelles (sub-cellular structures; not included in the diagram below). 3. The organelles, cytoplasm, and other structures make up cells. Cells are either prokaryotic (no membrane-bound organelles, circular DNA etc.) or eukaryotic (membrane-bound organelles, linear DNA). Organismal level: unicellular organism or multicellular (tissue, organ, organ system,organism1. In multicellular organisms, cells are organized into tissues (groups of similar cells with a common function or functions). 2. Tissues are organized into organs composed of two or more tissue types and that have a common function or common functions. 3. Organs with common function(s) make up organ systems (e.g., the respiratory system). An organism contains all of the different organ systems that work together for the functioning of that individual. Population level: population & community(multiple populations)1. A population is made up of members of the same species living in a given area. 2. A community is made up of the members of the different species that occur in a given area. Ecosystem level:An ecosystem is made up the members of the different species (e.g., the biotic component) as well as the abiotic (non-living) factors that influence them. Biosphere level-The biosphere is the total habitable area of the Earth.

Define Biology? What is the definition of Biology

the study of life. Life - is a collection of characteristics that distinguish living organisms from dead ones or non-living material. Biology is a point of convergence for the information and tools from all other natural sciences.

Briefly describe factors that influence climate.

*Sunlight intensity that varies with latitude with the most direct sunlight at the equator. Seasonality also plays are role insunlight availability especially in areas away from the Equator. *Water that is necessary for life. Air circulation affects precipitation. Bodies of water are located in different regions with some areas having more water availability than others. *Circulation of Ocean surface water affects weather and climate. *Soil quality varies with region as well. In general plants grow best in loamy soils, but there are some plants that are adapted to sandy soils, soils with different pH, and other factors.

Describe the Competitive Exclusion Principle, Gause's experiment.

-Competitive Exclusion Principle,states that two species with very similar requirements cannot coexist, one will out-compete the other. -Two species cannot occupy the same niche, the superior competitor will drive the inferior competitor to extinction OR niche partitioning will occur.-Gause's laboratory experiment demonstrated the process of competitive exclusion because he was able to isolate the two species and their common limiting resource (food) in the laboratory. Niches Within a community, each species has a unique living arrangement called its niche.

Describe physiological, morphological, and behavioral adaptations for short term changes To Environments.

-Individuals can make physiological adjustments to changes like temperature and altitude. -Morphological changes can occur seasonally. In northern temperate zones, mammals often grow thicker coats in order to stay warm -Behavioral responses are also common. For example, many reptiles, move to different areas during the day: when it is cool, they may bask in the sun, but as the day progresses and temperature increases, they may move to more shaded areas to avoid high temperatures.

Describe cycling in predator-prey relationships. Do predator-prey relationships impact species richness?

-Predator-prey cycles are based on a feeding relationship between two species: if the prey species rapidly multiplies, the number of predators increases -- until the predators eventually eat so many prey that the prey population dwindles again. Soon afterwards, predator numbers likewise decrease due to starvation.-Predators can increase diversity in communities by preying on competitive dominant species or by reducing consumer pressure on foundation species.

Describe the research done at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest (covered in your text).

-The research showed info about the cycling of nutrients in forest ecosystems. -As the studies at Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest have demonstrated, forest clearing will dramatically alter watershed hydrology (increased water loss and sediment loss), nutrient cycling (with elevated nutrient loss), microclimate, and species composition for years or decades.

Define dispersion and be able to describe the three types and what those patterns implyabout the species

1. Clumped (the most common) where the members of the population aggregate in patches. This decreases the probability that a given individual will be taken as prey. It also makes finding mates easier. Social species are most often found in clumps. 2. Uniform where they are evenly spaced. This may be due to territoriality which involves site tenacity, and defense of the territory. 3. Random or unpredictable spacing where the position of an individual is independent of the other members of the population.

List and describe the levels at which Ecology may be studied.

1. Individual ecology includes various sub disciplines of biology (e.g.,physiology) dealing with the organism and its natural history. 2. Population (a group consisting of individuals of the same species living in a given area) ecology deals with the factors that affect the population. 3. Community (the different populations of the different species living in a given area) ecology is related to the interactions of the different species that make up the community. 4. Ecosystem (the biotic and abiotic factors in a given area) ecology is the study of the living organisms and the biogeochemical cycles and energy flow that affect them.

6. Describe IN DETAIL the core concepts of biology.

1.Life is subject to chemical and physical laws-Cellular structures are held by chemical adhesives and chemical reactions happen in living organisms that follow the laws of chemistry, the laws of physics also apply to biology. 2.Structure determines function.- At all levels of organization, the proper structure is necessary for proper function.3.Living systems transform energy and matter-The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another. The sun and photosynthesis is a good example. 4.Living organisms depend on information transactions.-For example, nerves and neurotransmitters carry information to and from the Central Nervous System. All life on Earth makes proteins from information in genes using the same Genetic Code 5.Evolution explains the unity and diversity of life.- Diversity of life through evolution is seen as many animals in different conditions adapting to their environments and circumstances leading to biodiversity. Natural selection has a play in biodiversity because when resources are too low or too high it causes different populations of predators to grow or other organisms to no longer need to be eaten as a resource so they overpopulate. Each species has a set of key systems and characteristics giving credibility to their descendants and single common ancestors.

What is a life table and what are its functions?

A life table contains data on a given cohort that can provide various data about the number of offspring produced at different ages, the probability of death at different ages etc.

Describe the global decline of amphibians in detail.

A mass extinction occurs when there is a sharp increase in the rate of extinction. There have been five previous mass extinction events and we are currently in the Sixth Mass Extinction events. Note that mass extinctions occur over an extended geological time period. The sixth mass extinction has most likely been occurring for the past 20,000 or so years. Which brings the question on our ability to preserve global biological diversity. Amphibians have moist skin that allows chemicals to entire their bodies fast. Therefore,When a amphibian keels over, its a good way to tell humans to get away. The amphibian decline could refer to a global environmental change.

Define: autotrophs, heterotrophs, herbivores, carnivores, producers, primary consumers,secondary consumers, tertiary consumers, detritovores, and decomposers.

Autotrophs-Autotrophs are able to take energy from sunlight (photosynthetic autotrophs orchemical reactions (chemosynthetic autotrophs) and transfer it into chemical potential energy (chemical-bond energy) in organic compounds.Primary producers - they make their own food which creates energy for them to grow, reproduceAnd survive. Like plants for an example. Heterotrophs-must consume autotrophs because they cannot use light energy or energy from chemical reactions to make their foodHerbivores- are primary consumers they eat plants Carnivores-an animal that feeds on flesh and are secondary consumers. Tertiary consumers- they eat secondary consumers (large predators) Detriovers - detritivores are consumers that feed on already dead organic matter Decomposers- consumers that are a subtype of detritivores that live on and break up organic matter

Describe the seven conditions of living organisms in the notes.

Cellular organization- All living organisms consist of one or more cells that are the basic units of lifeOrdered complexity- Each organism possesses a highly ordered structure even if they may seem simplistic (like prokaryotic cells or single-celled eukaryotic organisms). Sensitivity-All organisms respond to internal and external or environmental stimuli. Growth, development, & reproduction-DNA that is passed from parents to offspring directs the pattern of growth and development. Unicellular organisms reproduce by replicating their contents and then dividing. Many multicellular organisms reproduce both asexually and sexually. Energy utilization- All living organisms obtain and then transform energy into a usable form (ATP). This energy is used to perform work at the cellular level and for multicellular organisms at the cellular level. Homeostasis-Living organisms maintain a relatively constant internal environment. Evolutionary adaptation-Living organisms adapt to their environments through random processes (e.g., genetic drift), gene flow, natural selection, sexual selection etc.

Know how to properly write a scientific name. Why are scientific names more accurate than common names?

Crotalus horridus(underline) Crotalus horridus(italic) After first use and within a sentence (not the first word):C. HorridusA scientific name is the same in any language and provides a unique name for an organism such that two people can be sure that they are referring to the same organism.

Describe how Darwin used his observations and other knowledge to draft histheory of evolution by natural selection.

Darwin defined evolution as "descent with modifications". Species change over time giving rise to new species and share common ancestors. He proposed that for evolution there is natural selection because resources are limited in nature, organisms with heritable traits that favor survival and reproduction will tend to leave more offspring that their peers, causing the traits to increase in frequency over generations. It causes pop's to become adapted to their environment over time.

Define demography

Demography is the study of the vital statistics of populations and the changes in those statistics over time.

.Briefly describe density dependent and density independent factors of population control

Density-Dependent: Factors are those limiting effect becomes more intense as the pop density increases. Ex: Competition, Territorial, diseases, predation. Density-Independent:Factors occur independently of the density of the pop. Ex:Natural Disasters, Extremes of climates

Define dispersal and explain what is meant by a species' range.

Dispersal is the movement of organisms away from areas of high population density or the area of origin. The ranges (areas where species occur) are expanded by dispersal. Some species disperse more easily than others. In addition, ranges can also undergo contraction or even change as climate changes.

Describe how living organisms end up where they do

Dispersal or inability to disperse to an area, Other natural factors include: habitat selection, interspecific competition, the influence of keystone predators, predator-prey interactions, and abiotic factors. Or Human facilitated movements.

Be able to diagram and describe energy flow through a food chain. Include the names of the trophic or feeding levels, the names of the processes, and how this relates to the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics.

Energy can not be created nor destroyed but transferred. Therefor some of the suns energygoes into plants(photosynthesise) called the first trophic level producers, then the plant Releases some heat and second trophic level (primary consumers) herbivores eat the plants, Release heat and waste. Then the third trophic level (secondary consumers) carnivores eat Eat the producers and let off some heat and waste. Carnivores get eaten by fourth trophicLevel (tertiary consumers) top carnivores releasing heat and waste. Waste and dead organic matter is consumed By decomposers or detritivores , releasing heat and waste which can Be used as compost for plants. The release of heat is applied to the second law of thermodynamics because there is an energy transfer.

How does eating meat relate to energy transfer?

Energy initially comes from sunlight that is captured by a plant and then transferred to an animal. Animals convert the chemical potential energy in the sugars(from plants) into chemical potential energy in ATP by cellular respiration. Some of that energy can be transferred to the next Carnivore.

Define energy. Describe the First and Second Law of Thermodynamics.

Energy is defined as the ability to do work or transfer heat. "The first law of thermodynamics also known as the law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be changed from one form to another." "The Second Law of Thermodynamics States that during energy transfers, some of it is converted to heat energy or entropy (disorder) increases.

.Explain exponential population growth IN DETAIL

Exponential Growth: maximum population growth rate (no limitations). Equation dN/dt = riNd = the change in ___N = the number of individuals in a population t =timer= the intrinsic rate of natural increase or growth rate without limitations. The rate of population growth is calculated as r = (b-d) + (i-e). b=birth i=Immigration d=deaths e=emigration Species that experience periods of exponential growth are called r-selected species. They tend to: 1. Reproduce at a young age 2. Produce many small young 3. Offer little parental care Graphed has a J curve and over a long period of time it is unsustainable

Distinguish these two terms: hypothesis and theory.

Hypothesis-is an assumption made before any research has been done. It is formed so that it can be tested to see if it might be true. Theory- is a principle formed to explain the things already shown in data but has yet to be proven as a fact.

Describe the testing of the predictions of the theory of evolution by natural selection (from your text book).

In chapter 21.1 it talks about modern research verifying Darwin's selection hypothesis. About 40 years ago research by Peter and Rosemary Grant of Princeton university began. The Grants tested for a genetic basis to beak size variation by measuring the relationship of parent beak size to offspring beak size, examining many broods over several years. In the end proving Darwin's hypothesis true

Explain logistic population growth IN DETAIL (everything from the notes)

Logistic growth takes into account the factors that regulate population growth and the concept of a carrying capacity (K) or the population size at which stabilization occurs. Equation: dn/dt=riN(K-N /K) where K = carrying capacity, see above for other variables Species that show a stabilization of N are called K-selected. They tend to: 1. Reproduce later in life 2. Produce fewer, larger, and more developed offspring. 3. Provide a great deal of parental care Graphed= theoretical curve is the red line showing a smooth leveling off around K, but that the reality is that populations tend to oscillate around the K. Also note that the curve is sigmoid or S shaped Realism. For most populations, this is more realistic.

Describe the antipredator defenses from the notes

Many animals are protected against predators -Species can have things like thorns, chemical toxins or taste bad, bright colors, physical Barriers, etc..

What is matter? What are the three states of matter? Is matter created? Destroyed? Is it transferred one-way or does it cycle through an ecosystem?

Matter is defined as anything that takes up space and has mass. Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid, or gas. Matter is made up of atoms that are the smallest units of elements that retain the properties of the elements. Like energy, matter is not created or destroyed. It is cycled through the ecosystem in biogeochemical cycling.

Define niche. Describe fundamental and realized niches. Then list the primary components of the niche.

Niche-the role an organism plays in a community Fundamental Niche- the entire set of conditions under which an animal (population, species)Can survive and reproduce itself.Realized niche- is the set of conditions actually used by given animal(pop,species), after interactions with other species (predation and especially competition) have been taken into Account.

Describe the biogeochemical cycle that you were assigned.

Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical process in these steps:Nitrogen fixation-the chemical processes by which atmospheric nitrogen is assimilated into organic compounds, especially by certain microorganisms Nitrification-the oxidation (as by bacteria) of ammonium salts to nitrites and the further oxidation of nitrites to nitrates.Assimilation-he photosynthesis in autotrophs and the digestive process in heterotrophs.Ammonification-the primary process that converts reduced organic nitrogen (R-NH2) to reduced inorganic nitrogen (NH4+) through the action of microorganisms.Denitrification-the microbial process of reducing nitrate and nitrite to gaseous forms of nitrogen, principally nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitrogen (N2).

Briefly summarize top down and bottom up a "food chain".

Organisms in food chains are grouped into categories called trophic levels. Roughly speaking, these levels are divided into producers (first trophic level), consumers (second, third, and fourth trophic levels), and decomposers.

Define Ecology, abiotic and biotic.

Overall, Ecology is the study of interactions between different organisms and their environments. Abiotic factors are the non-living factors whereas biotic factors include the living organisms. Both are included in ecological systems.

Describe physiological and morphological adaptations of different ecosystems.

Physiological adaptation is an internal body process to regulate and maintain homeostasis for an organism to survive in the environment in which it exists, examples include;CAM mechanism, C3 plants, releasing antifreeze proteins to avoid freezing in cold environments Morphological adaption is a structural change which gives an organism a greater chance of survival in Its habitats, examples being; fox's living in the desert will have larger ears allowing heat to be radiated from the body, plants with little to no cuticles preventing water loss in hot areas

Explain Human population growth IN DETAIL

Pop growth is the increase in the number of humans on earth. For human history our pop size was relatively stable. But with innovation and industrialization, energy, food, water and medical care became more available and reliable Google more of history

Define the intermediate disturbance hypothesis.

Prediction of the highest diversity will occur at levels of moderate disturbance. Measuring species diversity, abundance, and species diversity of bacteria on the human body in relation to disturbance by washing.

In regard to energy transfer what do primary consumers do and how do they do it? What consumers do and how do they do it?

Primary producers convert sunlight energy into chemical potential energy in sugars by photosynthesis, then the primary producers themselves and the primary consumers (herbivores) convert the chemical potential energy in the sugars into chemical potential energy in ATP by cellular respiration. The same thing continues through the food chain. At each trophic level some of the energy is lost as heat and some is transfer into ATP. Only about10% gets transferred to the next trophic level ATP-A substance present in all living cells that provides energy for many metabolic processes and is involved in making RNA.

Define science, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, the process of science

Science-The basic purpose of science is to increase knowledge about the natural world through observations, and deductive and inductive reasoning.Inductive Reasoning-Conversely, inductive reasoning involves the use of specific observations in order to come up with general ideas. Deductive Reasoning-Deductive reasoning involves the use of general principles in order to predict something specific (see figure 1.2). The process of science-careful observation, record keeping, logical and mathematical reasoning, experimentation, and submitting conclusions to the scrutiny of others.

Contrast iteroparous and semelparous.

Semelparity- a single, highly fecund bout of reproduction. Die after the frist reproduction. Monocarpy is synonym to semelparity. Produce many small offspring. lifespan is usually short lived. Annual plants, certain perennials, certain invertebrate species including many spiders and salmon. Iteroparity- repeated bouts of reproduction thought out the lifetime, polycarpy is a synonym for iteroparity and only has a few large offspring. usually live long. All mammals including human, most reptiles and fish and birds.

Define age structure and sex ratio. Know the different shapes of age structure diagrams.

Sex ratio is important in that the number of births is usually more closely related to the number of females rather than the number of males. This is due to the disproportionate energy put into offspring by females of many species.

Define symbiosis and the types from the notes.

Symbiosis occurs when members of different species live in contact with each other. Typically to the advantage of both.1. mutualism or +/+ (both species benefit; figure 55.16),2. commensalism or +/0 (one species benefits, and the other is not impacted)3. predation or parasitism or +/- (where one species benefits and the other is harmed).

What is niche partitioning? How does it occur and why is it important?

The process by which natural selection drives competing species into different patterns of resource use or different niches. occurs when species differ in their competitive abilities based on varying environmental conditions.As an example of niche partitioning, several a nole lizards in the Caribbean islands share common diets—mainly insects. They avoid competition by occupying different physical locations.

Describe the section on Tropical regions and diversity pp. 1283-1284.

Theories on how the tropical regions are so species rich and diverse: First, that they have existed over long time(uninterrupted periods of evolutionary time. Second theory is that these regions receive more solar energy, coupled to a year-round growing season creating an overall more tropical population of plants. Third, that reduced seasonality might encourage specialization, with niches subdivided to partition resources and so avoid Competition and more intense predators reduces competition, permitting greater niche overlap and promoting greater species richness.

.Briefly describe the testing of the hypothesis related species richness to ecosystem Stability that has been tested at the University of Minnesota's Cedar Creek Natural History Area.

They monitored small rectangular plots of land with more diverse species over a duration of years. They found the more species rich plots were less impacted by the drought conditions than those plots that had fewer species. The plots that were more species rich were also more stable over time. In addition, when researchers added invaders to plots with different numbers of species,the plots with more species were more resistant to invasion by these "newcomers". Nitrogen uptake and increases in biomass were also found to be directly related to the number of species in experimental plots.

Describe in detail at the level covered in the notes and any readings from the text mentioned in those notes Human Impacts on the Biosphere: Pollution and Resource Depletion.

This is a big item and there will be multiple questions related to it.This one is definitely something you want to refer to the notes(notes 3 page 5+notes 4)This was also covered in class- so we should probably ask for a photo of each paper if can.

What are viruses? Are they living or not? Explain your answer using information from the link in the notes

Viruses are microscopic infectious agents that contain genetic material, either DNA or RNA, and must invade a host in order to multiply.Considered non-living by many scientists because they do not display all of the conditions of life. However, they do adapt and evolve. In fact, new evidence suggests that they may be living organisms. They share unique properties with cells (and thus were living) and eventually evolved as separate entities.Viruses were likely "more cellular in nature and existed in the form of primitive cells," explains Nasir.

What are keystone predators and how do they impact their ecosystems?

Without keystone predators often the ecosystem will dramatically different or cease to exist Altogether. Keystone species have low functional redundancy. This means that if the species were to disappear from the ecosystem, no other species would be able to fill its ecological niche.