Biology
ribosome
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 peroxisome
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mRNAs [or messenger RNA; or messenger ribonucleic acid; or m ribonucleic acid; prompt on RNA or ribonucleic acid]
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macrophages
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macula lutea
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macular degeneration
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major histocompatibility complex
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medulla oblongata
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medulla oblongata [prompt on partial answer]
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microtubules (accept "tubulin" until "polymer")
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mitochondria or mitochondrion
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mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid (prompt on deoxyribonucleic acid, mitochondria or mitochondrion)
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muscular dystrophy
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neurons [or nerve cells; or neurones; prompt on soma before read; prompt on axon before “somaâ€; prompt on dendrite until “hillockâ€]
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operon
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operons
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opiates or opioids (grudingly accept narcotics)
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optic nerve or cranial nerve II
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organ of Corti
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polyploidy
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pons Varolii
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porifera [accept sponges until mentioned]
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porphyrins
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potassium ion channels
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predator
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prions (accept proteinaceous infectious particles on early buzz)
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prions [or protineacous infectious particles]
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proline
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promoters
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prophase I (prompt on prophase; prompt on meiosis until "second")
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prophase [accept "prometaphase" until "plant cells;" do not accept "prophase I" or "prophase II"]
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prophase [do not accept "prophase I" or "prophase II"]
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prostate gland
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protoplasm
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psoriasis
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restriction enzymes [or restriction endonucleases]
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restriction fragment length polymorphisms
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retention sequence [or retention motif; or retrieval sequence; or retrieval motif]
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retina (don't prompt on eye at any point)
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reverse transcriptases (accept RNA directed DNA polymerases before the last sentence)
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ribosomes
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ribosomes (accept 50S ribosomal subunits or large ribosomal subunits until "strands")
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rotifera or rotifers
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rubisco or ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase
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sarcomeres
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serotonin [or 5-hydroxytryptamine; or 5-HT before mentioned]
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sickle-cell anemia (or disease)
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sigma (s) factor
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sinoatrial node or SA node
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smooth muscles (accept visceral muscles)
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vagus nerve (prompt on tenth cranial nerve on an early buzz)
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vasopressin or ADH or antidiuretic hormone
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vermiform appendix
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 microtubules
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 mitochondria [or mitochondrion]
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 mollusca [or molluscs]
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 ribozymes [prompt on RNA before mentioned]
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 the spleen
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Parkinson's disease
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Parthenogenesis
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Paul Ehrlich
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Penicillin
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Phenylketonuria (accept PKU before it is read)
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Polymerase Chain Reaction or PCR
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Porifera (prompt on early "sponges")
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Porifera [accept sponges before the end]
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The Hardy-Weinberg Rule
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Theodor Schwann
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Trans
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Transfer RNA (prompt on RNA)
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Trofim Lysenko
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Tryptophan
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angiogenesis (prompt on vasculogenesis before "tumor growth")
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dysentery
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enzymes
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epidermis
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influenza viruses [or flu viruses; prompt on viruses]
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kwashiorkor
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mimicry
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mitochondrion or mitochondria
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the Calvin cycle
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mitosis (accept nuclear division before mention in the question)
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monocotyledons or class Liliopsida
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mycorrhizae
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myoglobin
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myosins
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natural killer or NK cells
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neurofibromatosis (accept NF before the end)
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neutrophils (prompt on granulocytes before "turn pink"; do not accept macrophages)
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plant cell wall
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plasmids
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scrotum
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sodium-potassium pump [accept any equivalents with Na+ for sodium and K+ for potassium; prompt on partial name or Na+/K+-ATPase or NAKA]
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sodium-potassium pump or sodium-potassium ATPase (accept Na/K abbreviation)
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somatostatin
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somatostatin or somatotropin release-inhibiting hormone
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the Tasmanian Devil
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the Wallace line
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the carpals
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the lytic cycle
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transfer RNA or tRNA or transfer Ribonucleic adic
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vertebral column or spinal column
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vitamin B1 or thiamine
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xylem
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yellow fever
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zinc finger domains
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 Cretaceous period
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 Gram stain
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Founder Effect
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Fragile X Syndrome
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G Proteins
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G proteins [accept early GTPase switch proteins]
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Gabriel Fallopius or Gabriello Fallopio or Fallopia
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Galen
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Gastrin
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Golgi Apparatus/Body/Whatever
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Golgi apparatus or complex or body
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Norwalk viruses or norovirus
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Okazaki fragments
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cyclic AMP or cAMP or cyclic 3'-5' adenosine monophosphate
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cyclic AMP or cAMP or cyclic adenosine monophosphate
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cyclic AMP or cyclic adenosine monophosphate or c-AMP
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femur or thighbone
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fitness (accept word forms; prompt on w)
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flagellum [or flagella]
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flow cytometry [or FCM; or Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorting; or FACSTM - FACS is the name of the trademarked technique, which is a specific kind of flow cytometry, so it's easier to just accept rather than "anti-prompt"]
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fluid mosaic model
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fluid-mosaic model
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fragile-X syndrome
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gamma-amino butyric acid
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lysozyme [accept hen egg lysozyme early]
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malaria
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meiosis [do not accept “mitosisâ€; accept gametogenesis before “gamete;†prompt on oogenesis or spermatogenesis until read]
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membrane potential (accept [trans]-membrane potential difference or variations thereof)
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metastasis
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methionine
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mitochondria
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niacin (accept early nicotinic acid or vitamin B3)
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niacin (or nicotinic acid or vitamin B3)
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nitric oxide (do not accept nitrous oxide, which is N2O)
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nodes of Ranvier [or Ranvier's nodes]
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nuclear envelope (accept nuclear membrane, perinuclear envelope, nucleolemma, or karyotheca; nuclear lamina and nucleus are not acceptable at any point)
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nucleus
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obesity [accept word forms; prompt on overweight; prompt on anything implying being heavier or fatter than one should be]
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olfactory nerve (accept early buzz of cranial nerve I)
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Alzheimer's disease or dementia
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Andreas Vesalius
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dopamine or hydroxytyromine
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duodenum
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Archaea or Archaebacteria
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Armadillo
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Arthropoda (or arthropods)
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Aspirin [accept acetylsalicylic acid before it's read]
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B cells
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B12 (prompt on "extrinsic factor") (accept early buzz of cobalamin)
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BMPs [or bone morphogenetic proteins; or osteogenic proteins; or OPs]
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Barr body
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Chromosomes
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Cnidaria [prompt on "Coelenterata" before that is read]
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Cnidaria or Coelenterata
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Cnidaria or coelenterata (SEAL-ent-er-at-a)
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Cnidarians
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Corey-Pauling rules
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Cowper's glands or bulbourethral glands
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Melanins
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Meselson-Stahl experiment
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Michaelis-Menten
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Michaelis-Menten equation
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Michaelis-Menten hypothesis
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Muller's ratchet (accept just Muller's after "ratchet")
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Mullerian mimicry
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NK lymphocytes or cells or natural killer cells
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National Institutes of Health
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Nematoda or nematodes or Nemata (prompt on roundworms)
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PCR [or Polymerase Chain Reaction]
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diphtheria
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Krebs' cycle [accept: Citric acid cycle or Tri Carboxylic Acid cycle until "citrate" is mentioned]
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dopamine
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Krebs-Henseleit urea cycle (accept Kreb-Henseleit urea cycle before it's mentioned; accept ornithine cycle)
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Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome
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Liver
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Lyme Disease
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Lyme disease
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Lysosomes
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Malaria
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Marcello Malphigi
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Marcello Malpighi
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Marfan syndrome
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Marfan's Syndrome
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Influenza virus (Accept more specific answers, eg "Spanish flu", "Avian flu" until "reassort" and "Orthomyxoviridae" until mention)
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Interferons
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Johannes Purkinje
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Kallikak family
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ACTH or adrenocorticotropic hormone or adrenocorticotropin
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ADH [or AVP or argipressin or antidiuretic hormone; accept Arginine vasopressin before "vasopressin"]
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ATP (or adenosine triphosphate)
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ATP [or adenosine triphosphate]
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ATP or adenosine triphosphate
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ATP synthase [or adenosine tri-phosphate synthase]
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Addison's Disease (accept chronic adrenal insufficiency before adrenal, and hypocortisolism before cortisol)
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African Sleeping Sickness (accept trypanosomiasis before mention of trypanosome)
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A catecholamine, it is more selectively metabolized by the monoamine oxidase MOA-B than seratonin or norepinephrine, although it is a metabolic precursor to the latter. For ten points, name this neurotransmitter synthesized from tyrosine and believed to play a role in schizophrenia, whose deficiency is a cause of Parkinson's disease.
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A fecalith may obstruct the opening of this organ, leading to edema, bacterial multiplication, and tissue necrosis. A narrow muscular tube closed at one end and attached to the cecum (see-kum) at the other, its muscular walls usually expel contents into the intestines. The biggest danger comes from peritonitis which can arise after the eventual bursting of, for ten points, what vestigial organ?
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A good example of an alpha-helix protein is this fibrous, structural protein arranged in parallel sheets held together by hydrogen bonding. Cysteine accounts for as much as 24% of the weight but its weight still remains overwhelmingly dependent on water and hydration. For ten points, name this protein that makes up the majority of finger nails, and hair.
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A site of countercurrent multiplier systems, diuretics such as furosemide and bumetanide act here. Ending at the macula densa, it is divided into two thin and two thick portions. The descending arm is very permeable to water, but not permeable to salts, while the ascending limb is not permeable to water, but is permeable to salts and later actively reabsorbs them. Entering into the medulla of the kidney, FTP, name this circular part of the nephron named after its discoverer.
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A thin plate of this material called the epiphyseal plate persists at the ends of growing bones during human development. It is interspersed with chondrocytes, which receive nutrition by diffusion through a surrounding gel. It comes in three main types, with the hyaline type the most widespread, but the best known may be the yellow, or elastic, type, which composes the epiglottis and the external ear. FTP, what is this flexible connective tissue of the body?
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A type of marasmus, this condition can be effectively treated by the consumption of dried skim milk. It is common to children weaned on a diet consisting chiefly of cereal grains and starchy foods; and its most common symptoms include potbelly, anemia and edema, and depigmentation of the skin. Another symptom is the reddish-orange coloration of hair, which led in part to this affliction's connotation of "red boy" in one dialect. FTP, identify this disease of severe protein malnutrition that takes its name, meaning "deposed child," from the Niger-Congo dialect of Ghana where it is most predominant.
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A variation of this process in prokaryotes includes the enzymes lactonohyrolase and NADP+ oxoreductase and is named for Entner and Duodoroff. The rapid acceleration of this process by M2-PK in cancer cells is known as the Warburg effect, while one product of this pathway is moved into a downstream process via the malate-aspartate shuttle. One enzyme is this pathway is regulated by both a liver promoter and a neuroendocrine promoter that control the transcription of two different isoforms, while another one is inhibited allosterically by alanine and ATP, and is responsible for transforming phosphenolpyruate to pyruvate, which is the final molecule of this pathway. Divided into an "investment" and "payoff" phase, this process creates a net total of 2ATP. FTP, name this pathway that contains pyruvate kinase, glucokinase, and phosphofructokinase-1, and is responsible for splitting a glucose molecule.
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Agenesis of this structure leads to formation of Probst Bundles. According to a formula developed by Jancke and Steinmetz, the cross-sectional area of this structure is proportional to the two-thirds power of the volume of a larger structure containing it. This structure is divided into the rostrum, genu, body, isthmus, and splenium. Current controversy exists over the contention that this structure is larger in females than in males, which if true might explain the superior development of verbal abilities in females. "Split-Brain" patients have had it surgically severed, in order to treat epilepsy by preventing the spread of seizures across the brain. For 10 points, name this wide, flat bundle of nerves which connects the hemispheres of the brain.
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Also called the morse, it is the sole surviving member of family Odobenidae. Formerly found as far south as Massachusetts, hunting in the last century has greatly reduced its population. The Pacific variety is the world's largest pinniped, and all types live in noisy, sociable groups of 100 or more. FTP, name this 12-foot sea mammal, easily recognized by its long ivory tusks.
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Among the parts of the body named for this scientist are corpuscles of the spleen, tufts in the kidney, and the deep layer of the epidermis. Personal pyhsician to Pope Innocent XII, he studied the metamorphosis of the silkworm, described the structure of the brain, spinal cord, and taste buds, and used his studies of frogs to describe the capillary circulation of the lungs. FTP, who was this 17th century Italian whose use of the microscope has led him to be called the father of microscopic anatomy?
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An S31N mutation on the gene encoding their M2 proton pump makes these entities resistant to drugs such as rimantadine and amantadine. Certain proteins on their surfaces allow them to bind to sialic acid residues and facilitate their entry into host cells, those being their hemagglutinin domains. Belonging to the family orthomyxoviridae, their virulence is inhibited by zanamivir and oseltamivir, and these infectious agents are identified by the Hx Ny nomenclature, such as the H5N1 that spread from birds. For 10 points, identify these viruses responsible for pandemics such as the “Hong Kong,†“Spanishâ€, and recent “Swine†variants.
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An autosomal dominant genetic disease, it is caused by a defect in FBN-1, a fibrillin extracellular glycoprotein. Manifestations of this disease include bilateral dislocation of the lens and increased axial length of the globe leading to retinal detachment, mitral valve prolapse, and cystic medionecrosis leading to aortic aneurysm and rupture. However, its best known symptoms are associated with ligaments, leading to laxity of joint, kyphosis, scoliosis, and long tapering fingers and toes. FTP, name this genetic disease, whose most striking manifestation, excessively tall stature, was demonstrated by Abraham Lincoln.
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An important feature of this class of proteins is that members contain several lysine residues at the N terminus. The positive R group may be neutralized by its namesake acetyltransferase, or HATs, so that it might interact with the larger negatively charged molecule to which it is bound. The five varieties of this protein are H1 or H5, H2A, H2B, and H4, with H1/H5 involved in higher-order structures. Involved in the conformational shape of DNA, FTP, identify these structural proteins interspersed within chromosomes.
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Argyll-Robertson Pupils, though very rarely seen in Diabetes patients, is often associated with the tertiary form of this disease. Other signs include Charcot's Joints and Clutton's Joints, and a primary sore at the site of initial exposure called a chancre. Easily detectable via the Wasserman test, it is caused by the bacteria treponema pallidum. FTP, name this common sexually-transmitted disease.
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At a reaction center, it can take the form of either P680 or P700, and the wavelength difference of 20 nanometers depends on which proteins surround it. Molecules not at reactions centers are called antenna molecules, and are not usually found in the bacterio- type or the E type. In solution, it gives off a red-orange glow when excited by ultraviolet light. It contains a phytol side chain attached to a porphyrin head that contains magnesium. FTP, name this molecule with a characteristic green color that is crucial to photosynthesis.
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Autoantibodies attack the alpha-3 chains of one type of this protein in Goodpasture's Syndrome. Substitution of serine for cysteine at position 1564 of the alpha-5 chain of that type of this protein leads to a severe form of Alport Syndrome. Along with laminins, type IV of this protein forms a two-dimensional mesh in the basal lamina. This protein primarily consists of a triple helix of Gly-X-Y repeats, where X and Y are typically proline and hydroxyproline. Type I of this protein is secreted by chondrocytes and osteoblasts, and is mineralized to form bone matrix. For 10 points, name this most abundant protein in the human body, whose high tensile strength makes it ideal in tendons and skin.
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Bacteria have circular genomes and don't need them. Identified in the 1970s, these structures are multiple copies of short DNA sequences. Found on chromosome ends, they become shorter due to chemical instability and replication errors as cells divide. For ten points, name these cellular structures which hold important clues for research into cancer and aging.
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Belgian biochemist Christian de Duve identified them in 1955 with the aid of an electron microscope. Originating as buds on the trans-Golgi network, they have an acidic interior which can destroy other worn out organelles and cellular invaders. For 10 points, name these organelles which take in extracellular molecules by fusing with endosomes.
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Brodsky and Berman determined this chemical's structure, which includes a sheath of stabilizing ordered water molecules. Due its dearth of cysteine residues, cross-linking of occurs near the N- and C-termini between lysine and histidine residues with the aid of lysyl oxidase. Ascorbate is dietarily necessary because it is needed by the enzyme prolyl hydroxylase, which forms one of this molecule's prevalent residues. Consisting of over thirty distinct chains assembled into at least nineteen different varieties, the most common residue sequence is glycine-proline-hydroxyproline. FTP, name this triple-helical protein, the most abundant in vertebrates, that provides tensile strength in tissues like tendon, teeth, and bone.
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Caused by an enterovirus with three serotypes, it's typically transmitted through contact with infected saliva or feces. Most infections are asymptomatic, but in some the virus inflames the anterior horn cells of the spinal cord, causing muscle pain and paralysis. For ten points, name this disease, occurring mainly in children, among whose famous victims was Franklin Delano Roosevelt.
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Characteristics of this phylum include bundles of longitudinal muscles under the epidermal layer, but the absence of circular muscles. Along with a stiff cuticle, this limits the types of movement, so that they seem to thrash about in a random manner. Having no cilia and a pseudocoelomate body cavity, parasitic species include Onchocerca, the cause of "river blindness." Containing members like Ancylostoma and Filaria, FTP, name this phylum that includes pinworms, whipworms, and intestinal roundworms.
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Chickens can develop this condition if infected with Marek's disease. A study of this disease focused on the protein Milano ApoA-I, which differs from the regular ApoA-I by a substitution of arginine for cystenine at position 173. Niacin and a class of drugs known as statins are used to treat this condition. Rupturing of the lumen wall in it is known as stenosis, and macrophages make up the atheromatous plaque, which is one of the causes of this disease. Usually a precursor to heart attacks or strokes, FTP, identify this disease, a type of arteriosclerosis also known as "hardening of the arteries".
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Composed largely of tyrosine and other amino acids, phenylalanine is substituted for serine on these compounds' e-loci. Members of this class of compounds are highly irregular polymers produced in the form of granules which may be bound to protein material. FTP name this type of substance present in small amounts in the sclera of the eyes, which is most important for giving soil, feathers, hair, and skin their pigmentation.
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Composed of a median lobe and two lateral lobes, this organ's main product is a fluid composed of a mixture of acid phosphatase, citric acid, and fibrolysin. A conglomerate of 30 to 50 tubular or saclike glands surrounded by interstitial tissue, it is a chestnut-shaped organ directly beneath the bladder and surrounding the urethra which adds secretions to the sperm. FTP, what is this male organ known to become enlarged in the elderly?
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Differentiated from its closest relative by its slightly smaller size and lighter color, it typically grows to about 20 inches, and is stout-bodied with black and pink blotches of color. Most of its teeth possess two grooves that conduct its venom, a nerve poison stored in the lower jaw. Known scientifically as * Heloderma suspectum, it and the Mexican beaded lizard are the only known poisonous lizards. Found in the American southwest, FTP, what is this lizard named for a local river basin?
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Extant as G monomers, they require a critical concentration before forming long double-helix F polymers for function. Along with ankyrin and spectrin, this protein stabilizes red blood cell membranes, while bundles of these proteins are required for formation of filopodia and microvilli, as well as for intracellular transport. Present in thin filaments along with tropomyosin and troponin, FTP, name this protein, polymers of which interact with myosin during muscular contraction.
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First described as a disease in the late 1930s, it is the most common genetic disease amongst people of European ancestry, with approximately one in twenty-five carrying one normal gene and one causing it. In its most common form, a single amino acid mutation results in abnormal production of a protein responsible for transporting chloride ions across epithelial tissue, resulting in a buildup of a viscous mucus in the lungs. For ten points, name this autosomal recessive disorder.
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Garrett Hardin has suggested that the economic variety of this variable must be the basis for demographic accounting. The modified Dewar equation defines it for density-dependent variables, but does not give a method for calculating those variables independently. First used in describing range surveys of the Kaibab Plateau, its land-based version accesses the health of training areas. The Lotka-Volterra model extends it to generations between competing species. Biomass is the critical factor for this quantity in forests, which is why redwood groves are often given as the extreme example of natural selection by it. Appearing in the numerator and denominator of the Verhulst modified equation, it appears as K in simple logistic models for population growth. FTP, name this ecological quantity, the measure of a habitat's ability to support populations.
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His 1983 work, DNA Suites, assigned a particular tone to each nucleotide to create musical compositions based on genes. He is better known in scientific circles, however, for his work on the involvement of membranes in the origin of life. FTP, name this scientist who proved that macromolecules can become enclosed in liposomes under prebiotic conditions.
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Honey and sweeteners should not be fed to infants because they are more vulnerable to this entity, due to a lack of helpful bacteria in their intestines. Like tetanus, its causative agent is a member of the clostridium family; however, unlike tetanus it primarily affects the motor endplate. The toxin underlying this disease cleaves SNARE proteins, preventing acetylcholine release and inducing paralysis. For ten points name this disease which can be acquired both through food and Botox injections gone awry.
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Its two portions are connected by areolar tissue and those two lobes are enclosed in a fibrous capsule. It contains a few small areas of epithelial tissue known as Hassall's corpuscles but mostly consists of lymphatic tissue. It is located in the upper part of the mediastinum behind the sternum and extends into the upper part of the neck, though that size fluctuates based on one's age. FTP, name this gland that plays a chief role in the early development of the immune response and which shrinks after puberty.
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Members belonging to this family of hormones are diterpenes synthesized from acetyl CoA via the mevalonic acid pathway. Members sometimes contain a fifth ring that is a lactone. With over one hundred members to this group, it is the largest hormone grouping known and secondarily stimulates the production of amylase. Its primary functions are to stimulate flowering and stem elongation, though it has little effect on roots unlike auxins. Discovered by Kurosawa, FTP, identify this plant hormone family used in seed germination.
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More than 90% of the species in this class live in freshwater or terrestrial habitats, and 100% are hermaphroditic. This class probably spawned class Hirudinea (HEAR-ud-IN-ea), or leeches, but unlike class Polychaeta they have no parapodia, eyes, or anterior tentacles, and have relatively few bristles. FTP, name this subdivision of phylum Annelida that includes the common earthworm.
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Multinet growth only occurs in this structure's outer layers, but the microfibrils that primarily compose it are laid mostly transverse to its direction of growth. Its growth occurs via the loosening of the microfibrils, pectins, and other polymers, as regulated by expansins and caused by acidic conditions stimulated by auxin. The interconnection of these structures is the apoplast. It is very thin for parenchyma and growing cells, while its lignified secondary type makes up much of xylem tissue. There are usually primary and secondary instances of this structure. For 10 points, name this outer layer made mostly of cellulose, that provides structural support to a plant cell.
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Plants in this division usually have gametophytes that are always nutritionally independent of the sporophytes. They are especially common in moist places like the tropics and temperate regions, although some can withstand prolonged drought. They require free water to reproduce sexually, and few of them exceed two centimeters in length. About 10,000 species in number, they often contain slender projective roots called rhizoids to anchor them to their substrates. FTP, name this phylum of nonvascular plants, consisting of hornworts, liverworts, and mosses.
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Progressive loss of this type of cell is known as ataxia-telangiectasia, and a type of hypoplasia results when it fail to develop in utero. Basket and stellate cells provide GABAergic input to this type of cell. Its climbing fiber, which carries complex spikes, originates in the inferior olivary nucleus and runs orthogonally to as many as 200,000 parallel fibers, which carry simple spikes. This cell's synaptic region is characterized by its huge number of dendrites originating in its namesake layer of the cerebellum. FTP, identify this type of neuron that shares its name with a type of fiber found in the heart.
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Rautaharju and Bazett have both developed methods for calculating the QT interval, a diagnostic tool which derives from this graphic. It can detect calcium, magnesium, and other electrolyte disturbances and conduction abnormalities. It is composed of the T wave, which represents repolarization, and the P wave and QRS Complex which correspond to the contraction of the atria and ventricles, respectively. FTP, name this graphic that can also detect coronary artery blockages and cardiac arrhythmia by recording the electrical voltage of the heart.
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Rong and Golic used a linearized P-element construct and a heat-sensitive FLP system to adapt this process to Drosophila. A common version of this process uses gancyclovir or G418 as a counter-selection agent since the construct contains the HSV-tk gene, while positive selection is achieved using a neomycin resistance gene. This process usually begins with a transfection in an embryonic stem-cell line with the goal of creating an organism with an altered germline, and the "hit and run" strategy can perform replacement as well as this process. Capecchi, Evans, and Smithies won the 2007 Nobel Prize for developing this process, which also can be used to add transgenic constructs into a particular locus. For 10 points, name this process commonly used to remove specific genes using homologous recombination, often used to create a namesake type of mouse.
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She first gained attention by solving a problem that her Cornell advisor, Lowell Randolph, had been working on for most of his career. Randolph found the situation intolerable and she soon departed for the University of Missouri and then the Cold Spring Harbor Lab in New York, where she remained for the rest of her life. Despite James Watson's declaration that she was one of the three most important people in genetics, her work was not generally understood in its time, and she won her Nobel Prize more than 30 years after publishing her discovery. For 10 points--name this scientist whose carefully observations of coloration in maize kernels were explained by her discovery of genetic crossover.
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Since these organelles differ in size and chemical properties between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, anitbiotics such as tetracycline, streptomycin, and Zithromax can be used to target them and kill prokaryotic cells without hurting eukaryotic cells. Each is composed of two subunits with characteristic shape, and contains a total of four RNA molecules and about 70 different proteins. Manufactured in the nucleus and then released into the cytoplasm in order to function, name these organelles that are directly involved in protein synthesis and which, FTP, are found floating in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
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Stephen Jay Gould noted that the author retouched photos of them to strengthen the author's argument. The research on them took place at Training School at Vineland, New Jersey. One of them was called "Old Horror." The first one discussed is named Deborah and her progress through schooling is traced. The author declares that Martin, the patriarch, "is a powerful sermon against sowing wild oats." The author concludes, "The idiot is not our greatest problem." FTP, identify this family, all hereditary "morons," the subject of a famous study in eugenics by Henry Herbert Goddard.
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Syndromes that affect this organ include WAGR syndrome and Denys-Drash syndrome, both of which increase the chance of developing Wilm's tumor. Another disease of this organ is Minimal Change disease, which increases its permeability to serum albumin, causing edema. Diabetic neuropathy is a disease of this organ that affects the blood vessels of the glomerulus, a capillary tuft that filters fluids out of the blood and into Bowman's Capsule. Dialysis is able to perform the tasks of this organ and is administered to patients with failed or missing ones. For 10 points, name this organ that filters the blood and produces urine.
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The bacteriophage comes in contact with the cell, and inserts its viral DNA. This mixes with the native DNA of the host, and the host cell immediately begins transcribing and replicating the viral DNA for use in new viroids. Some 100 to 200 new viruses are created inside the infected cell, and, when filled to capacity, the cell explodes, releasing all the newly created viruses. FTP, name this cycle of viral reproduction and alternative to the lysogenic cycle.
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The Langhan's cells present in the outermost of its five layers * still have a somewhat unknown function. Those five layers include the lucidum, spinosum, granulosum, corneum, and the basalis, which is the deepest layer. As older cells reach the outermost layer, they die and transform into squames, or scales of keratin. FTP, name this region also home to the melanocytes as the outermost layer of the skin.
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The amanitoxin in poisonous mushrooms affects humans by inhibiting this enzyme, of which there are three eukaryotic varieties but only one prokaryotic. The prokaryotic version requires a sigma factor for activation and rho for release, while the eukaryotic one looks for certain DNA sequences called promoters to begin its work. FTP, name this enzyme, responsible for the transcription of mRNA.
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The best studied of the multipotent, or adult, form is found in the bone marrow. A fertilized egg is, in a sense, a totipotent form while pluripotent human ones were first isolated in 1998. These undifferentiated cells have the ability to reproduce and form multiple other types of cells. For ten points, what cell type are government researchers currently forbidden to extract from embryos?
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The cell wall of E. coli is low in peptidoglycan content and high in lipids. Like other bacteria, such as Y. pestis, when E. coli are heat-fixed, treated with a crystal-violet stain, and flushed with iodine and then alcohol, they will not remain purple. For ten points, these bacteria are negative on what microbiological test which was not named for a unit of measurement.
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The event for which he became famous took place at Groote Schuur Hospital in December, 1967. Philip Blaiberg, the second to undergo the procedure, survived for 594 days, though the first patient, Louis Washkansky, died of pneumonia after just 18 days. FTP, name the South African doctor who performed the first successful transplant of a human heart.
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The most common form of this disease is caused in part by choline deficiency, while the biliary type is caused by disruption of bile flow and is more common in women. Gastrointestinal bleeding is one of the most lethal complications of this disease, whose portal type is the most common, and is frequently found in middle-aged males with a history of chronic alcoholism. FTP, what is this degeneration of the tissue of the liver?
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The outer membrane is dotted with the protein porin, while ubiquinone and cytochrome oxidase complex line the folded inner membrane. The double membrane is explained by the endosymbiont hypothesis which also helps explain the presence of self-replicating DNA, similar to that found in bacteria. For ten points, name the cellular organelle responsible for aerobic respiration.
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The results of this laboratory technique are resolved using ultraviolet light or by placing the reaction medium in iodine vapor. Capillary action causes the volatile solvent to move up the glass, plastic, or paper plate after being placed in a solvent reservoir. When the solvent front reaches the other edge of the stationary phase, it is then removed and the mobile liquid phase is then analyzed. FTP, identify this form of chemical analysis used for separating organic compounds and usually abbreviated TLC.
one that comes in five types that are coupled to G proteins, and another class of ionotropic receptors. Those muscarinic receptors for this molecule are found at effector organs of the parasympathetic nervous system, while nicotinic receptors for it are found at all autonomic ganglia and at motor end plates of skeletal muscles. Broken down by a namesake esterase, FTP name this neurotransmitter synthesized from its two namesake constituents, one of which includes coenzyme A.
The serine protease that normally breaks down this compound can be permanently inactivated by di-isopropyl-phospho-fluoridate, or temporarily inhibited by neostigmine, which is used as a treatment for myasthenia gravis because it prolongs the actions of this compound. It binds with two distinct classes of receptors
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The two-dimensional model of its structure was proposed by Robert Holley. All types contain the sequence "p-Cp-Cp-A" at one end and "pG" at the other. There are believed to be 32 different types, with 20 associated enzymes known as aminoacyl synthetases. The cloverleaf model also posits the location of the D-loop, anticodon end, and the amino acid binding site in, for ten points, what type of RNA?
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The velamentous variety may cause fatal bleeding, while the previa condition may occur if implantation occurs in the incorrect area. It avoids rejection by lacking MHC antigens and secreting prostaglandin E2. Hofbauer cells, Langerhans cells, and syn-cytio-trophoblasts are the primary cells found here, while it is divided into the decidua basalis and the villous chorion. Rubella and CMV have the ability to cross its membrane as well as di-ethyl-stil-besterol and thalidomide, but more importantly, its membranes allow for exchange of oxygen and nutrients. Expelled in the afterbirth, FTP, name this vascular organ that connects the umbilicus of the fetus to the mother.
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Their stomata are found parallel to the long axis of the leaf while their stems have scattered vascular bundles surrounded by a large parenchyma and no pith. Flower segments are typically arranged in multiples of three and examples includes palms, bamboo, and orchids. For ten points, what plant class, the smaller of the two divisions of angiosperms, has only one seed leaf?
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These structures are defective in Kartagener's syndrome, leading to its symptom of situs inversus, as they are important in creating the left-right asymmetry of the internal organs during embryonic development. The outer segments of photoreceptor cells are variants of these structures. They are responsible for making water currents in clam siphons. Their two actions are power and return strokes, unlike the continuous motion of a similar structure. These structures are relatively common in the respiratory tract where they help move mucus. For 10 points, name these structures with a characteristic whipping or beating motion that are similar to flagella.
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They can be split up into two varieties: obligate ones are limited to the namesake pathway, while facultative ones are not and only rely on it during times of environmental stress. One can identify them by measuring the difference in the amount and the acidity of malic acid in their tissue between morning and evening. Many possess thick water-storing parenchyma cells in their stems or leaves, and are succulent, like the agave and the cactus. FTP, identify this type of plant that opens its stomata during the night time to take in CO2, unlike its C3 and C4 counterparts.
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This hormone is secreted by the posterior pituitary gland, and a deficiency in it leads to diabetes insipidus. Produced by cells in the hypothalamus, it does its work in the kidney, where it makes the walls of the renal tubules and collecting ducts more permeable to water so that more can be reabsorbed into the bloodstream. FTP, name this hormone, which controls the concentration of bodily fluids.
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This substance is the third most concentrated ingredient behind sodium and chloride in Hartmann's and Ringer's solutions, which can be administered through an IV. Stannous octoate catalysts are used to create a polymer of this chemical, which is produced by L. casei and L. brevis. MCTs are needed to pump this substance out of the cell. This substance moves to the liver where it is turned into glucose in the Cori cycle. Its namesake dehydrogenase can form it in the body from pyruvate, and it is used to create ATP when oxygen is unavailable to run the electron transport chain in a form of fermentation. For 10 points, name this substance traditionally viewed to cause acidosis during extreme exercise.
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Three classes of cells found in this system were classified by Dogiel, and this system extensively expresses the protein CART. The rotavirus NSP4 may activate this system, which is destroyed in Chagas' disease. The loss or underdevelopment of cells in this system leads to Hirschsprung's disease, and it is divided into Auerbach's plexus and Meissner's plexus. Inflammation of cells in this system is thought to cause the dysmotility associated with Irritable Bowel Syndrome, and it is primarily responsible for controlling secretion, adsorption, and peristalsis associated with digestion. For 10 points, name this largely independent part of the autonomic nervous system, the "brain in the gut."
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To make this molecule, bactoprenol chauffeurs N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid through a membrane. Lysozyme continually breaks its NAG-NAM connections, while penicillin binds to proteins that provide cross-links between strands, and thus causes the cell to lyse when it tries to reproduce. Gram negative bacteria use lipoprotein anchors to hold it to the outer membrane, while Gram positive bacteria are surrounded by about forty layers of this molecule, which is also known as murein. FTP, name this polymer that makes up prokaryotic cell walls.
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Two members of this family cause an infant disease also known as sixth disease, roseola. Another member of this family causes benign lymph node tumors in Castleman's disease, though it was first identified as the causative agent of blotchy lesions often found on the face of AIDS patients. Besides Kaposi's Sarcoma-associated, another member of its gamma subfamily causes Burkett's Lymphoma, while members of its alpha subfamily lie dormant in nerves between outbreaks. For 10 points, name this virus family including the Epstein-Barr virus and the chicken pox-causing Varicella zoster, whose types 1 and 2, or "simplex," cause cold sores and their namesake STD.
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Unlike the more primitive turbellarians, animals in this class lack cilia, and have a thick cuticle secreted by inner cells instead of a cellular epidermis. Like the Cestodans, they have suckers by which they attach themselves to a host, and much of their body is occupied by reproductive organs. Although one order is ectoparasitic, the endoparasitic varieties involved multiple hosts in their life cycle and pose major health risks to humans in areas with contaminated water. FTP, identify this class of flatworms whose most infamous member causes schistosomiasis.
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Water, salts, glucose, urea, uric acid, and creatine are filtered into this small sack which encloses the glomerulus. About one hundredth of the amount of fluid that enters it is transformed into urine; the rest is reabsorbed by the body. FTP, what is this nephronic structure, a part of the kidney?
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Whether this process is repressible or inducible is determined by whether the product or reactant is the regulatory metabolite. Its components include two attachment sites located between the regulatory gene and the structural gene. The promoter site on the gene is where polymerase is attached while repressor proteins are attached to the site next to it. FTP, name this theory proposed by Jacob and Monod, used to explain how cells control the production of enzymes.
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Zuckerkandl's tubercle is a pyramidal extension of this body component. Another key feature of this structure is Berry's ligament. Hurthle cells are associated with Hashimoto's disease, an autoimmune disorder affecting this structure. Its parafollicular cells produce calcitonin, and when it is overactive in producing a similarly named hormone, weight loss and rapid heartbeat can result. A more well-known disease associated with it is Graves' disease, and a lack of iodine can cause the enlargement of it. For 10 points, name this endocrine gland in the neck that is afflicted by goiters.
Barr bodies [accept early inactivated X chromosomes]
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Broca's area
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DNA polymerase (accept just polymerase after end of question)
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Epstein-Barr virus
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G proteins or guanine nucleotide binding protein
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GFP [or Green Fluorescent Protein]
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Giovanni Morgagni
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Golgi apparatus or Golgi bodies or Golgi sacs
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Santiago Ramón y Cajal
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Sonic hedgehog homolog [SHH]
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Thalidomide
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William Harvey
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abscisic acid
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abscisic acid [ab-SIS-sic]
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abscisic acid or ABA
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acetylcholine
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acetylcholine[or ACh]
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corpus callosum
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cortisol
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gibberellins [prompt on plant hormones before "stalk"]
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gibberellins or gibberellic acid
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gills
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ginkgo biloba or maidenhair tree
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glaucoma
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glial cells (or neuroglia)
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helicase
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helicase (accept RNA or DNA Helicase)
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helices (accept "alpha helices" up until "cold-resistant")
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hemoglobin
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hemophilia (prompt on Christmas disease or the royal disease)
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herpesviridae [or herpesviruses; prompt on "herpes"]
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histidine
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histones
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hyoideum or lingual bone
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hyraxes
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immune tolerance (accept immunotolerance, immune suppression, or immunosuppression at any point; accept disease tolerance on the plants clue, but peripheral tolerance or central tolerance are not correct)
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imprinting
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malaria [or Plasmodium before "caused by species"]
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marsupials
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melanin
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sarcoplasmic reticulum [or SR; prompt on endoplasmic reticulum or ER]Â
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scapula
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systemic lupus erythematosus [or SLE]
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systemic lupus erythrematosus or SLE
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tRNA or transfer RNA (prompt on "RNA")
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taxol or paclitaxel
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telomeres
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All members of this class force macrophages to form multinucleated giant cells with inclusion bodies. This group includes the most common viral cause of mental retardation and another member that can lead to Burkitt's lymphoma. The most renowned characteristic of these viruses is their ability to enter a latent state and reactivate, as demonstrated by the aforementioned cytalomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr, and Varicella-Zoster, which causes shingles. FTP, name this class of DNA viruses whose members can cause mono, chicken pox, and the namesake sexually transmitted disease.
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Almost unchanged since the Ordovician, these animals have a cartilaginous braincase and a large notochord. Distinguished from the Gnathostomata by their lack of jaws, the mouth contains a raspy tongue which draws blood after the animal's sucker attaches itself to a host. For ten points,identify this close relative of the hagfishes, one of the most primitive chordates.
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Along with Hemin, this compound is needed to grow hemophilius influenzae in culture. It commonly serves as a donor for ADP-ribosyltransferase enzymes. This compound has a single absorption peak at 259 nm and gains a peak at 340 meters upon being converted to a related molecule. The ratio between it and that related molecule is around 700, and one class of molecules activated by it are histone deacetylases important in calorie restriction known as sirtuins. Its levels control the rate of glycolytic enzymes and the Krebs cycle as a general indicator of redox states in the cell. Its reduced form is good for ten electrons in the electron transport chain. For 10 points, name this oxidized electron carrier, which is similar to NADP.
Kaposi's sarcoma
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auxins
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octopus or Octopoda
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penicillins
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Animals that show evidence of this include European bisons and northern elephant seals, and it is thought to have occurred in giant pandas about 43,000 years ago. Because of this effect, skin grafts from one cheetah to another do not create an immune response. A variant that occurs when a small group separates from the rest of a population, resulting in increased genetic drift and inbreeding, is called the founder effect. FTP, name this evolutionary event in which a significant percentage of the population or species is killed or unable to reproduce, resulting in a population reduction of 50% or more.
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Believing that previous works, such as that of Mondino De'Luzzi, were inaccurately based on dogs, pigs, and apes, he supported his claims in works like Observations of the Examinations of Fallopius. He died on the island of Zante after undertaking pilgrimage to Jerusalem forced by the Inquisition after charging him with body snatching. FTP, who was this author of the 1543 De Fabrica Humani Coporis, a Flemish dissector and refuter of Galen?
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Composed of a stack of five to eight disk-shaped membraned vesicles, it is structurally polarized with a 'cis' face near the transitional region of the RER and a 'trans' face near the plasma membrane. The principal director of cellular protein traffic is, for ten points, what organelle named for its 1898 discoverer, an Italian cytologist.
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Discovered in 1950 by Rene de Duve, mannose-6-phosphate tags molecules destined for it. It secretes a hydrogen ion ATPase in order to acidify its immediate environment. Born from endosomes in receptor-mediated endocytosis, Pompe and Gaucher diseases are caused by its malfunction and a deficiency of hexosaminidase-A produced by this organelle causes Tay-Sachs disease. Involved in apoptosis, its components are produced by the rough ER and packaged by the Golgi body. FTP, name this organelle that digests macromolecules and releases lytic enzymes upon a cell's death.
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Edward Simon showed that the results of this experiment held in HeLa cells. When reviewing the manuscript that ultimately published this experiment's results, John Cairns suggested a reason why its results with salmon sperm were different. Along with Vinograd, the experimenters had the year before perfected a way of using cesium chloride to establish a density gradient during centrifugation. This pulse-chase experiment disproved Max Delbrück's ideas about the “unwinding problem.†It grew E. coli in nitrogen-15 labeled media for several generations, then moved it to a nitrogen-14 medium and looked at the density of DNA in further generations. For 10 points, what doubly-eponymous experiment confirmed the semiconservative nature of DNA replication?
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Electron dense spheres known as Woronin bodies sometimes block pores in the dividing walls of these structures. They grow by extension of the terminal cell, which involves dissolution of the old and formation of a new wall, or septum. They can specialize to form reproductive structures known as conidiophores, or aggregate to locate resources beyond a zone of depletion, forming rhizomorphs. They can also invaginate plant cells in the form of haustoria, transferring organic carbon to the rest of the thallus. FTP name these tubular structures that form a network known as the mycelium in many fungi.
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Extant classes of this phylum of animals include Crinoidea and Stelleroidea. They have a simple nervous system consisting of nerve rings, a rudimentary circulatory system, and no brain, and movement is achieved using a rounded muscular sac called an ampulla. Unique in their posession of a water vascular system and tube feet, their spiny skin gives them their name, and many of them have pentaradial symmetry. FTP, name this phylum which includes sea cucumbers, sea urchins, and starfish.
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First isolated in 1896 from various proteins, in hemoglobin, this substance directly chelates with iron, serving to hold it in the plane of the heme group. Its ability to serve as both an acid and a base due to its imidazole ring is valuable to many biochemical reactions, and so it is often found in enzyme active sites. FTP, name this essential amino acid molecule which, when decarboxylated, forms histamine.
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Graminski and Lerner's melanophore screen is used to screen these proteins for drug targets, while other assays for that purpose include Arena pharmaceuticals' CART. Examples of them include Frizzled and Smoothened, and opsins have a structure similar to them. Axel and Buck determined that types of these proteins are responsible for sensing odorant molecules. These proteins interact with and activate Gustdusin and Transducin. Phosphorylation of these proteins leads to arrestin binding, which causes clathrin to drag them out of the cell membrane. Upon ligand binding, these proteins split their partners into the alpha and beta-gamma subunits, leading to increasing cAMP or IP3 levels. For 10 points, name these 7-pass transmembrane receptors, named their activation of G proteins.
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His name is given to the corpuscle that includes the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule in the nephron. His studies of plants led him to support Tournfort's denial of the sexuality of plants, but in his more successful studies of animals he was the first to identify the taste buds and observe red blood cells. FTP, identify this early microscopic anatomist who verified Harvey's thesis of blood circulation via his observation of capillaries, an Italian after whom the excretory tubule found in many insects is named.
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Immunity to kanamycin and chloramphenicol is a characteristic of this group of organisms, whose ribosomes are sensitive to diphtheria toxin. The membrane lipids of its members are ether-linked, and, like Gram-positive bacteria, members of it also lack peptidoglycan in their cell walls. Containing groups known as halophiles, thermoacidophiles, and methanogens, this group of organisms was recently given a name coined by George Fox and Carl Woese. FTP, name this domain of organisms distinct from Eubacteria, often considered the oldest form of life on Earth.
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In vitro, a deficiency of this compound causes reduced acetylcholine synthesis. In the body it requires lipoic acid for the reactions which it participates in, thus people with liver disease show a deficiency in this vitamin. It serves as a coenzyme for the decarboxylation of pyruvate and the oxidation of alpha keto-glutamic acid. The coenzyme for its namesake pyrophosphatase, FTP, identify this vitamin, a lack of which can cause beriberi.
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It is divided into three nuclear layers and four plexiform layers. The inner nuclear layer contains the bipolar and amacrine cells, which are key intermediates in signal transduction. The choroid layer oxygenates it and separates it from the sclera. It has a small yellow area called the macula, which is bounded by the ora serrata and surrounds the fovea. The ganglia are found at its surface, while its innermost layer contains rods and cones. FTP, name this structure which converts light into a nerve impulse, found along the back of the eye.
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It never undergoes recombination and the expression of genes linked with it gives rise to Sertoli, not follicle, cells. It contains only 35 million base pairs, making it the smallest human chromosome, and its presence explains the prevalence of muscular dystrophy and hemophilia in certain population segments. FTP, name this sex chromosome.
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It was discovered by Frederick Addicott in 1963. Mutant corn plants suffering from vivipary have seeds that germinate while still on the cob due to a lack of this substance. It is synthesized from the carotenoid viola-xanthin, and when guard cells are exposed to it they open calcium channels, which eventually results in the closing of the stoma. It promotes accumulation of storage proteins in seeds by allowing the expression of their genes, and it is usually found in high concentrations in dormant buds or seeds. The primary inhibitor of stem elongation, FTP name this plant hormone that is commonly referred to as the "stress hormone," which received its name when it was initially thought to help fruit fall from plants.
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It was discovered in 1935, though the receptor for this hormone has not yet been identified. The action of this hormone is hypothesized to develop through the action of dwarf1, a G protein, dwarf2 and sleepy1, both F-box proteins, and PICKLE, a chromatin remodeling factor, leading to degradation of the DELLA proteins. Generally containing a four-ringed diterpenoid structure and synthesized in the apical meristem, one of its important function is to mobilize sugar from starch by induction of amylase in the aleurone layer, thus inducing seed germination. Differing from auxin in that it never inhibits growth, FTP, name this plant hormone which promotes stem and leaf growth.
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Its early action is mediated by a gene near the centromere that codes for the production of a surface molecule known as H-Y antigen. The regions YAP and SRY are both still found on it, though it has shrunk over the years because it cannot use recombination to eliminate mutations. Unlike its analog, it does not experience dosage compensation, so there are none that can be nonfunctioning. Its most important portion might be the part responsible for TDF, or testis-determining factor. FTP, name this chromosome present in slightly less than half of all humans.
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Kearns-Sayre syndrome is caused by faults in this, and its normal direction of heritance, which is caused by ubiquitination of it, can be reversed in certain species of Musa. Analysis of this commonly consists of sequencing of HVR regions and was used to establish woolly mammoth descent as described in a December, 2005 Nature article. Its existence strongly supports the endosymbiotic hypothesis with respect to its namesake organelle. In humans, it contains 37 known genes, most coding for tRNA's. FTP, name this genetic material generally inherited only for the mother; a ribonucleic acid present in the "power plant" of cells.
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Laboratory techniques for detecting this process include trypan blue exclusion and the TUNEL assay. It can be induced by binding of the FAS ligand, which activates proteins like Bax and Bid of the Bcl-2 family, and another important inducer of it is SMAC. Its effector enzymes can be known as Ced's, reflecting the elucidation of this process in C. elegans, but in humans, release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria activates the caspases, which are powerful proteases. When damage is detected, p53 normally triggers this process, which includes chromatin condensation and blebbing before the cell is phagocytized. FTP name this process of programmed cell death.
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Like the Davson-Danielli model it replaced, it supposes that phospholipids form a bilayer with their hydrophilic ends pointing outwards. However, Singer and Nicholson further postulated that the lipids form a viscous two-dimensional solvent in which proteins are integrated more or less deeply. For ten points, what two-word phrase describes this model of a cell membrane?
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One type of organism found in this phylum forms a vesicle called a Woronin body around a HEX-1 core protein in response to cell damage, while George Beadle and Edward Tatum's experiments with another organism in this phylum allowed them to advance the "one gene, one enzyme" hypothesis. In addition to N. crassa, this phylum also contains the aflatoxin producing organism Aspergillus flavus. Sequences called ARS elements allow for high frequency transformation in the most famous organism belonging to this phylum, and that organism has mating types designated a and alpha, and is useful in making bread and wine. For 10 points, identify this largest fungal phylum whose name comes from a structure used to store spores of the fungi, which includes Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
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One type of these groups, which was theorized by Robert Paine, is defined by a large environmental impact for its body mass. One way in which new ones are generated was theorized by Ernst Mayr in a book about “Systematics†and the origin of these groups, which Dobzhansky defined genetically. They are created in peripatric, allopatric, and sympatric processes. In the Linnean scheme, this term makes up the second half of binomial nomenclature, after the genus. For 10 points, name this lowest-level biological taxon, the “Origin†of which was investigated by Darwin.
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Paleophragmodictya are among the oldest life forms in this phylum. Cladorhizadae are a carnivorous family in this phylum, while some of its members use the totipotent archeocytes to reproduce. Members of this phylum have excretory structures called oscula, and their silica-based skeletal structure is secreted by sclerocytes. Apopyles are pores which allow water to enter the atrium from the choanocyte chamber in the syconoid arrangement for them, and they are also found in asconoid and leuconoid types. All members of this phylum possess a gelatinous tissue called the mesohyl. For 10 points, identify this phylum of animals commonly referred to as sponges.
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Parkinson's disease is a disorder of the substantia nigra, which is located in this brain structure's basal ganglia. Another subregion of this structure is the limbic system, which contains the amygdala and the olfactory bulb. The two major physical sections of this structure are divided by the corpus callosum. The name “gray matter†comes from the color of this structure's outermost layer. This structure, which is divided into hemispheres, controls voluntary action along with the cerebellum. For 10 points, name this area of the brain that has a namesake “cortex.â€
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Photosynthetic bacteria build a version of this enzyme that contains only two chains, yet functions as well as the plant version that contains 8 large chains and 8 small chains. Three amino acids, including a modified form of lysine, surround its active site, which is arranged around a magnesium ion. With an activity of only 3 molecules per second, its inefficiency is compounded by its inability to distinguish between oxygen and carbon dioxide. Its function is to create organic carbon from carbon dioxide. FTP, name this key enzyme in the Calvin Cycle that is also the most abundant protein on earth.
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Pioneered in the 1930s by Walter Freeman and James Watts, the "precision method", used an instrument called a Killian periosteal elevator. A related version invented by Egas Moniz destroyed white matter while the trans-orbital or "icepick" method was less discriminating. For ten points, name this operation which according to a Dr. Rock song is not to be preferred over a "bottle in front of me".
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Rett syndrome has been associated with hypermodification of certain classes of these proteins. During spermatogenesis, they are replaced by the arginine-rich protamines, which are necessary for sperm head condensation. The largest of these, class 1, links octameric units of the other four classes. These proteins are rich in positively charged amino acids such as lysine, which is often modified in them by acetyl groups. Four types of these form part of a unit spanning 146 base pairs called a nucleosome, which is key for the supercoiling of DNA. For 10 points, name these proteins around which DNA wraps to form chromatin.
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Scientists have recently discovered that those with multiple sclerosis carry antibodies against this infectious agent, and that its T cell receptors appear to be remarkably conserved. Generally designated HHV-4, it infects B lymphocytes where it remains latent after infection. A member of the herpesviruses, it causes such conditions as oral hairy leukoplakia and nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Perhaps more famous for causing such diseases as Hodgkin's disease and Burkitt's lymphoma, FTP, identify this virus type named after its two English discoverers, best known for causing mononucleosis.
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Some of the parenchyma cells which help form this tissue are grouped together to form rays that radiate horizontally. Vessel elements do not occur in most conifers and are more highly specialized for transport, while the elongate tracheids have thick, hard, secondary cell walls which become interrupted with pits after their lengthwise growth has ceased. FTP, identify this complex of conducting and supporting tissue that conducts water and dissolved mineral nutrients in vascular plants.
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Species in this phylum with thin laminae are termed illoricate, and members of this phylum exhibit 9 different morphologies of trophi, small jaws that line the pharynx. Parthenogenesis and the ability to survive desiccation through cryptobiosis characterize class Bdelloidea [dell-OY-dia]. The namesake feature of these pseudocoelomates [soo-doh-SEE-lum-ates] is used for propulsion and for sending food past the trophi by generating a vortex of water. FTP, name this invertebrate phylum characterized by a corona of cilia whose beating led Leeuwenhoek to call them "wheel animalcules."
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Species responsible for mild forms of this ailment include vivax and knowlesi, the latter of which primarily affects macacas, while most serious forms of it are caused by the species falciparum. Extracts from Artemisia annua are used to combat this disease, whose pathogenesis involves merozoite spores infecting red blood cells. Its key vector is a member of genus Anopheles, and heterozygous alleles for sickle cell anemia confer a degree of resistance to this disease. Traditionally, the strongest treatment for it is a medicine derived from cinchona bark, quinine. For 10 points, identify this disease carried by mosquitoes and caused by Plasmodia that comes from Italian for “bad airâ€.
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Splenic sequestration results in most sufferers of this disease not having a working spleen by the time they reach puberty. Administration of hydroxyurea eases symptoms by somehow increasing the expression of a particular gamma chain rather than a beta chain, but complications still include so-called crises, which can result in extreme pain and necrosis. Carriers of this genetic disorder suffer no symptoms, but they are more resistant to malaria, making this disease far more common among those of African descent. Caused when a glutamate is replaced by valine in the beta chain of hemoglobin, FTP name this disorder that causes deformed red blood cells.
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Structural differences in the product of this class of molecules are induced by selenocysteine insertion or SECIS [SEE-sis] elements. A lariat structure is formed from components of this molecule as a result of the action of the spliceosome, which serves to remove inactive portions along its sequence. Splicing occurs after a 7-methylguanosine is added to this molecule's 5-prime end, and polyadenylation generates a poly-A-tail at its other end to prevent degradation outside the nucleus. For 10 points, identify this molecule formed during transcription, a type of RNA that carries information from the nucleus to the ribosome.
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Sufferers of this disease often develop clubbing in the extremities, and male patients are often infertile because of blockage or failed development of the vas deferens. Hypothesized to have a high prevalence due to conferring a heterozygote advantage against cholera and salmonella, the most common mutation causing this disease is the deletion of phenylalanine-508 in its namesake ABC transporter, which is coded on chromosome 7. Diagnosed by the sweat test, FTP, name this chloride channelopathy that causes a massive buildup of mucus in many epithelial tissues, most notably the lungs.
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Suggested to be evolutionarily advantageous for the fungus Podospora anserine, typical examples of these molecules in yeast contain a high number of glutamine and asparagine residues. These molecules have no known genetic material associated with them, and they are produced by a mutation to a gene that codes for a normal PrP protein. When this mutation occurs, it induces incorrect folding in the normal protein, resulting in accumulation and subsequent brain cell destruction. Transmissible by injection or ingestion of infected tissue, these objects are responsible for fatal familial insomnia, kuru, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. FTP, name these abnormal proteins discovered and named by Stanley B. Prusiner, a portmanteau for "proteinaceous infectious particle".
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Synthetic versions of these compounds, such as 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy acetic acid, were the active ingredient in Agent Orange. In nature, they stimulate the growth of adventitious roots, play a role in the abscission of leaves and fruits, and are the compounds which allow the plant to exhibit gravitropism and phototropism. FTP, name this class of hormones including indoleacetic acid that inhibits lateral growth and stimulates apical growth in most plants.
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The Sleeping Beauty system uses these to stably deliver genes or RNA interference to mammalian cells. The Shapiro intermediate is associated with the Class I type of them. Thought to be a driving factor behind the development of chromosomes and DNA methylation, gypsy elements are common examples in Drosophila, while in humans, Alu [ah-LOO] elements are the most common type. Two human varieties, LINES and SINES, differ in their length and their ability to code for proteins, such as reverse transcriptases. The first system of these items to be described was the Ac/Ds system, whose members use a "cut and paste" method to move around in the genome. FTP, name these genetic elements first discovered in maize by Barbara McClintock.
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The bones which support them are called cleithra, and the space between one and the rest of the head is called an isthmus. Mollusks have equivalent organs called ctenidia, and in more advanced creatures, they are covered by an operculum. Composed of thin capillary-bearing filaments, their chambers also contain "rakers" which direct solid particles into the esophagus. FTP, name this organs which take oxygen from the water, possessed by many aquatic animals.
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The dense fibrillar component of this organelle is thought to be the location of synthesis of rDNA, which later expands to form this structure. Transcriptional silencing of this rDNA leads to the production of pre-ribosomal RNAs, which are further modified by snRNAs to form mature ribosomal RNAs. These ribosomal RNAs are exported by the Cajal bodies to the cytoplasm to form mature ribosomes. FTP, name this site of synthesis for ribosomes, located inside the nucleus.
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The term for these regions was coined in 1936 by horticulturalist Cyril Dean Darlington, and research shows a surprising lack of conservation between organisms. Adjectives such as metacentric and acrocentric have been coined to identify its location. In karyotypes it appears as a narrow area, but its properties are diffused along the length of the chromosome. FTP, name this cytogenetic region where spindle fibers attach during cell division and which is named for its usually central location.
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Their cranial volume averaged one thousand cubic centimeters. With jutting brow ridges and receding foreheads, they were the first hominids to master fire and inhabit caves. Arising about 1.6 million years ago, it was also the first to leave the African savanna as evidenced by notable fossils from Indonesia and China. What hominid species, for 10 points, is thought to descend from Homo habilis and be an ancestor of Homo sapiens.
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Their free swimming larvae are trocophores that propulse themselves using a row of cilia that encircles the middle of their bodies. Important structures in adult members of this phylum include a rasping tongue-like organ called the radula and excretory organs called nephridia, which remove nitrogenous wastes through a characteristic cilia-lined funnel called the nephrostome, which makes this animal phylum the earliest to evolve an efficient excretory system. Other important structures include gills, the mantle, and the muscular foot. FTP, name this animal phylum, members of which include the bivalves, gastropods, and cephalopods, and examples of which include snails and clams.
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They contain 5 different kinds of positively-charged proteins rich in lysine and arginine residues and which are known as histones. Known as "dyads" when duplicated, these biological structures contain a kinetochore at the centromere. Also containing various transcription factors, they are primarily composed of a single molecule of DNA in eukaryotes. FTP, name these structures which include X and Y varieties.
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They contain large Sym plasmids that bear nod genes coding for factors that induce cortical cell division, and their gene expression is modified by uptake of flavonoids. Following the recognition and attachment steps mediated by the protein rhicadhesin, they multiply in infection threads. Effective strains produce large structures whose reddish color comes from the oxygen buffer leghemoglobin, which is partially encoded in the host plant. FTP name these gram-negative bacteria that form symbiotic relationships with legumes, producing nitrogen-fixing root nodules.
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This chemical is transported bound to SHBG like estradiol. A noted teratogen, it can be excessively produced when tumors are present in the Leydig cells. It stimulates the secretion of inhibin from Sertoli cells, acts as the feedback inhibitor for LH and GnRH secretion, and causes the embryonic Wolffian ducts to become seminiferous tubules. FTP, name this hormone produced in the testicles that prompts vocal deepening, growth of facial hair, and development of sex organs in males.
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This family, with Latin name Alcidae, is widespread in Arctic climes and includes guillemots, murres, and puffins. Primarily diving birds, since 1844, the largest member has been the razor-billed. What avian family, for ten points, formerly included the flightless garefowl or "great" variety, last seen near Newfoundland?
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This ion is present at the six position of a molecule that targets compounds for the lysosome. A third one of these ions is added to a central molecule by an enzyme that employs rotating beta subunits. Nauru's rich deposits of minerals containing this ion are used to produce fertilizers. These ions are found attached to a nucleoside in a molecule often called the “energy currency of the cell.†For 10 points, name this polyatomic ion with formula PO4-three-minus, three of which are found bonded to adenosine in ATP.
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This man wrote two disquisitions to his contemporary John Riolan, who attempted to refute his views on several occasions, and this man was backed in letters by Paul Marquard Schlegel. He examined the reproductive organs of male and female deer in a piece entitled "Of the manner, according to Aristotle, in which a perfect and fruitful egg is produced." In that work, Essays on the Generation of Animals, he uses the development of a hen's egg to refute the prevailing notion of "preformation." He studied under Hieronymus Fabricius at the University of Padua. For 10 points, name this man who formulated a theory of circulation of blood through the body, as the court physician to King Charles I.
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This process named for its postulator can be foiled by epistatic selection since synergistic fitness effects can cause an increase in the frequency of the best available genotype. An instance of the Hill-Robertson effect, it was first introduced in 1932's "Some Genetic Aspects of Sex." It is often observed in RNA virus lineages since many of these lack mechanisms for horizontal gene flow; as a major such mechanism is crossing over during sexual reproduction, the idea of this process is a common explanation for the existence of sex. FTP, name this process whereby pure asexual reproduction leads to irreversible accumulation of harmful mutations, a so-called "ratchet" named for a German-American geneticist.
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Two relatively uncommon ways to treat low levels of this hormone involve using demeclocyline or chloropropamide, although it's more common for patients to receive a similar 8-lysine hormone from pigs. The high level of the receptor for this hormone in the brains of male prairie voles compared to male meadow voles may explain why the former are monogamous. This nine amino acid chain, like oxytocin, is released into blood circulation through the posterior lobe and has a precursor synthesized in the hypothalamus. Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus arises when a certain organ doesn't respond to this hormone through its V2 receptors. For 10 points, name this hormone, which results in more concentrated urine as it causes the kidneys to conserve water.
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W. D. Hamilton of the London School of Economics first developed this theory, building on the earlier work of Wynne-Edwards. Hamilton noticed that male Hymenopterans develop from unfertilized eggs and only have one copy of each chromosome, which means that sisters share more genes with each other then they would share with their own daughters. It is also seen in burrow-dwelling squirrels, where certain altruistic females give alarm calls in response to predators. FTP, identify this theory in which individuals behave altruistically so that their relatives have a better chance of survival.
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When Dorothy Hodgkin predicted that the core of this substance consists of three carbons and a nitrogen atom, scientist John Cornforth said that if that were correct, he would "give up chemistry and grow mushrooms." The War Productions Board controlled it until March of 1945, after a more productive method of growing it in wood steeped with corn liquor had replaced growing it in jars. In 1939, Howard Foley and Ernst Chain isolated, FTP, what substance accidentally discovered in 1929 by Alexander Fleming?
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While it generally causes immunosuppression through expression of an IL-10 receptor antagonist, this virus can paradoxically cause autoimmune disease through polyclonal B cell expansion. A cause of oral hairy leukoplakia and nasopharyngeal carcinoma, this herpesvirus may be better known as a cause of Burkitt lymphoma. Primarily infecting B cells, its spread most commonly occurs via body fluids, especially saliva. FTP, name this virus, the cause of infectious mononucleosis.
asexual reproduction (accept asexuality, absence of sex, or other equivalents indicating that sex is not happening; clonal reproduction or equivalents involving clonality are acceptable until ''sharks'', at which point they become incorrect--parthenogenesis in sharks, and in many organisms, is automictic, involves meiosis, and is not clonal. Parthenogenesis is not acceptable at any point.)
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asthma
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atherosclerosis (prompt on "arteriosclerosis" before mentioned)
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auks
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bilirubin
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Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (accept CJD; also accept an answer that includes the word "variant" or "new"; prompt on Transmissable Spongiforum Encephalopathy before it is mentioned)
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Cystic Fibrosis
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Cystic Fibrosis or CF
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DNA [or deoxyribonucleic acid]
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DNA ligase
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gamma-aminobutyric acid or gamma-aminobutyrate or 4-aminobutyrate
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gastrula
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gastrula (accept gastrulation)
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gastrulation
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genetic drift [prompt on drift]
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gibberellins
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glial cells or glia or neuroglia
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glucagon
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gluconeogenesis
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meninges
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meninges [or meninx; accept arachnoid space until "Meckels"]
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meristem [accept apical meristem before "intercalary"]
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messenger RNA [or messenger ribonucleic acid; prompt on partial answer]
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 HIV [or human immunodeficiency virus]
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 NAD [or Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide; accept NADH]
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 Rotifera
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 abscisic acid [accept abscicin II; accept dormin before read]
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 apoptosis [accept programmed cell death before said]
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 coagulation [or thrombosis; or clotting before mentioned]
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 cyanobacteria [or cyanophyta; or blue-green algae early]
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 hemoglobin [accept Hb; or Hgb]
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leeches
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mitochondrion (or mitochondria)
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mitochondrion [or mitochondria]
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monoclonal antibodies (prompt on antibodies before "HAMA")
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MPSS and SAGE are two techniques for surveying a population of these entities. AU-rich elements can decrease their half-lives, and they are the target of nonsense-mediated decay. In bacteria, they can be polycistronic. RISCs that are already bound to one substrate can target these, causing them to be degraded. They contain untranslated regions, and precursor ones are modified to have a poly-A tail and a five prime cap. For 10 points, name these RNA molecules that are transcribed from DNA and carry the protein blueprint to the ribosome.
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Structurally described by Wani and Wall in 1971, its vinca alkaloids were at first thought to destabilize microtubules, but later work showed it uses other paths to disrupt mitosis. Scarcity led to searches for other sources and, in 1983, it was synthesized from baccatin III, derived from a European shrub. For ten points, name the anti-cancer compound first isolated from the bark of the Pacific yew.
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Structurally similar to another famous homo-polysacharride, though in this case the glucose is replaced by 2-deoxy-2acetamido-D-glucose, this subsatnce comprises nearly 50% of the dry weight in certain species of fungi. Its rapid production in certain crustacean populations has led to its applicability as a membrane for chromatography, but it remains best known for its protective function usually found underneath the initial epicutle layers of arthropod species. FTP identify this white, horny, protein derived substance often called animal cellulose.
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The genetic disease hydrops fetalis is characterized by formation of the Bart type of this molecule. Perutz proposed that it consists of two stable conformational states. Carbamates formed with its N-terminal amino acids can regulate binding by this molecule whose non-protein component requires the synthesis of delta-aminolevulinic acid in reticulocytes. Thalassemias result from decreased or absent synthesis of one its four chains, while one of its most common disease-causing mutations is a glutamate to valine mutation at position 6 of the beta chain. Regulated by levels of BPG and the Bohr effect, FTP identify this oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells that is mutated in sickle cell anemia patients.
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The genome sequencing of its isolate EDL933 was recently completed at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. The spontaneous growth of cells infected with bovine leukemia virus is inhibited by the B subunity of the Shiga toxin produced by this organism. The toxin is only produced by certain strains, such as O157:H7, a flagellated variety that may cause intestinal bleeding, kidney failure, and stroke in humans. The source of discovery for the lac and trp operons, FTP, name this bacterium frequently used in genetic research, once the bane to customers of Jack-in-the-Box.
oncogenes
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phenylketonuria or PKU or Folling's Disease
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pollen
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punctuated equilibrium
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pyruvate (DO NOT ACCEPT pyruvic acid)
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quinones
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red blood cells [or RBCs; or erythrocytes]
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red blood cells or corpuscles or erthyrocytes
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retina
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temporal lobe
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testosterone (or 17-hydroxy-10,13-dimethyl-1,2,6,7,8,9,11,12,14,15,16,17-dodecahydrocyclopenta[a]phenanthren-3-one; accept estradiol before it's mentioned; prompt on C19H28O2)
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tetanus or Clostridium tetani or trismus or lockjaw
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thalidomide
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the coronary arteries
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Crassulacean acid metabolism or CAM photosynthesis
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Cre
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CAM (or Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) Plants
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CAT or CT (or computerized axial tomography, etc. Also computerized may be replaced by computed) scanning
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CAT scan or CT scan or computerized axial tomography
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CD antigens [or cluster of differentiation antigens; accept CD4 or similar answers]
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Caenorhabditis elegans
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Calvin cycle (accept dark cycle or dark reactions before it is mentioned)
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Calvin-Benson Cycle [prompt on Dark Reactions or Carbon Reactions]
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Calvin-Benson cycle (prompt on dark reactions before the end)
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Camillo Golgi
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Carrying Capacity
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Chlamydia
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Cnidaria
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Alzheimer's Disease
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Amphibians
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Amylase [Accept "Diastase" before it's mentioned.]
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Antifungals [accept equivalents conveying the treatment of Fungi]
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Anton van Leeuwenhoek
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Ants (prompt on Hymenoptera)
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Barbara McClintock
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Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST)
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Botulism
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Bowman's capsule
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Bryophyta (accept bryophytes)
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Bryophyta [accept bryophytes]
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C4 cycle (prompt on "CAM")
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60% of the general population is classified as right-dominant for these, as the right one supplies both the PLA and the PDA. They exhibit exclusive diastolic dependence due to the compression effect, making them more susceptible to injury. If smooth muscle cells infiltrate the tunica intima of these structures, subsequent debris deposition and macrophage recruitment can lead to calcification and eventual occlusion. Some treatment options to reverse occlusion and prevent myocardial infarction are administration of thrombolytic agents, angioplasty and bypass surgery. FTP, name these arteries that supply heart muscle with blood.
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75% of this molecule is in an alpha-helical secondary structure, and it exhibits a single hydrophobic cleft which contains an important metal prosthetic group as well as a histidine R group above the plane of its central ring. The first protein ever viewed in three dimensions by X-ray crystallography, it is common in the slow-twitch muscle fibers and is released into the bloodstream when a muscle is damaged, and thus a test for it can confirm muscle injury. The changing affinity for water in this molecule's reduced iron atom governs the changing color of meat. FTP, name this molecule, particularly common in the dark red tissues of diving mammals, which stores oxygen within cells rather than moving it through the blood like its counterpart, hemoglobin.
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A 2005 article in Nature suggests an amended version of this, noting that if it were to hold as originally stated, molecules present would need to fall into a small range of interaction energies in order to be randomly distributed. It contrasts with the earlier Davson-Danielli model, and it is supported by freeze-fracture electron microscopy. Since flip-flopping is rare, it allows for distinctly different inner and outer halves, though embedded molecules are able to diffuse laterally, partially dependent on the amount of cholesterol present. FTP name this currently accepted model of the cell membrane, in which proteins and other molecules are embedded in a freely moving phospholipid bilayer.
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A 2010 study showed that G9a, which methylates one of these proteins, is downregulated after cocaine use. In 1990 the Grunstein lab at UCLA caused yeast mating efficiency to decrease by replacing a lysine at position 16 of one of these proteins with either arginine, glycine, or glutamine. That study showed that mutations in SIR3 could partially allow mutated forms of these proteins to repress the transcription of HML-alpha and HMR-alpha. The lysines on the tails of these proteins are reversibly acetylated by proteins such as GCN5. An octamer consisting of two each of the 2A, 2B, 3, and 4 members of this family of proteins forms the protein core of a nucleosome. For 10 points, name this family of proteins around which DNA is packed in chromatin.
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A Meckel's diverticulum is a small congenital bulge found on this organ, and Giardiasis is caused when the Giardia protozoan coats the inner lining of this organ. Cortisol can inhibit the loss of sodium in this organ, which is the most posterior organ controlled by the vagus nerve. One part of this organ contains lymphoid tissue known as Peyer's Patches. Another part of this organ contains Meissner's plexus and Brunner's glands and receives secretions from the liver and pancreas via the Sphincter of Oddi. Like the esophagus, this organ transports food via peristalsis. Containing the ileum, jejunum, and duodenum, for 10 points, name this organ between the stomach and the colon.
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A common effective target for antibodies produced for fighting this disease is MSP1. Pyrimethamine and sulfadoxine are used together to treat this disease, while another drug used to fight it is Artemisinin. Its causative agent has a dormant form called a hypnozoite. This disease can be categorized as uncomplicated or severe. It is caused by species called ovale, vivex, and falciparum. The organism behind it has schizont, sporozoite, and merozoite stages. This disease was historically treated by quinine. For 10 points, name this disease caused by protists in the genus Plasmodium which are spread by the Anopheles mosquito.
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A complex containing Cdc27 is the master regulator of this stage, whose notable molecular events include the degradation of geminin and the ubiquitin-mediated destruction of cyclin B. The action of separase is critical in this stage of mitosis because it breaks down cohesin, a protein that binds sister chromatids together. FTP, identify this stage of mitosis in which sister chromatids lined up on the metaphase plate begin to separate to opposite spindle poles and which is proceeded by metaphase and followed by telophase.
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A disruption in the production of alpha synuclein has recently been discovered as the cause of this disease. One type of it is common among the Chamorro people of the Mariana Islands, while another variety was frequently found among people who used heroin contaminated with the toxin MPTP. New methods of treatment include the destruction of the globus pallidus and the transplantation of fetal tissue. This is intended to repair the damaged neurons in the substantia nigra whose failure to transmit dopamine to the basal ganglia causes the symptoms. FTP, identify this disease that bears the name of the physician who described it in his Essay on the Shaking Palsy?
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A famous example of these objects, studied by Ellis Englesberg, uses a protein called C to bind to two sites at once, blocking access to the PBAP site. Like bacteriophages, they may use anti-termination. CAP bound to cAMP can activate another more famous example of them in the presence of inducers like IPTG or allolactose. These objects include both promoter sites and namesake stretches of DNA that bind repressors and activators. For 10 points, name these systems of gene regulation investigated by Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod, famous examples of which include ara, gal, trp, and lac.
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A hydroxyethyl derivative of this compound is a common intermediate in the synthesis of valine, leucine, and isoleucine. The transketolase activity of red blood cells is studied to measure the deficiency of this compound whose pyrophosphate form is a coenzyme used to decarboxylate pyruvate to form Acetyl CoA. In alcoholics its deficiency results in Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, while a more common deficiency of it originally resulted from a switch to polished rice. Sometimes called aneurin, it consists of a pyrimidine and a thiazole ring, and that structure was correctly described by Casimir Funk. For 10 points, identify this vitamin, whose deficiency causes beriberi.
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A malfunction in CFTR's uptake of sugar groups at this site is a primary mutation associated with cystic fibrosis. It recognizes and designates destination based on the presence of a hydrophobic signal sequence or signal recognition particle. Enclosing a sac known as the lumen, this structure was once known as the gastroplasm. It consists of two phospholipid bilayers and the presence of ribosomes differentiates its two types. FTP, name this transport network within the cytoplasm, divided into smooth and rough varieties.
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A model for its synthesis incorporates the tenets of catalytic cooperativity and rotational catalysis, which were formulated by Paul Boyer. This molecule binds to Walker A and Walker B motifs, and it can be synthesized via the binding change mechanism. During the formation of pyrimidines, it joins with ribose 5-phosphate to form PRPP. It is synthesized in the F0F1 complex, and it is catalyzed by dynein for use in flagella. It is produced under low-oxygen conditions by substrate-level phosphorylation, as in the last three reactions of glycolysis. FTP name this energy-carrying molecule produced by the electron-transport chain.
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A prolonged fast can activate a selective pathway in these structures that involves KFERQ proteins. I-cell disease results from a defect in the addition of the mannose-6-phosphate moiety used to target enzymes to them, and a deficiency of the enzyme glucocerebrosidase ("gloo-coh-ser-eh-BRO-sih-dase") in these organelles leads to Gaucher's ("go-SHAYZ") disease. Their membranes contain hydrogen ion pumps and chloride ion channel proteins that maintain an interior pH of about 4.8, ideal for their proteasomes and other hydrolytic enzymes. Autophagy occurs in, FTP, these organelles responsible for enzymatic digestion of cell components and ingested matter.
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A standard technique used to prepare these molecules involves oxidizing monohydric phenols with Fermy's salt and is called the Teuber reaction. One member of this group of molecules reacts with acetic anhydride in the presence of sulphuric acid to form 1,2,4-triacetoxybenzen in the Thiele acylation. Their "o" and "p" varieties can be synthesized by coupling a phenol to a diazonium salt and reducing the resulting azo compound with dithionite, and the hydro variety of this type of compound has formula C6H6O2 and is oxidized in the spray of bombardier beetles. Also including the naptha variety, which encomopasses the K vitamins, for ten points, identify these compounds distinguished by two carbonyl groups that are adjacent of separated by a vinylene group.
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A strain of this pathogen may be responsible for Von Economo syndrome, while immunization against it can cause a false positive reaction in tests for HTLV-2. Consisting of three classes, A, B, and C, only A and B are capable of causing human disease. Primarily infecting epithelial tissue, infection by this pathogen is mediated by binding of cellular membrane sialic acid by the pathogen's heme-agglutinin complex, while release of new pathogens is mediated by the NA glycoprotein. With a genome consisting of eight discrete single stranded RNA segments, reassortment of segments is in part responsible for formation of new strains of this pathogen such as Hswine/N1, H2/N2, and the recently discovered H5/N1 strain. Commonly carried by pigs and waterfowl, FTP, name this respiratory disease caused by an orthomyxovirus, the cause of pandemics nicknamed "chicken," "Asian," and "Spanish."
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ALP and the enzyme that oxidizes this substance are the most common markers for dysgerminoma. MCTs can transport molecules of it and a related oxidized substance across membranes. MELAS disease and tissue hypoxia can lead to increased levels of this substance in the blood, a namesake acidosis. In the liver, one molecule of NAD+ is reduced to oxidize its alpha-hydroxyl group, generating pyruvate and starting off gluconeogenesis. This compound is the result of the simplest alternative to cellular respiration. For 10 points, name this compound which is a byproduct of fermentation associated with a lack of oxygen in muscles, which also can be found in sour milk.
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Abnormal sensitivity to it is found in sufferers of Williams' syndrome. One major precursor of it is 7-dehydrocholesterol, which is converted to its most active form by two different hydroxylases in the liver and kidney. It functions in concert with parathyroid hormone to regulate plasma levels of phosphorus and a cation found in insoluble form in the body as hydroxyapatite. Osteomalacia and rickets result from a deficiency in, FTP, this vitamin important in regulating calcium levels that can be synthesized in the skin or taken in from foods such as fish oil and fortified milk.
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According to Crick, their existence presents a major challenge to the original "central dogma of molecular biology." Unlike the rest of their macromolecule class, they have two possible secondary structures, and the aberrant type has added beta pleated sheets. They seem to serve a normal function in the brain memory centers, but they are more renowned for inducing amyloidosis and astrogliosis. Researched extensively by 1997 Nobel Prize winner Stanley Prusiner, FTP, name these infectious protein particles which cause scrapie, Creutzfeld-Jacob Disease, and Mad-Cow Disease.
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Alfacon-1 is the most widely used of the synthetic types of these molecules, but, like many of them, it can disrupt serotonin uptake, causing a migraine. Nevertheless, non-natural varieties of them have been approved for treatment of Karposi's sarcoma and the B and C strains of hepatitis. Two new categories, tau and omega, have been added since their 1957 discovery by Isaacs and Lindenmann. Categorized as cytokines, they can be used to inhibit cell division and halt bacterial and parasitic function in addition to their primary purpose. FTP, identify these proteins named for their ability to intervene in viral replication.
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All types, M, N, and O, and subtypes of M exist together only in Cameroon and Gabon, which corresponds to the range of pan troglodytes troglodytes, in which a predecessor of it arose even before the species diverged 100,000 years ago. However, it wasn't until this century that urbanization and its effects made human-to-human transmission so widespread that its effects could be detected and documented for the first time in the death of a Bantu man in Kinshasa in 1959. FTP, name this retro-virus, a mutation of the Simian Immunodeficiency Virus, which is believed to cause AIDS.
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Along with the chordates and two minor phyla, this phylum's members are deuterostomes. Their nervous systems consists of central nerve rings, while its vascular system consists of a madreporite through which fluid enters, the stone canal, the ring canal, and the radial canals. Other salient features include ampullae which, upon contracting, extend out another feature, the tube feet. FTP, name this phylum whose members are radially symmetric and whose members include sand dollars, sea urchins, and starfish.
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Alpha interferon blocks introduction of this agent via the Miller-Hutt-Fletcher process by preventing cap formation through binding of gp350/220 to the C3dg receptor of the host. Detected by a positive response to the Paul-Bunnell heterophile antibody test, acycloguanosine briefly reduces its replication in oropharyngeal cells, though there is no vaccine for this virus which immortalizes marmoset cells and causes diseases like nasopharyngeal carcinoma. FTP, what is this virus designated HIV4, once believed to be the causative agent in chronic fatigue syndrome, the major cause of mononucleosis?
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Although better known for infecting a certain organ, the causative agent of this disease can infect other organs as well, as in Pott's disease and lupus vulgaris, while a telltale sign of initial infection is calcified scars called the Ghon complex. Often growing in areas of high ventilation-perfusion ratio, the causative agent is often phagocytized but not digested in lysosomes of naïve macrophages, leading to lysis and formation of large granulomas. It is often tested for in humans by the Mantoux skin test, which can show false positives if the weak BCG vaccine was used. Caused by a slow-growing mycobacterium, signs of this disease are fever, pallor, wasting, and a characteristic bloody cough. FTP, name this infectious disease of the lung, also known historically as consumption.
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An overriding one is found in the tetralogy of Fallot, and coarctation of it is common in females with Turner syndrome. Patients with Marfan syndrome may develop aneurysms in its sinuses of Valsalva or suffer from incompetence of it. The left recurrent laryngeal nerve hooks around its arch, next to the ligamentum arteriosum, before it descends with the azygos vein and thoracic duct, through an opening in the diaphragm and next to the inferior vena cava. Major branches of it include the brachiocephalic artery, the celiac artery, and the right and left coronary arteries. FTP identify this major artery in the human body, into which the left ventricle of the heart pumps blood.
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Aplasia of this organ may occur in Digeorge syndrome, while tumors originating in this organ often occur in patients with myasthenia gravis. Capillaries in this organ have a barrier which is impervious to macromolecules, and it is the only other organ other than the brain, testes, and placenta to have one. A pyramidal organ with two fused lobes, it is derived most of the time from the third pharyngeal pouch and is often the site of ectopic parathyroid tissue. Located above the heart, deep to the sternum, and in front of the trachea, FTP name this ductless gland in which T cells migrating from the bone marrow mature, which notably atrophies after puberty and which makes a yummy treat as "sweetbread."
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Artificial selection is required for the rare Vanilovian variety of this behavior, which can be seen in the gold-of-pleasure plant with respect to flax. Egg behavior in cuckoo wasps and signaling by predatory photus fireflies are examples of the aggressive variety of this phenomenon. Also exhibited by viceroy butterflies and the two-headed snake, for ten points, identify this biological phenomenon, best known in its Müllerian and Batesian varieties, in which one species benefits from a superficial resemblance to another.
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As this molecule diffuses between cells, it triggers the synthesis of cyclic GMP. Also used by leukocytes to kill bacteria and tumor cells, an overabundance results in shock. It showed that gases could be intercellular messengers when it was found to cause blood vessel dilation, a discovery that led to the 1998 Nobel Prize in physiology. For ten points, name this driving force behind Viagra, with chemical formula NO.
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Bai et al. covalently bonded PEI to a PMMA substrate in producing a microchannel-based device for performing this technique. Reagents used in this procedure often undergo a checkerboard titration, and some forms of it exploit the biotin/avidin system. The output of this procedure is typically read as percent of optical density, and the three main types are liquid phase, indirect, and sandwich. Though ß-galactosidase and alkaline phosphatase are sometimes used, horseradish peroxidase gives the fastest results due to its high turnover number. It involves a chromophore attached to a nonspecific antibody, which attaches to a specific antibody that is already bound to an antigen. For 10 points, name this alternative to radioimmunoassay for identifying and measuring the amount of proteins, often pathogens, in a fluid sample.
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Born in New York City and educated at NYU and Columbia, in 1934 he joined the faculty at Harvard, becoming a full professor of biology in 1948. He demonstrated the reaction to light of the substance retinal in the retinal rods, thus helping to explain the changes that take place in the eye during light and darkness. He showed that the lack of retinal, which is formed from vitamin A, brings on night blindness in a person whose diet is deficient in that vitamin. FTP, identify this American biochemist and Nobel laureate, who shared the 1967 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine with the Swedish neurophysiologist Ragnar Granit and the American biophysicist Haldan Keffer Hartline.
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Bucladesine is used as an analog of this compound, and theophylline inhibits the enzyme that breaks it down. In the temporal lobe, this compound activates HNC channels, and it leads to the activation of the RAPGEF3 protein. Cholera toxin increases the levels of this compound by ribosylating G-proteins, and in the lac operon, this compound binds to the Catabolite Activator Protein, which enhances RNA polymerase binding to the promoter. Another protein that binds to it contains two catalytic and two regulatory subunits, Protein Kinase A. Usually destroyed by phosphodiesterase and created by adenylate cyclase, FTP, name this second messenger, a cyclic nucleotide often created from ATP.
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By tying off the recurrent laryngeal nerve, this man demonstrated that the brain controls the voice. He noted seven pairs of cranial nerves and described the valves of the heart, showing that the arteries carry blood, not air. The Arab physician Hynayn ibn Ishaq later translated this man's works into Arabic. His services were retained by the high priest of Asia in Pergamum for his personal troop of gladiators. FTP, name this physician to Marcus Aurelius and Commodus.
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Carbonic anhydrase mediates its theta activity in hippocampal CA1 cells. One unusual site of this molecule's action is on adrenal chromaffin cells, where it may stimulate adrenaline release. Bicuculline and baclofen specifically act on two classes of its receptors. Binding of this molecule to its B receptors results in the opening of potassium channels; a similar effect results from activation of a chloride ion channel that can bind it or benzodiazepines at a different site, causing the cell's resting potential to become more negative. Synthesized from the decarboxylation of glutamate in the central nervous system, FTP identify this inhibitory neurotransmitter.
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Characterized by an accelerated proliferation of keratinocytes, it may trigger an associated form of arthritis. Possibly an immune system disorder, sufferers have red, scaly lesions produced when skin cells reproduce six times faster than normal. These lesions usually occur on the elbows, knees, and scalp. For ten points, name this skin disease somewhat similar to eczema.
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Cholera toxin irreversibly adds an ADP-ribosyl group to the alpha subunit of these, essentially causing permanent activation. The proteins that couple to them contain seven membrane spanning helical regions, with loops between the helices that extend into the cytosol and interact with them. Examples of such coupled receptors include rhodopsins and beta-adrenergic receptors. When activated, the alpha subunit separates and activates adenylyl cyclase, causing production of the second messenger cyclic AMP. FTP, what are these trimeric proteins important in signal transduction, named for their use of GDP and GTP as molecular regulators?
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Class III of this protein appears to aid in photo-adaptation in Drosophila, and class VI is found in the periticular necklace of sensory hair cells and is also the only of the 24 known classes directed towards the minus end of its support. Class V is involved in vesicle transport and has a longer neck region than class II, which has alpha-helical coiled coils in its dimerized tails, as well as essential and regulatory light chains. Binding and hydrolysis of ATP causes conformational changes to enact their main function. For 10 points, name these proteins that comprise the thick filaments of sarcomeres and provide the driving force for muscle contraction.
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Consisting of two characteristic components, a corrin ring system and a 5,6 dimethylbenzimidazole ribonucleotide, its two major metabolic roles are intramolecular rearrangements and methyl-group transfer reactions. It is not synthesized by any plants or animals, but by only a few microorganisms. A glycoprotein known as intrinsic factor is necessary for its absorption in humans, and a deficiency of it results in pernicious anemia. The most complex of all known vitamins, it was the last B vitamin to be isolated. FTP, name this vitamin also known as cobalamin.
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Cytotoxic T cells secrete of perforin from these structures and melanocytes secrete melanin from a modified form of them. In addition, their exocytosis provides the additional membrane needed to quickly seal wounds in the plasma membrane. I-cell disease is caused by a failure to phosphorylate all enzymes that are supposed to be transported to them. FTP, name these organelles that contain lipases, nucleases, proteases, and other digestive enzymes that break down complex molecules in the body.
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DNA bar coding has concluded that the most commonly marketed species of these organisms has been misidentified and is in fact verbena. Protease inhibitors derived from the saliva of these creatures are used in surgical reattachment of limbs. They are also used in preventing gangrene and restoring circulation to areas in which blood has pooled. Some types include the Algerian dragon and members of the genera Haementaria and Philaemon. For ten points, name these members of class Hirudinea that commonly feed on the blood of mammals, and were widely used to let out humans' bad blood.
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David Lack, who in 1937 was the first to do a modern study on them, popularized their collective name and made the important observation that no reproduction occurred between different species. They are currently divided into four genera, though it has been proposed to group them into the single genus Geospiza, which is currently reserved for the ground variety, while others include the vegetarian, mangrove, and warbler. Derived from the seeds they eat, the primary differences among them are the sizes and shapes of their beaks. FTP name this group of avians found primarily on the Galapagos Islands that was crucial to the development of the theory of evolution by their namesake.
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Developed by Godfrey Hounsfield, the first working version of the device to produce them was built in 1972. In the device to make them, a lead collimator focuses a fan-shaped x-ray beam which is then rotated, with the transmitted fan beam picked up by an arc of detectors. The measurements are then reconstructed into a tomograph providing a 2-dimensional X-ray picture revealing a slice of the body inside the device. FTP, what is this type of medical scan?
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Dimeric arrays in which this molecule exists in zinc-bonded and free-base forms are capable of long-distance energy migration and have been used in artificial olfactory receptors. Cationic manganese examples of these act as superoxide reductases. One piece of evidence for the RNA world hypothesis is that bacteria and plants, but not humans, use glutamyl-tRNA in the C-5 pathway for the synthesis of the committed precursor of this family of compounds; in humans, glycine reacts with succinyl-CoA to form alpha-amino-beta-ketoadipate, which is decarboxylated to form the committed precursor D-aminolevulinate. The addition of iron to one member of this family of compounds is catalyzed by ferrochelatase. Defects in an early step in their biosynthesis can result in X-linked sideroblastic anemia. For 10 points, name this family of chemicals with a metal-coordinating ring structure, examples of which include chlorophyll and heme.
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Diversifying both in late Silurian and early Cambrian periods, this taxon arose from the onychophorans, or walking worms. This phylum's members have open circulatory systems containing sinuses that comprise the hemocoel, which became the main body cavity and returns hemolymph to the heart via ostia. Marine gills and terrestrial tracheae lead air from pores in the cuticle into their bodies. They include the millipedes of Diplopoda and centipedes of Chilopoda and grow by molting a chitinous exoskeleton. FTP, name this protostomate phylum that is the largest of the animal kingdom and that contains barnacles, scorpions, crabs, trilobites, and insects.
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During this phase, Brachet's cleft becomes visible between the epiblast and the hypoblast. Epiboly arrests briefly and then continues after formation of the embryonic shield. Its primary characteristic is the archenteron, which eventually forms the cavity of the gut and is connected to the outside by the blastopore, which becomes either an animal's mouth or anus. The primary germ layers are also formed during this stage of development. FTP, identify this stage of embryonic development that follows the blastula.
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During this process, the main polymer takes the forms of 3-Phosphoglycerate, 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate, G3P, and ribulose bisphosphate. Its three sections are the carbon fixation reactions, the regeneration reactions, and the regeneration of RuBP reactions. The input is carbon dioxide, and the output is glucose, which is converted elsewhere to create the ATP needed for the plant. FTP, name this cycle of photosynthesis, commonly called the "Dark Reactions."
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Egg-laying in this organism is correlated with locomotion in a relationship apparently mediated by feedback from the HSN motorneurons to interneurons in the head. Its 302 neurons have been shown to form a small-world network, and fire no action potentials. In crowded environments it can enter the dauer larva form rather than the L3 form. The adult hermaphrodite has 959 somatic cells, all of which can be seen with a microscope. Brenner, Horvitz, and Sulston won the 2002 Nobel Prize in medicine for their studies of apoptosis in, FTP, this frequently studied nematode, the first multicellular organism to have its genome sequenced.
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Energy limitation is probably the most important determinate, but such factors as food, availability of shelter, and the amount of competition can also influence this. A sigmoid-shaped graph results when this factor is included in a model of growth. Such an equation is called a logistic growth equation. FTP, name this quantity symbolized by a capital K, the maximum stable population size of a species that an environment could support over a period of time.
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Everett and Anderson attempted to reorganize this genus based on variations in Domain I of the 23S rRNA gene, and it shares a family with the so-called "Z organism." Inhibition of golgin-84 processing has been shown to block maturation of the human-infective form of this pathogen by restricting the amount of lipids available to the bacterium. One species of this genus has been conclusively found in the endovascular region of diseased coronary arteries, but there is no link between disease and concentration of antibodies specific to it. Another species is named for an eye infection that can cause the eyelid to turn inward, inducing the eyelashes to scratch the cornea, leading to blindness. For 10 points, name this genus that contains the species pneumoniae and trachomatis, the latter of which is responsible for the most common sexually transmitted disease in the United States.
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Externally, this structure contains an irregular ridge known as the raphe, and its appearance is primarily determined by the actions of the dartos and cremaster muscles. The gubernaculum attaches the developmental predecessor of this structure to nearby organs; the failure of those organs to traverse the inguinal canals and reside in this structure is known as cryptorchidism. When the dartos and cremaster muscles contract, this structure becomes smaller and more wrinkled to ensure the correct temperature for gamete formation. For 10 points, identify this supporting structure of the male reproductive system, a sac that contains the testes.
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FLG 29.1 is an immortalized line of precursors of this type of cell. These cells lie in a hollow cavity called the Howship's lacuna and have a characteristic homogenous cytoplasm with a foamy appearance. They express the cysteine protease cathepsin K, which catabolizes elastin, collagen, and gelatin. They are regulated by parathyroid hormone, which activates them, and calcitonin and OPG, which repress them. They are also stimulated by interleukin-6, a protein that is overexpressed in osteoporosis. Their ruffled border contains a proton pump that plays a key role in these cells' dissolution of hydroxyapatite. For 10 points, what is this type of cell that is responsible for releasing calcium from bones into the blood, a process known as bone resorption?
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First diagnosed when describing a patient with a cherry-red spot on the retina, this disease affects the production of the lysosomal enzyme hexosaminidase A. The result of this defect on chromosome 15 is the accumulation of the lipid ganglioside GM2 in the brain, resulting in neural degeneracy and death before the age of five. Found mostly in Ashkenazi Jews, FTP, identify this disease named after its British and American discoverers.
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First isolated from the milk protein casein in 1902, this compound can act as a fluorescent marker in proteins that contain it. Increased risk of eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome was linked with the consumption of dietary supplements containing this precursor of the vitamin niacin and the neurotransmitter serotonin. FTP, name this essential amino acid with the one-letter abbreviation W.
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First proposed by the French microbiologists Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod in the early 1960s, these objects generally consist of a group of structural genes in a metabolic pathway located contiguously on a stretch of DNA which are controlled by a promoter. They act as a genetic regulatory system of single-celled organisms and their viruses, providing prokaryotes with the means to produce proteins only when and where they are required, allowing the cell to conserve energy . FTP name these cellular objects named because they were assumed to be essential to cell activity, which control the synthesis of enzymes in a cell.
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For some animals, it is thought that some of this class of molecules are involved in activating hormones from the pituitary gland related to the period of female sexual heat, and are also used as photosensitive receptors of light when in the skin of some mollusks and cnidarians. Their molecules are flat and contain a ring of 12 carbon and 4 nitrogen atoms, the latter of which are positioned so as to form a square in the center of the molecule, and are linked to a metal atom, forming a chelate complex. For 10 points, name this class of nitrogenous biological pigments that includes chlorophyll and the heme complex of hemoglobin.
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Form II of this drug was recently discovered in co-crystallization experiments with an epilepsy drug, and its active component can interfere with chloride levels to induce hearing loss and tinnitus. A newly discovered mechanism of its action involves stimulation of lipoxins to then form nitric oxide, while a more established mechanism involves its irreversible binding to a serine residue on the cyclo-oxygenases; this binding prevents the formation of thromboxane A2, which is needed for platelet aggregation, as well as prostaglandins. For 10 points, name this drug that can cause Reye's syndrome in children, a pain-reliever also known as acetylsalicylic acid.
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Functional divisions of this organ include the lateral lobes, the flocculonodular (FLOCK you low NOD you lar) node, and the vermis. Within this organ, mossy and climbing fibers modulate the activity of Purkinje (per KIN gee) cells, which receive an efference copy of a voluntary movement signal and modulate that movement. A part of the central nervous system involved in motor learning, FTP, what is this part of the brain found below the occipital lobe of the cerebrum, whose name means "little brain"?
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Glutamate decarboxylase antibodies are found in many patients with one disease of this organ. It secretes a namesake polypeptide and produces C-peptide. Like the hypothalamus, its delta cells secrete somatostatin. This organ's exocrine glands secrete digestive enzymes, but it also has endocrine functions performed by the alpha and beta cells. Those cells in this organ, lying in clusters called the islet of Langerhans, secrete glucagon and insulin. For 10 points, name this organ that regulates blood sugar and whose attack by the immune system leads to type 1 diabetes.
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Gutatta appear when hexagonal cells in this structure's endothelium self-destruct in the genetic disease Fuchs' Dystrophy. No one is sure what it's Bowman's membrane does other than separate its largest layer from its epithelium, while that layer is separated from its endothelium by Descemet's membrane. Recklinghausen discovered the motile corpuscles in this structure's stroma, which consists mostly of collagen. This structure is completely avascular because it must be completely transparent to work properly, and its radius of curvature is changed in LASIK surgery. For 10 points, name this outermost layer of the eye.
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Hartwell used this organism to screen for cdc regulators of the cell cycle, and positive and negative selection in this organism often exploits the genes URA3 and LYS2. Temperature-sensitive mutants are often created when using them for screens, and these organisms produce elongations called shmoos during mating. These organisms are used in an assay that uses a split Gal4 protein to screen for protein-protein interactions, called the two-hybrid assay, and they can switch mating types via the HML and HMR loci. They reproduce when an a type fuses with an alpha types, forming a diploid cell which can then bud. FTP, name this basic eukaryotic model organism, commonly called bakers' yeast.
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His only major publication, De pulmonibus, was a detailed study of the structure of the lung. In his studies of the embryology of the chick, he was the first to identify neural folds, somites, and the aortic arch. He incorrectly deduced that all organs were made up of glands, but did correctly classify the taste buds. Later in his life, he was made physician to Pope Innocent XII despite religious objection to some of his experiments. A layer in the skin, excretory tubules in insects, and some kidney corpuscles are named after him. FTP, name this anatomist who first observed the movement of blood through capillaries in his native Italy.
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Histological features of this disease include characteristic Curschmann spirals, Charcot-Leydon [shar-co lai-don] crystals, and eosinophilic infiltration, while a major observation found in this disease is an increase in the Reid index. Treated alternatively by the Butekyo method, medication for this disease includes the resorcinols and the methylxanthines. It is rarely incited by aspirin, penicillin, toluene, and formaldehyde, but in the majority of cases of this disease, no specific precipitating antigen is identified. Distinguished from other bronchiolar diseases by its reversibility upon administration of a beta-agonist, FTP, name this disease of the resipiratory tract characterized by inflammation and plugging with mucus of bronchioles, whose best known symptoms are breathlessness, cough, and wheezing.
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IDEXX Defined Substrate Technology is able to show its presence when beta-glucuronidase metabolizes 4-methylumbelliferyl-beta-D-glucuronide to produce fluorescence. Tani, et al. showed that its persistence in sediment of urban streams and Juncosa showed that native Guyanians developed resistant strains of it by exposure to a drug chemically similar to ciprofloxacin. It is the main prey of the T4 phage, and it was grown in a medium containing ammonium chloride in the Meselson-Stahl experiment to show the semiconservative nature of DNA. For 10 points, name this gram-negative bacteria, whose virulent forms such as 0157:H7 produce shigatoxins and are a danger to humans through fecal contamination of food and water.
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If this process does not occur, as in several slime molds, a plasmodium results. It is accomplished in plant cells through the formation of phragmoplasts and vesicle trafficking, which contribute to the creation of a cell plate. In animal cells, it starts with the appearance of the cleavage furrow and a contractile ring of microfilaments shrinks, causing the furrow to deepen and pinch in two. Starting in telophase, it completes the division of cells. FTP, name this division of the cytoplasm.
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In Arabidopsis, mutations in genes containing NBS-LRR motifs, such as R-genes, promote this phenomenon. In humans, IDO-mediated ky-nu-ren-ine production and tryptophan depletion promotes this condition, and helminths induce this process by secreting cystatins, which inhibit cathepsins and other proteases. Stress-induced phosphorylation of alpha-b-crystallin can lead to the breakdown of this process, causing the destruction of myelin. Fas-ligand-mediated apoptosis enforces this condition in tissues like the cornea and brain. In the "central" type of this process, anergy is induced in T-cells with very high affinities for self MHC, and it is pharmacologically induced in recipients of organ transplants. For 10 points, name this condition in which the presence of an antigen fails to activate a defense response.
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In humans there are eight, arranged in two rows. The proximal row includes the scaphoid, lunate, triangular, and pisiform, while the distal includes the trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate. These structures point towards the forearm and the fingers, respectively, and articulate with the radius and the meta-type of these bones. FTP identify this set of bones whose tunnel houses the median nerve which is pinched during a namesake syndrome affecting the wrist.
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In humans, it increases in weight in the first two years of life, and from then until puberty grows slowly to a weight of about 1.5 ounces. After puberty, it shrinks gradually and its lymphatic tissue is replaced by fat, though it also contains a few small areas of epithelial tissue known as Hassall's corpuscles. FTP, name this gland, which is located just beneath the upper portion of the sternum in almost all vertebrates, in which T cells mature and from which those cells derive their name.
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In the male, it works with testosterone to affect the maturation of spermatozoa, while in the female, the cyclical production of this hormone is essential for ovulation. Like luteinizing hormones, it is produced by the pituitary gland, and its secretion is increased by the release of gonadotropic releasing hormone. For ten points, name this hormone that influences the growth of several follicles in the ovaries.
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In the second and third steps of this biochemical reaction, the enzyme aconitase promotes the dehydration of the first product, yielding cis-aconitate, and then isocitrate. Malate dehydrogenase is the enzyme that contributes to the final product, which is recycled in this reaction to yield citrate after coupling with another two-carbon compound. Involving the conversion of NAD+ to NADH and FAD to FADH2, this reaction produces oxaloacetate, which binds to said two-carbon compound. FTP, identify this cycle of cellular respiration that starts by bonding acetyl CoA to pyruvate.
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In the unborn child, it functions primarily to produce red blood cells, a function that normally ceases after birth but that may be resumed later if diseases slow down this function in the bone marrow. It produces antibodies against various disease organisms and manufactures a variety of blood cells. In some other mammals, it stores red blood cells and feeds them into the circulation to maintain the volume of blood. FTP identify this left-side abdominal organ, once classified as an endocrine gland.
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It consists of a conical central axis, the modiolus, and a canal wound spirally around the modiolus for 2 3/4 turns, ending in an opening called the cupola. Hair cells in the canal detect changes in the movement of the canal's fluid, and the brain interprets these changes as a specific pitch or volume. For ten points, what auditory organ is named after its resemblance to a snail shell?
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It is a large, coarse, unpleasant-smelling plant, all parts of which are poisonous. The poisonous principles in this plant are alkaloids that affect the nervous system and induce trembling, loss of coordination, and paralysis of respiration. FTP name this herb classified as Conium maculation, the cause of Socrates' death.
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It is surrounded by a single membrane called the tonoplast. Its storage variety is generally responsible for holding phenolics, acids, nitrogenous wastes, and anthocyanins away from the cytosol. Its contractile variety is used to pump water out of the cell quickly and plays a role in the cell's turgor pressure. Its food variety is responsible for phagocytosis. Generally smaller in animal cells, plant cells usually contain one large version of this organelle. FTP, identify this organelle that serves as a general repository for materials in cells.
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It was confined to India for almost two thousand years, before it was described by Hindu physicians in 400 B.C. There were six major pandemics throughout the world in the 1800s. In a famous London outbreak in 1854, John Snow suggested removing a pump handle to stop the spread. For ten points, name this disease spread by ingestion of fecally contaminated food and water.
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Its only cutaneous innervation is a part of the external ear, where irritation may lead to a referred cough due to this nerve's motor innervation of most of the throat. This nerve also splits branches off that innervate the larynx and control the voice, but its better known function is mediated by nerve branches to the heart, lungs, and gut. FTP, name this major parasympathetic nerve, symbolized X (ten), the longest cranial nerve.
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Limited proteolysis, phosphorylation, and isoprenylation all occur here. In flagellate protozoa, it is known as the parabasal body and in plants, it is known as the dictyosome. It was first described in 1898 but, because of the limitations of light microscopy and because staining techniques failed to resolve its structure, its existence was not proven until the late 1950s. FTP, name the organelle where glycosylation occurs and proteins are packaged for secretion.
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Leber optic neuropathy was the first disease to be associated with this organelle, while Kearns Sayre syndrome is caused by defects in these which leads to Ophthalmoparesis and ptosis. The Tom and Tim proteins are involved with translocation of proteins across their membranes. Cytochrome C is also found within these structures, and is released into the cell to trigger apoptosis. These organelles have two membrane systems with the inner one possessing folds called cristae, and they possess their own genome which is used to analyze matrilineal ancestry. For 10 points, name this organelle, often referred to as the "power source" of the cell.
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Mallik and Henikoff have posited the evolution of these structures from two-micron STB elements. These items are unable to self-associate properly in the absence of functional ESCO2, a condition known as Robert's syndrome. A common type of yeast vector combines this with an autonomous replicating sequence. Shugoshin prevents the release of cohesin from these elements, and Cse4 is a H3 variant that loads at this site. "Point" ones may bind only a single nucleosome and may be as small as 125 base pairs, but mammalian ones are much larger and contain repetitive alpha satellite DNA. This DNA element is bound by Bub and Mad proteins during cell division. For 10 points, name this DNA region, the site of kinetochore assembly and spindle attachment, which is often found at the central point of a chromosome.
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Marshall Hall's theory of the reflex action was first put forth in a paper about the reflex function of this area. Smooth, oval structures that lie on the ventrolateral surface of this area are known as olivary bodies, while the portion of it between the anterior median fissure and the antero-lateral sulcus is known as the "pyramid". The foramen magnum is where it enters and exits the skull, while messages between it and the remainder of the midbrain are transmitted by the pons, which is connected to this area. Continuous with the spinal cord, this is, FTP, which hindmost part of the brain stem responsible for such autonomic functions as regulating blood pressure and breathing?
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Marsupials are distinguished by their lack of this structure, while in patients suffering from ADHD its bulk is slightly diminished. The section curving forward from the genu into the frontal lobe is called the Forceps minor, while its underside forms the roof of the lateral ventricles. Lying at the bottom of the cerebral longitudinal fissure, it is composed of more than 200 million transverse nerve fibers, and its primary function was discovered in the 1950s when experiments by Myers and Sperry indicated that, FTP, this thick band of white matter connects the two hemispheres of the brain.
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Members of this phylum have a three-layered body wall consisting of an epidermis, a gastrodermis, and a mesogloea (mess-o-GLEE-a). Tentacles encircling the mouth are used for food capture, and also contain the highly distinctive nematocysts (knee-MAT-o-sists) that characterize the phylum. They have two characteristic body forms, a sessile hydroid or polyp form that attaches to a substrate, and the motile medusa form that is common in the Physalia or Portuguese man-of-war. FTP, name this invertebrate phylum of sea anemones, corals, and jellyfish.
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Metachromatic leukodystrophy is caused by a problem in one enzyme of this organelle. One genetic disorder in trafficking proteins here is I-cell disease. That trafficking uses the mannose-6-phosphate modification. Pompe's disease and Tay-Sachs disease result when one of its proteins are missing. In order for its enzymes to function, it has a pH that is much more acidic than its surroundings. One type of programmed cell death occurs when these bodies process old organelles and proteins and is called autophagy. It will often fuse with a vacuole to digest the contents of it. For 10 points, name this organelle which helps the cell to break up debris and food obtained from phagocytosis.
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Most cases of this are identifiable by a constriction at locus Xq27.3 of the namesake structure. This constriction is caused by methylation due to abnormally frequent CCG repeats in the 5' ["five prime"] UTR of the FMR1 gene. Clincal features of this disease typically include facial dysplasia and macro-orchidism. The most common form of inherited mental retardation, this syndrome affects approximately 1 in 2500 children and is twice as likely to afflict males. FTP, name this syndrome which derives its name from the penchant of a sex chromosome to break in cultured cells starved for DNA precursors.
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Much of the basis for it was first postulated by Gorter and Grendel, although their work was later modified by Danielli, Davson, and Robertson. Caveolae and certain kinds of "rafts" belie its name, as these are more cohesive regions unable to diffuse as freely. A central point of it is that proteins can move laterally, and it divides proteins into the categories of integral and peripheral, or intrinsic and extrinsic. Proposed by Singer and Nicolson in 1972, it describes the matrix and two-dimensional solvent nature of the phospholipid bilayer. FTP, name this currently-accepted model of the cell membrane, named for the liquid-like movement of the lipids within it.
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NADPH provides its reducing power, having acquired energized electrons in the previous reaction, while ATP from the previous reaction provides energy for this process, whose ultimate product is glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. It begins with carbon fixation catalyzed by the enzyme rubisco, and in most plants it takes place during the daytime, even though sunlight is not required. Also known as the dark cycle, FTP, identify this cycle paired with the light reactions of photosynthesis and named for its discoverer.
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Noncanonical functions for this structure are regulation of telomerase, modification of microRNAs, interaction with viral proteins, and sequestration of proteins important for tumor suppression and the cell cycle. Consisting of fibrillar centers, dense fibrillar components, and granular components, it is surrounded by a layer of condensed chromatin. Disappearing totally during mitosis, this structure is the location of 75% of the polymerase activity in the cell, primarily through the transcription of rDNA through RNA polymerase I. Also the location of synthesis of tRNAs and signal recognition particles, FTP, name this cellular organelle that is the primary site of ribosome synthesis, a subcomponent of the nucleus.
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Notably, one of these entities is absent in the Leishmania mexicana GPI8 protein, and abnormally low numbers of pericytes occur if one is missing from PDGFß. Binding of 14-3-3 proteins to GABAB ["Gabba-sub-bee"] receptors does not occur when two arginines are mutated to alanine in one of these entities, which also binds to the COPI complex. They are usually C-terminal signals, and a common mammalian one consists of the amino acids lysine, aspartate, gluatamate, and leucine, or KDEL. hnRNP C proteins contain one of them that allows them to override nuclear export signals. For 10 points, name these signals important in directing proteins to the correct membranes, most often used to prevent a protein's export from the endoplasmic reticulum.
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On a cellular level, they differ from the other two types in that they are long, thin, mononuclear and pointed at both ends. Found in the intestines and bladder, as well as the walls of arteries and veins, they are usually controlled by the autonomic nervous system. For 10 points, name these muscles that differ from skeletal or cardiac muscles in that they are not striated.
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One serious drawback to this method is its high sensitivity, as it tends to produce many false positives in an unclean lab. Used diagnostically in some introductory lab courses for the purposes of determining the orientation of an inserted gene, it is also used in site-directed mutagenesis and in quantitative measurement of a specific mRNA in tissue. Cooling is necessary for rehybridization and for attachment of the primers to the original or newly synthesized DNA strands, but near-boiling temperatures will still not denature a certain enzyme of Thermus aquaticus, commonly known as Taq [TACK]. FTP, name this technique developed for large scale amplification of DNA, first proposed by Kary Mullis in 1983.
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One subclass of this organelle features the microsomal P450 oxidase system, which plays a key role in the first-pass effect through the liver. Another variation of this organelle contains the protein calsequestrin, important in regulating skeletal muscle contraction. In neurons this organelle produces many neurotransmitters, stains purple when exposed to aniline, and thus is referred to as Nissl substance. Its most famous functions, however, are either lipid synthesis or protein production. FTP, name this organelle continuous with the nuclear membrane that comes in sarcoplasmic, smooth, and rough varieties.
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Only the Liphistius family has the maximum of four pairs of these in the adult, while members of the Palpimanidae have only one pair. Most adults have three pairs, with the anterior median pair being reduced to a cone known as the colulus or a plate known as the cribellum and all of them are conduits for a protein called fibroin. FTP, identify these structures which open to the outside through spigots where the liquid silk is made solid, commonly found on spiders.
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Originally, this organism was grouped with viruses in the class Microtatobiotes but is now considered a member of the phylum Omnibacteria. Similar to bacteria in internal structure, they share the viral traits of only being able to reproduce within animal cells and, as a result, many are pathogenic to mammals, birds and occasionally reptiles. Nearly every species uses one or more species of arthropods as carriers; ticks are the most common but fleas and lice may also harbor them. FTP, name this microorganism, the cause of the human diseases typhus, Q fever, and Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever.
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Parallel rings of this are known in Borneo, South Africa, the tropical regions of the Americas. Examples of it can be found among the members of many distinct nymphalid subfamilies in South America. This works due to a principle known as signal standardization. As it is often difficult to judge the palatability of a species, it is hard to distinguish it from the better-known Batesian version. FTP, name this type of mimicry where equally unpalatable unrelated species share coloration patterns.
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Patients with Von Hippel-Lindau disease are unable to regulate this physical process because they can no longer downregulate HIF1?. Commonly studied in vitro with the tube-forming assay, this process may be inhibited by antibodies against vascular endothelial growth factor. While this process is important in wound healing and in the female reproductive cycle, it is also important pathologically in tumor growth. * FTP, identify this biological process that creates new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels.
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Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease is caused by a recessive mutation of the gene on the long arm of the X-chromosome that code for PLP1, which is responsible for the generation of this feature by oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system. An action potential may be initiated by the depolarization of one node of Ranvier, after which saltatory conduction is able to propagate at higher speeds to the hops affected by this insulator. Responsible for the brain's "white matter," this is, FTP, what phospholipid layer that surrounds axons?
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Pertussis toxin exerts its effects by ribosylating a specific residue on one of these, which prevents it from being activated. Cholera toxin works in a similar manner, but it causes these to be constitutively active. The prominent oncogene Ras codes for one of these, and the beta-adrenergic receptor kinase prevents them from associating with their receptors, which have seven transmembrane domains. When activated by their receptors, the beta and gamma subunits remain attached, but the alpha subunit often sets off a second messenger cascade by activating enzymes like phospholipase C. FTP name these ubiquitous proteins found on the inner surfaces of cell membranes, named for their binding of the nucleotides GDP and GTP.
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Plectosteles, present in some club mosses, have interconnected plates of this tissue, and whether a plant is ectophloic or amphiphloic is determined by whether this tissue is surrounded on both sides or on one. Its two principal forms may be differentiated by the size of one of their component cells, called tracheids, and another highly lignified type, vessel elements, are produced by the fusiform initials of angiosperms. While only the proto- and meta- forms exist in monocots, in dicots and gymnosperms, another form grows inward from the vascular cambium, called the "secondary" this. For 10 points, identify this plant tissue responsible for water and mineral transport, complemented by the phloem.
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Proper function of this organ is often checked via the use of such toxic substances as hippuric acid and Bromsulphalein (Brom sull fay leen). The smallest channels of its vascular system are lined by Kuppfer cells, which work in antibody formation and ingestion of foreign particles. This organ's lobes are connected via the falciform ligament, and it synthesizes many serum proteins, including albumin and several clotting factors. It has its own blood circulation in the form of a prominent portal system, and the word hepatic refers to it. FTP, name this organ that secretes bile, the largest internal vertebrate organ.
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Pulmonate gastropods were one of the two taxa discussed in the original proposal. According to Richard Dawkins, the concept was found in Darwin's own works, meaning that the opposing idea of "phyletic gradualism" was essentially a strawman created by the two authors. They instead proposed that most speciation occurs in small, geographically isolated populations, and thus appears in the fossil records as a sudden transition from one form to the next. FTP, identify this rethinking of evolutionary theory first proposed in a 1972 paper by Niles Eldridge and Stephen Jay Gould.
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Recent research has shown that the protein central to this disease is sumoylated by Rhes, leading to increased cytotoxicity. One drug approved for treating this disease is tetrabenazine. Like Parkinson's disease, this disease sees atrophy and neuron death in the striatum. The genetic basis of this disease is an increase in the polyQ track of a gene located on chromosome four, causing more CAG repeats. The symptoms of this disease include dystonia and chorea. For 10 points, name this neurodegenerative disease caused by an autosomal dominant mutation which usually does not manifest until the victim is forty years old.
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Removal of this organ from 740 World War II veterans saw twice the incidence of cardiovascular disease, perhaps because it releases monocytes during stresses on the heart. This organ is either absent or multiply expressed in patients with Ivemark Syndrome. It is surrounded by protective fibroelastic and serous coats. Like the kidney, this organ possesses Malphigian corpuscles, which are lymphocyte-containing follicles within one type of tissue in it. This organ is under the left side of the diaphragm, and becomes sequestered when trying to clear sickled cells. The marginal zone separates this organ's white and red pulp. For 10 points, name this lymphoid organ in which red blood cells are destroyed.
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Required for synthesis of dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine, it generally acts as an antioxidant, but it can be pro-oxidant in some circumstances. However, its most important function is hydroxylating proline and lysine in the production of collagen by the body. Discovered by Charles King and Albert Szent-Gyorgyi in 1932, James Lind conducted an experiment in 1747 that showed its importance, in the form of certain foods fed to sailors at sea to prevent scurvy. FTP, Linus Pauling advocated megadoses of what popular vitamin found in citrus fruits?
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Saccharomyces cerivisiae notably lacks the pathway for this process, and Makarovna et al suggest that CRISPR are a prokaryotic analogue to it. One complex involved in this process, which was initially discovered by Rich Jorgensen in petunias, contains argonaute proteins, and that complex's formation is catalyzed by an endonuclease with a two-base overhang on its three prime site. That complex, known as RISC, is catalyzed by Dicer. First discovered in C. elegans by Mello and Fire, this is, FTP, which process, previously known as quelling, in which gene expression is inhibited by cleaving the associated messenger RNA?
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Scientists have postulated that a highly-deacetylated form of it could increase crop yields, and approximately 10 gigatons of it are produced each year naturally. Consisting of repeated N-acetyl-glucosamine residues linked together by beta-1-4 glycosidic bonds, its amide bonds make it stronger and more stable than cellulose, the only molecule which is more abundant than it on Earth. From the Greek word for "tunic," FTP, name this strong polysaccharide found in the exoskeletons of all insects and crustaceans as well as in the cell wall of fungi.
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Signal transduction through this molecule is mediated by dimerization and binding to an unusual tetramerized tyrosine kinase receptor whose activity is inhibited in part by PTP-1B and enhanced by IRS-1. This molecule is activated upon excision of an internal 33-residue segment called the C peptide, levels of which can be assayed in the serum. This enzyme also stimulates dephosphorylation of Acetyl-CoA carboxylase during fatty acid synthesis, promoting formation of active polymer, and is also capable of stimulating glucose uptake into all cells except those of the liver and brain. Critical for stimulation of synthesis and inhibition of breakdown of metabolic fuels, FTP, name this enzyme produced by pancreatic beta cells, functions of which are opposed by glucagon, and whose functions are deficient in diabetes mellitus.
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Strains of this virus include MEF-1, Mahoney, and Saukett. This enterovirus binds to CD155, which is sometimes called its namesake receptor. Karl Landsteiner was the first to identify this virus, which causes a disease first discovered by Jakob Heine. The first vaccine against this virus used inactivated cultures, in contrast to the attenuated viruses used in the Sabin vaccine against it. Jonas Salk developed the first vaccine against this virus. For 10 points, name this virus, which causes a paralysis-inducing disease that affected Franklin Roosevelt.
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Structures in its lateral region include Broddman's areas and Heschl's gyrus, while its medial structures include the fusiform gyrus and the primary olfactory cortex. A symptom of damage to this lobe is disturbed musical perception. The ventral visual system centered here is useful in object recognition, and Wernicke's area is located just posterior to the primary auditory complex in this cerebral lobe. FTP, name this cerebral lobe best known for its function in hearing, and located just above the ear.
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T.H. Huxley first coined the name of this feature, which is partially due to accretions during the tertiary period. It is contiguous with the Makassar Straits after which it turns forty-five degrees, continuing almost due East, North of the Spice Islands. At its Western extent, it cuts the Malay Peninsula between Lombock and Bali. The feature shares its name with Rhacophorus nigropalmatus, one of the species which Darwin's predecessor used during the 1850's to explain the lack of some oriental species South of about ten degrees South latitude. FTP, name this line; the hypothetical boundary between the zoogeographical regions of Asia and Australasia.
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The Naka-Rushton and pigment depletion formulae are varying forms of it, and Briggs-Haldane analysis is useful in conjunction with the so-called "pre-equilibrium" approximation. Positive and negative cooperativities are easy to distinguish based on this model, and it can be derived from a pseudo-first-order expression and converted to a Lineweaver-Burk plot. Indicating that half of the maximum velocity of a reaction occurs when the substrate concentration equals the namesake constant, FTP, name this model of enzyme kinetics, named for two German biochemists.
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The Nash version of this affliction, has risen exponentially in incidence along with obesity and type 2 diabetes. The autoimmune type primarily affects women, and Herpes simplex induced disease is associated with huge elevations of serum transaminases. However, it is most commonly induced by a group of unrelated viruses organized alphabetically. For ten points, name this inflammation of the liver that can result in cirrhosis, especially in the C type.
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The activity of the enzyme aromatic amino acid decarboxylase is so high that this compound is essentially unmeasurable in the central nervous system, since it is almost immediately metabolized. Another enzyme that metabolizes this compound is catechol O-methyltransferase. Tyrosine is the precursor to this catecholamine, which is readily able to cross the blood-brain barrier, while its metabolite is not. FTP, name this neurotransmitter which has been used as a treatment for Parkinson's patients, the precursor to dopamine.
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The completion of this process requires Ephrins B2 and B4 in targeting of disparate pseudopodia. Mediated by Prox-1 in lymphatic tissue and the orphan receptor COUP-TF2 in veins, patients with Von Hippel-Lindau disease are unable to repress this process due to a mutation in a gene that degrades the hypoxia induced protein HIF1. This process is inhibited by the release of plasminogen, thrombospondin-1, endostatin, and the drug Avastin, and inhibition is also responsible in part for birth defects seen after use of thalidomide. Upregulated by FGF and VEGF [veg-eff] in response to low cellular oxygen levels, FTP, name this biological process of wound healing and tumor development, the growing of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels.
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The importance of this substance in disease is shown in Von Hippel-Lindau syndrome, in which a mutation in the VHL gene eliminates its ability to attach this substance to HIF-1 alpha, leading to cancer. VHL possesses a RING domain, which is required for attachment of this substance to its targets. Consisting of 76 amino acids, it modifies its protein substrates at lysine residues, and is mediated by the enzymatic action of three ligases E1 through E3. FTP, name this small protein whose primary function is to tag proteins. marking them for destruction by the proteasome, which is named for its presence in all eukaryotic cells.
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The inherited form of this disease has been linked to presenilin 1 and 2 genes, as well as the apoE4 gene on chromosome 19. Hyperphosphorylation of tau proteins figures into the tau hypothesis concerning the pathogenesis of this disease. A better-known hypothesis is the amyloid beta hypothesis, which suggests that the buildup of amyloid beta plaques is responsible. Perhaps the oldest theory concerning this disease is that it is caused by a shortage of acetylcholine in the brain. For 10 points, name this neurodegenerative disease primarily affecting the elderly whose symptoms include memory loss.
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The main pathway of its synthesis is a one-step reaction catalyzed by serine hydroxymethyltransferase, which involves the transfer of a hydroxymethyl group from serine to the cofactor tetrahydrofolate, producing N,N-methylene-THF. It is considered a glucogenic amino acid since it can be converted to pyruvate by serine/threonine dehydratase. The only optically inactive amino acid, it is also the simplest with an R group consisting only of a hydrogen atom. FTP, identify this amino acid usually symbolized G.
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The main roots are usually fibrous, and secondary or adventitious roots often arise from the nodes of the stems. The leaves, which are borne at the nodes along the stem, are in two rows and consist of a sheath and a blade. The sheath encircles the stem and gives support to the meristem. This is the most widely distributed group of flowering plants, occurring from well above the Arctic Circle through the temperate and tropical regions, and are the only flowering plants to grow on the Antarctic continent. FTP give this common name for this plant group, members of the family Poaceae, whose members include sugar cane and bamboo.
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The molecular variety of this is a long-repudiated theory of antibody formation created by Breinl and Haurowitz in the 1930s, which theory was abandoned in favor of the clonal selective model. The phenomenon by this name in genetics is seen in XIST in fetal females and in IGF2 and is the root cause of Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes. In it, the expression of a gene is a function of the parent by whom it was contributed. FTP give the shared name of this otherwise unrelated group of things, which name, in psychology, is that of the most notable discovery of Konrad Lorenz.
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The most extensive set of them has been located in the ovalbumin gene of chickens. This followed their discovery in 1977 by Sharp and Roberts, who won a Nobel for their work. That discovery occurred in the beta-globin gene in mice, where the largest of them was found to be 550 nucleotides long. Those molecules that contain them are called ribozymes, referring to how they are removed via self-excision. FTP, name these regions of DNA that are transcribed but do not appear in the mRNA product, unlike exons.
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The permeability transition pore of one of the cristae contains a protein named for its ability to transport this molecule. It has two nitrogen-containing rings connected to an amine functional group, and is theorized to have been first formed from the polymerization of five hydrogen cyanide molecules. Formerly known as vitamin B4, it was one of the subjects of Edwin Chargaff's studies during the 1940s. Requiring only two hydrogen bonds to be bound to its complement, it is a crucial component of both an important second-messenger protein and the principal energy transfer molecule in the human body. FTP, name this nitrogenous base, a purine that pairs with thymine in DNA.
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The presence of Schuffner's dots indicates infection by members of it, and its erythrocytic stage proceeds from merozoite to trophozoite to schizont and follows repeated segmentation at the end of the liver stage. Immunity to the disease it causes is conferred by carrying an allele of sickle-cell anemia, therefore demonstrating the heterozygote advantage. Varieties that infect birds are carried by Culex, and a phase of male gametogenesis called exflagellation was used to observe its falciparum species. This microorganism is commonly transmitted by the Anopheles mosquito. For 10 points, identify this genus of protazoa that causes malaria.
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The protein monopolin helps trigger one stage of this process, which never occurs in bdelloids. One step in this process includes the pachytene and leptotene stages. In some organisms, it creates three polar bodies. During one part of this process, tetrads form and genes can undergo “crossing over.†Polyploidy occurs due to nondisjunction during this process, which is called oogenesis in females and spermatogenesis in males. For 10 points, name this process by which a diploid cell divides into four gamete cells with half the original number of chromosomes.
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The vulgaris form of this disease is caused by a bacillus similar to that which causes tuberculosis, and produces ulcers that spread and eat away the underlying tissues. The erythematous type comes in a systemic form that affects connective tissue anywhere in the body, and a discoid form that leaves red, scaly patches on this skin. Occurring almost ten times more often in women than in men, FTP, identify this autoimmune disease often treated with corticosteroids, named for a distinctive rash that often appears on the face and which resembles a wolf's bite.
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These structures are not symmetrical, as the right one is shaped like a pyramid and the left one has a semilunar shape. Germline deficiency of 21-hydroxylase in these can cause females to have male-like genitalia in addition to salt-wasting. Innevrated by the nerves from the celiac plexus and thoracic splanchnic nerves, destruction of these organs by bacteria is responsible for Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome, while this organ's overactivity can be responsible for certain cases of Cushing syndrome. The cortex of these organs consists of the zona glomerulosa, the zona fasciculata, and the zona reticularis, which produce aldosterone, cortisol, and estrogen. FTP, name these endocrine glands which sit above the kidneys.
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They do not actively attack pathogens but alert other cells to a pathogens presence in the body. The alpha-form has been approved to treat genital warts and to combat Kaposi sarcoma along with other viral diseases. After initial discovery by Isaacs and Lindenmann in 1957, researchers began to show that these substances could suppress the growth of cancers in some animals along with the ability to cure a wide range of infection. FTP, identify this type of cytokine named for its ability to impede with viral replication.
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They have a life span of about four months, after which time they are destroyed in the spleen and liver. In most vertebrates, they are nucleated ovoids, but in mammals they are disc-shaped and without nuclei. FTP, identify this type of cell, which contains the pigment hemoglobin, and which is the most numerous type of blood cell, developing from erythroblasts.
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They lack murein, or ester lipids, in their cell walls; rather, they have ether lipids as well as a number of different constituents. Some of them, such as Pyrodictium are highly thermophilic, while others, such as Sulfolobus, are dependent upon sulfur for their metabolism. The most common varieties employed in research are the Halo- and Methanobacterium. Discovered by Carl Weiss, FTP, identify this group of bacteria that, despite their cytological similarity to prokaryotes, are hypothesized to be the evolutionary precursor to eukaryotes.
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This anatomic structure lies at the upper end of the crista terminalis near the opening of the superior vena cava, and is supplied by a branch of the right coronary artery. The only part of the heart that is responsive to acetylcholine from the vagus nerve, its resting membrane potential is -55mV, leading this area to have greater automaticity. A major site of action for norepinephrine and beta blockers, FTP, name this primary pacemaker of the heart, located in the right atrium.
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This hormone promotes the breakdown of protein and the metabolism of fat in the body. It also raises the concentration of blood sugar by promoting the breakdown of glycogen, in essence opposing the action of insulin. It is produced in two distinct forms, one of which is gastrointestinal. For 10 points, name this pancreatic hormone produced in the islets of Langerhans.
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This quantity appears as a term many times in the FitzHugh-Nagumo equation, where it is governed by two parameters. The chord conductance equation expresses it as a weighted average, and it can be calculated by the Hodgkin-Huxley model assuming some initial state. It is more often calculated by the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Constant Field Equation, which applies to deviations from Nernstian conditions, under which this quantity would simply be defined as the gradient of one specific ion. The chlorine ion is a minor player in setting its value at rest, unlike sodium and potassium. Designated E-sub-m, FTP, name this quantity which may be defined as the charge difference between the cytoplasm and extracellular fluid.
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This structure is the chief source of mammalian theta rhythms.  The alveus portion of it forms a superficial layer between its CA region and the fimbria, and this structure is attached to the bottom of the amygdala. Antidepressants typically target this structure's dentate gyrus, which has a very high rate of neurogenesis. Damage to it results in anterograde amnesia, as this structure is necessary for the formation of new memories and general storage of long-term memories. For 10 points, name this part of the limbic system located in the medial temporal lobe, with a Greek name meaning “seahorseâ€.
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Type one of this disease causes hyperactivation of Ras molecules due to inhibition of its namesake GTPase activating protein. Ninety percent of patients exhibit Lisch nodules in their irises, while twenty percent have vision disturbances due to optical gliomas. Type two is characterized by tumors of the acoustic nerve and is caused by a mutation on chromosome twenty-two, while type one is caused by a mutation on chromosome seventeen that most commonly manifests with "café-au-lait" spots and benign subcutaneous tumors. FTP name this neurological disorder commonly abbreviated "NF."
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Valproate, or Depakote, can cause encephalopathy in individuals in which this pathway is defective, and CSPI deficiency is a particularly severe disorder affecting this pathway. Disorders in this pathway may be treated with sodium phenylbutyrate, which is metabolized to phenylacetate in the body. One enzyme in this pathway is an isomer of an enzyme that makes up part of the CAD complex in pyrimidine biosynthesis; that enzyme is allosterically regulated by N-acetylglutamate and is called CPS-I. In one step in this pathway, carbamyl phosphate is combined with ornithine to produce citrulline. Originally discovered by Henseleit and Krebs, for 10 points, name this cycle which is used to remove nitrogen from unneeded amino acids from the body.
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When TFEB translocates to the nucleus, it results in a corresponding increase in the number of these organelles. A glycosphingolipid in this organelle, iGb3, is necessary for the production of natural killer cells. P-type lectins direct enzymes that have been tagged with mannose-6-phosphate to this organelle. Christian Rene de Duve discovered this organelle after centrifuging liver cells and discovering an abnormally high amount of acid phosphatase. Malfunction of this organelle can lead to a buildup of gangliosides in Tay-Sachs disease. For 10 points, name these organelles that perform autophagy by digesting unneeded or excess cellular materials.
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When it involves shelter, it is called inquilinism. In forests, one kind involves fungi which ascend trees in order to release spores from a higher vantage point. While it is most common among ocean invertebrates, such as between the oyster crab and bivalves, it also occurs on land; for example, between ants and aphids. FTP, name this type of symbiosis, usually involving food, in which one organism benefits and the other either is unaffected or also benefits.
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With scientific name Sarcophilus harrisii, it is about the size of a small badger with brown or black fur except for the white throat region. Widely distributed throughout the continent until being displaced by the dingo, it stays in burrows during the day and emerges at night to prey on rodents, lizards, wallabies, and other small animals. FTP, name this largest carnivorous marsupial, now confined to the island for which it is named and to various Warner Brothers cartoons.
G proteins
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RU-486
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Saccharomyces cerevisiae or baker's yeast before mention
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Salmonella
...
Stephen Jay Gould
...
T cells
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Taq polymerase
...
Tay-Sachs disease
...
Tay-Sachs disease (or cerebromacular degeneration)
...
osmotic pressure
...
osteoclasts
...
oxytocin
...
p53
...
bile [accept gall before "gallbladder" is mentioned]
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bipolar disorder [accept manic depression before it is mentioned]
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pancreas
...
pellagra or mal de sole or mal de la misere or mal de la rosa
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pepsin
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peptidoglycan (accept early murein)
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peroxisome(s)
...
peroxisomes
...
petals
...
peyote (prompt on early "mescaline" buzz)
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phagocytosis
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phenylalanine
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phloem
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phloem or bast
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bottleneck effect (accept population bottleneck, genetic bottleneck, or variations)
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brachiopoda
...
bryophytes or Bryophyta
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c-myc [mick]
...
carbonic anhydrase
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carrying capacity
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cartilage
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cartilage (or gristle)
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caspases [or cysteine-dependent aspartases]
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cell membrane [or plasma membrane; or plasmalemma; prompt on phospholipid bilayer]
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cellulose
...
centromere
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centromeres (kinetochore is not acceptable at any point)
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cerebellum
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chelates or chelation
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chitin
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chlorophyll
...
chloroplasts
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cholera
...
cholesterol
...
chromosomal inversion
...
cilia [or cilium]
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circadian rhythmsÂ
...
cirrhosis of the liver
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cisplatin or cis-diamminedichloroplatinum
...
cochlea
...
coelom
...
coenzymes
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collagen
...
commensalism [prompt on symbiosis before it is mentioned]
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conjugation
...
cornea
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corpus callosum [do not accept or prompt on "brain"]
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cortisol [or 11,17,21-trihydroxy-,(11beta)-pregn-4-ene-3,20-dione]
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crabs (accept crab lice and pubic lice)
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Cephalopods (SEF-a-lo-pods or KEF-a-lo-pods)
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Charles Wallace Darwin
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Christiaan Barnard
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Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease
...
DNA polymerases [accept DNA polymerase III before "Cdc28"]
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DNA topoisomerases (do not accept gyrases, which are exclusively prokaryotic)
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Darwin's finches [accept Galapagos finches before 'Galapagos']
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David Deamer
...
Deuterostomes (Deuterostomata)
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E. coli (or Escherichia coli)
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ELISA [or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; or enzyme immunoassay; or EIA]
...
ER or endoplasmic reticulum
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Echinodermata or Echinoderms
...
Edward Jenner
...
Electron Transport Chain
...
Elie Metchnikoff
...
Epstein-Barr Virus or EBV
...
Epstein-Barr virus or EBV
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Escherichia coli
...
FRET or [Forster Resonance Energy Transfer; or Fluorescent Resonance Energy Transfer]
...
Gene knockout [Accept reasonable equivalents; accept homologous recombination or gene targeting; accept gene knockin until "remove"; do not accept gene trapping; do not accept gene knockdown as that doesn't actually delete the gene]
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George Wald
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Gila monster (accept Heloderma suspectum until *)
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Glycine
...
Gram stain
...
Urea cycle
...
Velociraptor
...
Vitamin B12 [accept Cyanocobalamin before it's read; accept coenzyme B12]
...
Vitamin K
...
Wilson's disease [or hepatolenticular degeneration]
...
Wnt signaling pathway
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Wolffian ducts (also accept Wolffian (ductal) system or Wolffian tubules)
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Xenopus (also accept Xenopus laevis, Xenopus tropicalis, platanna, African clawed frog, or South African clawed toad, prompt on frog or toad)
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Y chromosome
...
actin
...
adenine
...
adenine (prompt on "a")
...
adenosine triphosphate
...
adipocytes (accept adipose cells; accept fat cells before "fat" is read)
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Osteichthyes [or osseous fish; or bony/boned fish until “bonyâ€]
...
Parkinson's Disease or parkinsonism or paralysis agitans
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Phylum Porifera (accept sponges before "Calcarea")
...
Plasmodium
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Platyhelminthes (prompt on flatworms)
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Polymerase Chain Reaction
...
Polymerase Chain Reaction [or PCR]
...
Porphyrins
...
Proline
...
Purkinje cell
...
Purkinje fibers
...
Q cycle
...
RNA interference
...
...
A drug known as brefeldin A blocks the transfer of proteins to this organelle, while vesicles bound for it tend to be coated with either COP I or COP II. The current paradigm for its sorting abilities is explained by the "maturational model", which states that proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum enter its cis face and are packaged in its cisternae, after which they are transported out of the trans face. Composed of a stack of flattened sacks, FTP, identify this cellular organelle, an apparatus named after an Italian anatomist.
RNA interference (or interfering RNA)
...
RNA interference [accept innate immunity before mention]
...
for 10 points - this disease named for a Connecticut town, caused by the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi and spread by deer ticks.
A vaccine for this disease has been developed by NIAID scientists using a recombinant version of Outer Surface Protein A found in the bacterium causing it. In its second stage, this disease causes meningitis-like symptoms and such neurological complications as Bell's Palsy. In its first stage, it is marked by acrodermatitis, chronica atrophicans, Bannwarth's Syndrome, and erythema migrans, a slowly spreading red rash in a telltale bulls-eye pattern. Transmitted to humans by animals of the Ixodes genus, name
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A very likely key regulator of this process is ALG-2, a calcium-binding protein. Reactive oxygen species may cause Bcl-2 to activate Bax, which leads to activation of various caspases. Its indicators include exposure of surface phospholipids to phosphatidylserine and the secretion of TGF-beta by cytokines. In plants, it is accomplished by proteases that cleave at asparagine residues, which cause collapse of the central vacuole. It is involved in such events as formation of synapses and the sloughing-off of the endometrial lining. FTP, identify this process by which normal development of multicellular organisms is genetically controlled, and which is different from necrosis.
RNA polymerase
...
...
About 1 cm across, slender ducts from these glands transport a fluid known as precoital mucus to the urethra where it helps flush and lubricate before ejaculation. They are found beneath the prostate gland at the beginning of the internal portion of the penis and near the seminal vesicles. For ten points identify this pair of male glands, originally named for their English discoverer.
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About 100 billion of them are made daily by the bone marrow of a normal adult, but they typically survive only a few hours. Their nuclei consist of two to five lobes, joined together by hairlike filaments. They contain large numbers of cytoplasmic granules, which turn pink when stained with a compound dye. They make up about 60 percent of the total number of leukocytes, and migrate to areas of infection or tissue injury, where they engulf and destroy foreign organisms and particles. FTP identify these cells, the lack of which is termed neutropenia.
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According to a 2001 Science magazine report this molecule, which is bound to the protein apolipoprotein E, is the synapse-promoting signal released by the glial cells. In their 1985 Nobel lecture, Brown and Goldstein discussed a receptor-mediated pathway for the homeostasis of this bio-molecule. This molecule also decreases the rigidity of cellular membranes, especially at low temperatures. It is the common precursor of steroid hormones, and also forms crystals in gout and in gallstones with bile salts and phospholipids. Importantly, apolipoprotein E, phospholipids, and free forms of this molecule have been shown to bind low density lipoproteins, or LDL. FTP, name this lipid which is often associated with atherosclerosis.
Red Queen hypothesis
...
Restriction Enzymes or Restriction Endonucleases
...
...
At its midpoint is a constriction called the isthmus. Cranial to the isthmus is the body and the fundus while its ventral surface faces the bladder. The external, or serous, coat is derived from the peritoneum and the inner layer is the endometrium. For ten points, the cervix is one end of what hollow organ found in only half the population?
Rh blood group or Rhesus factor or equivalents
...
Rh factor
...
Rh or Rhesus Factor
...
Rhizobium or Rhizobia
...
Richard Dawkins
...
Rickettsia(e)
...
Robert Koch
...
Rosalind Franklin
...
Sickle Cell Disease or Anemia
...
adrenal glands
...
adrenal glands or suprarenal glands
...
adrenaline or epinephrine
...
albatross
...
alcohol
...
alcohol dehydrogenase [also accept ADH]
...
alpha-helix
...
alveoli (prompt on "lungs" before *)
...
amino acids
...
amniocentesis
...
amniotes [accept word forms like amniotic, amniota, etc.]
...
anaphase
...
aneurysm
...
angiogenesis
...
antibodies [or immunoglobulins]
...
antibody (accept early "immunoglobulin")
...
antibody or antibodies (accept immunoglobulins before they're mentioned)
...
...
At the age of 80, he published his best-known work, an analysis of over 700 cases written up as 70 letters to a friend. The first man to describe tuberculosis of the kidney and syphilitic tumors of the brain, he found that a paralysis that only affects one side of the body is caused by a lesion on the other side of the brain. FTP, name this Italian anatomist, who never used a microscope but related the lesions found during autopsies to illnesses, making him the founder of modern pathology.
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Autoimmune etiology for this disease is based on an association with HLA Cw6. Calcipotriol and dithranol are largely outdated treatment modalities unlike Ingram's regimen which can cure up to 80% of cases. Among the pathological types of this disease are guttate and pustular, and there can be an associated arthropathy explaining the use of TNF-alpha blockers in combating it. However, the first line therapy is the use of PUVA or psoralens with ultraviolet A. Its typical manifestations can be seen on flexor surfaces, palms, with nail involvement, and the scalp where it is sometimes confused with seborrhoeic dermatitis. For 10 points, name this condition characterized by erythematous plaques with silvery scales, a chronic inflammatory disease of the skin.
antibody or immunoglobulin
...
antidiuretic hormone or ADH (accept early vasopressin)
...
antidiuretic hormone or ADH or vasopressin
...
antihistamines
...
aorta
...
apical meristem (accept "meristem" before "initials," otherwise prompt)
...
apoptosis
...
apoptosis (accept programmed cell death before the last sentence)
...
apoptosis (accept programmed cell death)
...
apoptosis [a-po-TO-sis] (prompt on programmed cell death)
...
apoptosis [prompt on "programmed cell death"]
...
apoptosis [prompt on 'programmed cell death' before it is read]
...
apoptosis or cell deletion (accept programmed cell death before it's mentioned)
...
appendix
...
archaea [ar-kay-uh] or archaebacteria
...
ascomycota [or ascomycetes; accept deuteromycetes or deuteromycota until "George Beadle;" prompt on sac fungi]
...
autophagy (accept type II programmed cell death before it is mentioned)
...
axon [prompt on nerve fiber or equivalent; accept neuron until "growth cone"]
...
bacteriophage
...
baleen (prompt on whalebone)
...
beta-lactams
...
bile (accept early response of gall)
...
blood coagulation cascade [or blood clotting cascade; accept reasonable equivalents]
...
crassulacean acid metabolism photosynthesis
...
cyanobacteria (accept early answer of blue-green algae)
...
...
Caused by a Corynebacterium bacillus, it infects humans by lodging in the throat or through flesh wounds. Danger occurs when infection swells throat tissues and blocks respiratory airways. Toxins secreted by the bacteria may also lead to heart failure. For 10 points, name this vector, detected with the Schick test and one of the diseases prevented by the DPT vaccine.
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Certain paramecia must undergo this process to live beyond approximately 350 cell divisions. The interruption of this process can be used to create a genetic map of the organism under study, and a common blender can be used for this disruption because it will not kill the cells, but it will destroy the pili and namesake tubes responsible for it. When the genes coding for it are incorporated into the chromosome, those cells are known as H-f-r, rather than as F-plus, which denotes the presence of F, or fertility plasmids. First discovered by mixing together different auxotrophic strains of E. coli, FTP name this process in which DNA is passed from one bacterial cell to another that is in direct contact.
...
Characterized by nigrostriatal degeneration, the presence of the enzymes MAO-B and COMT worsen its effects. Symptoms such as blepharospasm, or forced eyelid closure and bradykinesia, a difficulty in starting and stopping motions, are usually improved with dopamine-elevating drugs such as L-dopa. For ten points, name this disease which probably afflicts the Pope and Muhammad Ali.
...
Chloramphenicol stalls the activity of this structure, while reversal of its primary function is enabled by LepA. That function is carried out using the GTPase activity of EF-G. One of its main substrates is assembled using the enzyme aaRS, and in prokaryotes, its 16S portion attaches to the Shine-Dalgarno sequence. Designated 70S or 80S, this organelle transfers a nascent peptide from its P-site to its A-site where aminoacyl-tRNA accepts the polymerizing protein chain. The tRNAs then exit from its E-site. Coming in free and bound varieties, for 10 points, name this organelle sometimes found on rough ER that contains two subunits and is the site of protein synthesis.
...
Classes of these include OEC's and ependymocytes, and they synthesize GDNF, which may be useful in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Discovered in 1891 by Ramón y Cajal, they are derived from ectodermal tissue with the exception of the phagocytic micro- variety. They include the astrocytes, which remove excess potassium and play a poorly-understood role in signaling, and oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells, which myelinate central and peripheral nervous system axons, respectively. FTP, name these "glue" cells that comprise the bulk of the human nervous system where they work alongside neurons.
...
Classes of these structures in bacteria include those associated with a repH gene and the pRN family. The FLP-FRT recombination system derives from yeast's 2u one. BACs and YACs are based on these, but larger. Agrobacterium's Ti one is useful for genetic engineering. They commonly use rolling circle replication. The tra operon allows them to be transferred as part of the F factor. Infectious bacteria often have virulence ones along with ones containing genes for antibiotic resistance. They can be transferred through transformation or conjugation. For 10 points, name these self-replicating extrachromosomal pieces of DNA that are often circular and found in bacteria.
...
Cleaving its hinge with papain separates its Fc [eff-cee] and Fab [eff-ay-bee] portions. Its structure was established by Gerald Edelman and Rodney Porter, who found a characteristic beta fold in each of its 8 constant domains. The A type is found in saliva and milk, the G type activates macrophages, and the M type is made by B cells early in immune response. Consisting of two heavy chains and two kappa or lambda light chains and variable regions, FTP, name this immune protein produced in response to the presence of a specific antigen.
...
Cold periods stimulate their production in the roots of plants, after which they move upward through the xylem and pass into the leaves and fruits. Including such substances as zeatin and kinetin, they are derivatives of adenine involved with chloroplast development, seed germination, leaf formation, and the breaking of bud dormancy and leaf senescence. FTP, what are these plant growth hormones that work in conjunction with auxin to promote cell division?
...
Commercial examples of these include Vitaxin, which binds to vascular integrin to inhibit angiogenesis and one which binds to tumor necrosis factor-alpha, infliximab. Their usefulness is limited by the HAMA problem and the first step to creating them is finding myeloma cells that cannot synthesize HGPRT. A method to produce them entails fusing a cancerous B-cell with a spleen cell that has already developed a response to a given antigen. FTP, identify these immune-system molecules so named because they are all identical reproductions of the original cell and because they target only one antigen, the invention of which won Kohler and Milstein the 1984 Nobel Prize in Medicine.
...
Commonly-used types include pUC18 and pBluescript, and often contain artificially-inserted cloning sites and antibiotic resistance genes. Occurring primarily in yeast and bacteria, they are used in recombinant DNA procedures as intercellular vectors. For ten points, identify this type of autonomously replicating, non-chromosomal, circular DNA.
...
Cotton blue, a dye used to classify fungal spores, is usually used in a solution of this molecule. MCT1 governs the uptake of this molecule by tumor cells. A landmark study altering one hypothesis about its function was performed by George Brooks. Copolymers of this molecule and another slightly smaller molecule are commonly used as a synthetic, biodegradable extracellular matrix. Buchner and Mesenheimer failed to convert this molecule into alcohol and carbon dioxide, hampering their theory that it is an intermediate in alcoholic fermentation; however, a different type of fermentation, often used by muscle cells, converts glucose into this molecule. For 10 points, name this acid, long thought to be the cause of delayed muscle soreness.
...
Deacetylases for these proteins are recruited by Sin3, which binds to upstream repression sequences in transcriptional regulation. Acetyases like Gcn5 also modify the process of transcription by chemically modifying the lysine rich tails of these, which allows them to function in epigenetic inheritance processes such as imprinting. The 2B, 2A, 3, and 4 varieties are always present in equal amounts, while 1 and 5 varieties are interchangeable. FTP, name these proteins that wind up DNA about themselves to form nucleosomes.
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Defective versions of these can result in RCPD, AMN, and X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy. Another defect results in the inability to metabolize phytanic acid, a condition known as Refsum disease, and it is also the location where plasmalogen synthesis begins. Some proteins being targeted to this organelle rely on a string of serine-lysine-leucine residues at the C-terminus, the SLK sequence. Those amino acids bind to PTSR receptors, defects in which can cause Zellweger syndrome. Fatty acids are oxidized to acetyl CoA here, though it is best known for the enzyme catalase. For 10 points, name this organelle that isolates and degrades toxic peroxide species.
...
Defects in mannose phosphorylation lead to their failure and I-cell disease, characterized by inclusion bodies similar to those seen in Tay-Sachs disease. In excess, Vitamin A can induce hepatotoxicity by weakening the membrane of these organelles in the liver. This break in their membrane releases hydrolytic enzymes, which cause the death of the cell. FTP, name these organelles active during apoptosis, which act as the digestive system of the cell.
...
Defects in these objects can cause Kearn-Sayre Syndrome or Luft Disease. They contain porins to allow for passive diffusion of selected molecules through their outer membranes. They provide evidence for Margulis' endosymbiotic theory and are important to evolutionary and genetic studies due to their derivation solely from the mother. They allow some ribosomes in their matrix to allow for processes such as chemiosmosis and the citric acid cycle. FTP, name these organelles whose primary function is to convert organic materials into ATP, the so-called "powerhouses" of the cell.
...
Degeneration of this organ occurs as a result of Leigh's disease, and it is thought that Meniere's disease results when a section of it swells. Enervated by the spiral ganglion, its namesake duct connects to the canal of Henson. Reissner's membrane, which separates the scala media from the scala vestibule, forms an endolymph-filled compartment in this organ along with the basilar membrane. The helicotrema connects the scala vestibule and the scala tympani, while vibrations are sent to it via the stapes. Containing the organ of Corti, FTP, identify this organ of the inner ear that takes its name from its snail-like shape.
...
Derived from precursor cells adjacent to somites 1-7, this structure upregulates receptors for cannabinoid and melanin concentration hormone receptors in response to low levels of cholescystokinin. In response to baroreceptor signaling from the carotid sinus, this structure induces bradycardia through a muscarinic receptor-mediated response. Damage to this structure can cause a contralateral deviation in the palatine uvula, as well as hoarseness. A namesake reflex involving this structure involves crosstalk between its nodose ganglia and its dorsal motor nucleus. Along with the esophagus, this structure passes through the esophageal hiatus at T10. For 10 points, name this structure of the central nervous system that functions as the major source of the parasympathetic innervation in the body and is known as the tenth cranial nerve.
...
Derived from the third whorl, development of this structure is determined by the coexpression of B class transcription factors AP3 and PI, and C class transcription factors such as AGAMOUS. It consists of two parts: an extending structure, which is absent in some species and functions in nutrient supply, and another structure which is covered by the protective tapetum. Its primary function lies in its four microsporangia where meiosis occurs, and following maturation it undergoes the process of dehiscence and release of its contents. Consisting of the extending filament and the anther, FTP, name this structure, the male reproductive organ of the flowering plants and the location of maturation, storage, and release of pollen.
...
Developed from the lamina terminalis, this structure consists of the rostrum, an enlarged and posterior splenium, the body, the anterior genu, and the ventrally directed rostrum, forming a semicircle when bisected. It is absent in marsupials and monotremes, and in humans it contains about 300 million axons. Its absence during development is responsible for Aicardi syndrome. Alien hand syndrome can result from a treatment of last resort in epilepsy which involves bisection of this structure, which also leads to inability to read words seen from the left eye. FTP, name this structure of the brain that connects the two hemispheres of the cerebrum.
...
During this stage, the spindle asters define the position of the contractile ring and thus the plane of cytokinesis. The nucleoli and nuclear membranes reform and the two groups of chromosomes uncoil to reform chromatin as the spindle which separated them during anaphase breaks down in, for ten points, what stage of mitosis?
cyclic Adenosine Mono Phosphate
...
cysteine (prompt on "C")
...
cytochrome c oxidase
...
cytokinesis
...
cytokinins
...
degradation [prompt on proteolysis; do not accept "ubiquitination"]
...
dendritic cells
...
diaphragm
...
dicotyledons [do not accept 'eudicots']
...
diffusion
...
dinoflagellates or pyrrophyta or pyrrophytes
...
dopamine (or hydroxytyramine)
...
duck-bill platypus [or Ornithorhynchus anatinus]
...
dura mater (accept pachymeninx before it's mentioned)
...
echidna (prompt of spiny anteater before it's mentioned)
...
echinodermata or echinoderms
...
electrophoresis
...
green fluorescent protein [accept GFP]
...
growth factors
...
horsetails (Accept early Equistem or Spenopsida)
...
hypermutation [accept somatic hypermutation; accept SHM; prompt on mutation; prompt on clear-knowledge equivalents like fast mutation]
...
hyphae
...
insulin
...
...
Enzymes involved in this process include enolase and aldolase, and some of its stages include fructose-6-phosphate and PGAL. A net gain of 2 ATP results from this process, which begins when hexokinase and ATP are added to a certain type of sugar. Its end products are two pyruvate molecules, and it can occur with or without oxygen being present. Also known as the * Embden-Meyerhof pathway, FTP, name this respiration process in which glucose is split in two.
...
Especially tolerant of smoke, cold, and drought, this slender deciduous tree has fan-shaped leaves. The only remaining species of an order arising in the Permian, it was saved from extinction by Buddhist monks who planted it near temples in eastern China. For ten points, name this "living fossil," a gymnosperm whose root is used in certain herbal remedies.
...
Examples of these include tetrahydrofolic acid, which transfers single carbon groups, and FMN, which aids in the oxidation of L-amino acids. Biotin functions as one in a particular carboxylation and lipoamide and thiamine pyrophosphate both work as these in the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. Categorized as either catalytic or stoichiometric, crucial ones include FAD and NAD-plus and the "Q" variety is used in the electron transport chain. Also including the acetylated "A" variety that reacts with oxaloacetate in the Krebs cycle, these are, FTP, what organic molecules required for enzyme activation?
phosphate ion/s [or phosphates; or PO4-three-minus before mentioned]
...
phospholipids
...
phyletic gradualism
...
phylum Mollusca or mollusks
...
pineal gland
...
pituitary gland
...
placenta
...
plant hormones [accept jasmonates until “Kurasawaâ€]
...
platelets (accept thrombocytes on early buzz)
...
polio [or poliovirus; or poliomyelitis]
...
poliomyelitis or infantile paralysis
...
poliovirus (do not accept poliomyelitis)
...
poly-A tail
...
polymerase chain reaction
...
...
Flannery and Groves discovered a new species and subspecies of these in 1998. Belonging to either the tachyglossus or zaglossus genus, they are endangered in some regions because of their edible meat. Different species are distinguished by the length of their beaks, which contain electroreceptors, and the length of their spines. Living in New Guinea, Tasmania, and Australia, they outwardly resemble the hedgehog, though they are in a different order from it. FTP, name this creature sometimes known as the spiny anteater; one of two varieties of monotreme, along with the duck-billed platypus.
...
Following a 70-year absence in the Western Hemisphere, there was a major outbreak of this disease in Peru in 1991. Although a vaccine is currently available for it, it is only effective for three to six months. Another problem with the vaccine is that this disease's short incubation period of 12 to 28 hours does not allow for effective antibody production. The bacterium Vibrio comma has been identified as its carrier and shows up in the bloodstream following the early symptomatic purging diarrhea. Often contracted through ingestion of fecal-contaminated food and water, FTP, name this acute infectious disease of the intestines.
...
Found on the ventral side abdomen, they number from one to four pairs and house minute tubes which open onto spigot structures. A mixture of proteins, including fibroin, harden in these organs and are released as solid strands which can be used for, among other things, wrapping prey and making egg cases. For 10 points, name these arachnid organs which conduct and hold silk.
sonic hedgehog homolog (Accept shh, prompt on partial)
...
species [or word forms like speciation]
...
spinnerets
...
spirogyra (prompt on pond scum, water silk, or mermaid's tresses)
...
spleen
...
splicing
...
stamen (accept anther before "structure")
...
stem cells
...
steroids
...
stomach
...
streptomycin
...
stromatolites
...
supercoiling
...
syphilis (accept "diabetes" before it is mentioned)
...
t-cells (prompt on lymphocytes)
...
telomeres (do not accept telomerase)
...
telophase
...
the Kinsey Report [or Sexual Behavior in the Human Male]
...
the cerebrum [or telencephalon; do not accept or prompt on “cerebellumâ€]
...
the myelin sheath
...
the small intestine [prompt on duodenum or jejunum before "Peyer's"; prompt on ileum before "Oddi"; prompt on intestine]
...
the thymus gland
...
the kidneys
...
thiamine [or B1]
...
thin-layer chromatography (accept early TLC)
...
thymus
...
thyroid gland
...
tibia (prompt on shinbone before it is mentioned)
...
transcription
...
transfection (but not "transformation" or "transduction")
...
transfer RNA
...
translation [accept translocation until "EF-Tu"]
...
transposons (prompt on jumping genes)
...
...
Given to newborns to prevent hemorraghic disease, one form is synthesized by bacteria in the human colon. Another form consists of several napthoquinone compounds found in the leaves of plants, including alfalfa, where it was isolated in 1939. It is necessary for the synthesis of prothrombin and several other coagulation factors. FTP, name this fat-soluble vitamin whose deficiency impairs blood clotting.
...
Goldbeter and Koshland expanded it in a 1983 paper to account for ultrasensitivity brought on by covalent modification, and the pigment depletion formula is one modification of it. Savageau considered dimensionally restricted conditions, and a key step in its derivation was due to Briggs and Haldane. An Eadie-Hofstee diagram uses it, though it is more famously the basis of the double reciprocal Lineweaver-Burke plot. One of its namesake's eponymous constant used in it can be defined as the substrate concentration at which the reaction occurs at half of its maximum speed. For 10 points, name this doubly eponymous equation that describes enzyme kinetics.
transposons [or transposable genetic elements; prompt on jumping genes]
...
trematoda or trematodes or flukes
...
trilobites
...
trilobites [or Trilobita]
...
tryptophan
...
ubiquitin
...
uracil
...
urea cycle
...
uterus
...
uterus or womb
...
vacuole
...
vagus nerve
...
vitamin C or ascorbic acid
...
vitamin D or calciferol
...
walrus
...
xanthophyll (accept grudgingly phylloxanthin)
...
 GPCRs [or G-protein coupled receptors; or Serpentine receptors; accept G proteins until “Frizzledâ€; prompt after]
...
 hippocampus [prompt on “limbic system†until “alveusâ€; then do not accept it]
...
 insulin
...
 lactic acid [or lactate; or 2-hydroxypropanoic acid; or milk acid]
...
 maize [or corn; or Zea mays; or Z. mays]
...
...
H+ ions are used to create a charge gradient. Constituent molecules include FMN, ubiquinone, cytochromes, and finaly oxygen. Inputs of NAD and to a lesser extent FAD come from the break down of pyruvic acid, glycolysis, and most significantly the Krebs Cycle. Occuring on the inner membrane of the mitochondria, FTP, name this series of chemical reactions, central to aerobic respiration, involving the passing of hydrogen electrons to synthesize ATP.
...
HSP90 aids in the delivery of substances to the translocase of outer membrane complex found on these entities, which are also the site of the combination of protoporphyrin IX with iron to form heme. Kearns-Sayre syndrome and Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy are examples of diseases associated with the transfer of their genetic material, a process which in over 99 percent of mammals involves maternal inheritance as there are roughly 1000 times more of these in oocytes than in sperm. Along with chloroplasts, these are the subjects of endosymbiotic theory, and the foldings of its inner membrane are known as cristae. FTP, identify this double-membrane cell organelle that generates the majority of the ATP in a cell.
...
Hand2 is an upstream regulator of this molecule. The disorder HPE3, which is caused by deletions on the long arm of chromosome 7, is due to loss of activity of this gene; that disorder is a type of holoprosencephaly. The secretion of this protein relies upon cholesterol-mediated autoproteolytic cleavage, and it induces the differentiation of floor plate cells. Riddle and colleagues demonstrated that this protein defines the zone of polarizing activity. This protein causes the disassociation of Gli proteins from microtubules by Smoothened when it binds to its receptor, Patched. While this protein is expressed by the developing notochord and directs neural tube and somite patterning in mammals, related proteins are expressed postnatally in the Sertoli cells and the gut and are known as the "desert" and "Indian" versions. For 10 points, name this embryonic developmental regulator named after a blue Sega Genesis character.
...
He classified three types of papillae and distinguished between the horny and reticular layers of the tongue in his De lingua. In his first book, which consisted of two letters sent to his friend Giovanni Borelli, he built on recent observations on Jean Pecquet to argue that hematosis, or the conversion of chyle to blood, doesn't occur in the liver but in the lungs. His microscopic observation of a clot of coagulated blood led him to discover red corpuscles, as reported in his On Heart Polyps, while he discovered the aortic arches, the protoliver, and the glands of the prestomach in his work on embryology. He discovered stomata in leaves, and produced a pioneering description of the silkworm moth, but is best known for his work on frogs, in which he made the first observations of the capillary system. FTP, name this physician to Pope Innocent XII, an Italian biologist known for his namesake tubules in insects.
...
Helicobacter pylori contains genes for homologs of this protein, allowing it to survive inside the stomach. Deficiency of its type II variety is autosomal recessive and results in osteopetrosis and cerebral calcification. It can be inhibited by acetazolamide, methazolamide, and dichlorphenamide, all of which are used to treat glaucoma. In hippocampal cells, it regulates GABA theta activity, while renal tubule cells utilize it in conserving bases and parietal cells use it to generate HCl for stomach acid. Its discovery in 1932 made it the first known enzyme to utilize a zinc-containing active site. With one of the highest turnover numbers of any known enzyme, this is, FTP, what enzyme that rapidly converts carbon dioxide and water into bicarbonate and protons?
...
His first major contribution to biology came in 1876, when an epidemic struck in Silesia. He was able to isolate the bacteria responsible, transferring it from the host into mice and eventually into blood serum kept at body temperature. Eventually he was able to make use of agar to create cultures of bacteria and used them to create an inoculation against the anthrax bacteria five years later. His most famous work came one year later in 1882 when he was able to use the same techniques to find the bacterium responsible for tuberculosis. FTP, name this German physician whose work confirmed Pasteur's germ theory and won him the Nobel Prize in 1905.
...
Huang et al. showed that expression of microRNAs miR-373 and miR-520c promotes this process by suppressing expression of CD44. Gain of function mutations in the transcription factor Twist can promote this process by incorrectly inducing the Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition. Activation of matrix metalloproteases to degrade the basal lamina and facilitates this process, but it is frequently abortive because the cells are ripped apart by shear forces. In vitro, this process can be analyzed using a trans-well migration assay and is responsible for 90% of the deaths due to cancer. For ten points, identify this process by which a tumor leaves the tissue where it developed and colonizes other areas of the body.
...
In 2000, Sohn et al. described a variant of this technique that uses capacitance as an alternative to more traditional measurements. This technique often uses propidium iodide and Hoechst dyes, and one important technique associated with it is known as compensation. One type of this technique was developed by Leonard Herzenberg, and its acronym is trademarked by Becton Dickinson, a leading producer of devices used in it. This technique is based on the concept of hydrodynamic focusing, which produces a single file of droplets, and a photodiode detects forward and backward scatter caused by fluorescently-labeled objects inside the droplets. For 10 points, name this technique most often used to sort cells based on physical characteristics.
name this structure that also contains a series of infoldings known as cristae, and which is often called the "powerhouse of the cell."
Impaired function of this structure causes the abnormal growth poky strain of the Neurospora mold and the petite mutation in Saccharomyces results in its mutation. MERRF disease also causes aberrant ones and Leber's hereditary optical neuropathy sufferers exhibit lesions within its genome. It contains a large channel-protein called porin, which is found outside of the large internal space known as the matrix. For 10 points
...
In this structure, DES exposure can disrupt Msx2-dependent apoptosis during development, and Gartner cysts are derived from its remnants. GDNF induces caudal budding in this structure, which develops as a solid cord of cells from the mesonephros and subsequently forms a tube. Bisphenol A promotes the retention of this structure in females. A hormone secreted by the Leydig cells promotes the differentiation of this structure, and, if AMH is not expressed, it begins to degenerate about ten weeks after conception. For 10 points, name this embryonic ductal system which develops into the epididymis, seminal vesicles, and vas deferens in the presence of testosterone while the Mullerian system degenerates.
...
In women who have just given birth, this hormone accumulates in the cerebrospinal fluid and is believed to aid development of maternal instincts. The presence of leucine in the three amino acid tail attacked to its 6 amino acid ring differentiates it from antidiuretic hormone. Both are synthesized in the hypothalamus and transported to the anterior pituitary for secretion into the blood. Achieving its purposes by causing contraction of smooth muscle, FTP, what is this hormone responsible for milk secretion and uterine contraction during childbirth?
...
In young plants it is formed by activity of the apical meristem. In older plants its secondary variety is differentiated by the vascular cambium. It contains P-proteins, which help assimilate transport, and in roots calose, detectable by resorcin blue, is deposited along its sieve cells, while the stem and leaves generally consist of sieve tubes and sieve plates. Responsible for the conduction of food materials in plants, FTP, identify this plant tissue considered the analog to xylem.
...
Infection with this disease has been suggested as a factor contributing to the rising male to female birth ratio in China. SmithKline isolated its Australia antigen and inserted it into yeast to produce a cheap vaccine, making this the only sexually transmitted disease for which a vaccine is available. A 3.2 kilobase hep-ad-na-virus, its complete viron is called the Dane particle and contains three antigens, a surface antigen, a core antigen, and the "e" antigen. Found most endemic in southeast Asia and the Pacific Rim, FTP, name this viral condition, which is the second most common cause of cancer behind tobacco, and which causes 250,000 deaths a year from acute and chronic liver disease.
...
Initially discovered by electron microscopy of adenovirus sequences and in the mouse beta-globin gene, they may have contributed to speeding the evolution of eukaryotic proteins by increasing the probability of favorable recombination events. These sequences may be bound by hnRNPs, marking them for nuclear retention and destruction. Reactions involving them may be self-sustained through ribozymes, or may be mediated by a collection of small ribo-nucleo-proteins in spliceosomes. Their discovery won Sharp and Roberts the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1993. FTP, name these sequences of RNA which are transcribed but are excised during maturation of mRNA, the counterpart to exons.
...
Interferon alpha was the first drug approved specifically to treat it, while less toxic drugs for milder cases include topical retinoid gels. Groups previously considered at highest risk for it included Ashkenazi Jews and elderly Mediterranean men, but its spread to a larger subset of the population brought it to greater prominence. The most effective treatment for it currently known is antiretroviral therapy, which can reduce the edema, enlarged lymph nodes, and colored skin lesions up to many centimeters in diameter. FTP, identify this cancer, the most common malignancy associated with AIDS.
...
It is differentiated from a closely related hormone by the fact that it dilates the blood vessels of skeletal muscles and the liver and by its secretion at a ratio of 1 to 4 with its partner hormone by the ends of sympathetic nerve fibers. It is used as an aid to asthma sufferers since it dilates the bronchioles. It inhibits digestion and excretion, increases heart activity, increases the rate of breathing, and increases the power and stamina of muscles. Often injected into the hearts of cardiac arrest victims, FTP, what is this hormone whose release during times of stress has led it to be called the "emergency hormone"?
...
It uses a pair of aspartate residues to perform its most important function, using a parallel evolution scheme similar to that seen in HIV protease. Created as an inactive "proenzyme," it initially has a block of 44 extra amino acids that cover the active site groove until it has reached its destination. The second enzyme to be crystallized, after urease, and the first to be synthesized, by Theodor Schwann in 1836, it is completely inactive above pH levels of 6, which explains the need for hydrochloric acid as a catalyst. FTP, name this enzyme of the stomach which degrades whole proteins into their peptide constituents.
...
Its "A" portion is explained by the "Pac-Man" or poleward-flux models. In S. cerevisiae, the Mad and Bub genes regulate a checkpoint that controls the onset of this stage that is released by the action of a protein complex containing Cdc27. The breakdown of securin indirectly activates the FEAR pathway during its early steps, and the ensuing release of separase also promotes the breakdown of cohesin and the separation of paired sister chromatids after they line up on the metaphase plate. FTP, identify this stage of mitosis which precedes telophase.
...
Its upper portion forms the top part of the greater curvature. The lesser curvature, which also begins at the cardiac orifice, is about four times shorter than the greater curvature, so it is described as J-shaped. Its volume increases when the rugae are stretched. Parietal cells produce intrinsic factor, necessary for vitamin B12 absorption, and a chemical that activates the zymogen secreted by chief cells. Gelatinase, amylase lipase and pepsin participate in breaking down boli, producing chyme which passes through the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum. FTP, name this organ that lies between the esophagus and small intestine.
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Jacques Loeb was the first to induce this artificially in 1900, but the phenomenon had been discovered by Charles Bonnet in 1745 while he was studying the habits of aphids. Gregory Pincus, in experiments on rabbit fertility in 1963, was the first to produce this effect in mammals. It occurs in whiptail lizards, though they still display courtship behavior among all females, and it is most notably demonstrated by the birth of male hymenopterans. Recently produced in mice by mutating one egg to simulate a sperm for another, FTP name this form of asexual reproduction in which an egg develops without fertilization.
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Kim and Min developed a method of destroying this compound by decomposing it into lumichrome, 2,3-butanedione, and another namesake compound. Coenzymes related to this compound complement cytochrome P-450 in certain metabolic reactions, and recent studies suggest that it can normalize lactate levels in patients with Complex I deficiencies. Deficiency of this vitamin can be detected by examining the relative activity of either xanthine oxidase or erythrocyte glutathione reductase, and its deficiency can lead to increased risk of both cancer of the esophagus and preeclampsia. Also confirmed to play a role in reducing the frequency of migraines, for 10 points, name this component of FAD and FMN, a water-soluble vitamin also known as B2.
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Later in life this man turned to the study of malaria and found that the tertian and quartan types of the disease were caused by different species of the protozoan parasite Plasmodium. He is better known for his study of nerves, for which he developed the technique of staining nerve cells with silver nitrate and found the point at which sensory nerve fibres end in rich branchings encapsulated within a tendon, the tendon spindle named for him. For 10 points name this co-winner of the 1906 Nobel Prize for Medicine best remembered for his discovery of an irregular system of fibrils, vesicles, and granules in the cell known as his "apparatus".
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Like other Dromaeosaurids, it had a large brain for its body size, and it inhabited hot, dry ecosystems about 80 million years ago during the late Cretaceous period. The fossil remains of one were found with a Protoceratops, as they had killed each other in battle. There is only one recognized species of it, V. mongoliensis, named for its discovery in central Asia. About two meters long, current theory suggests it may have been covered with feathers, and it had a sickle-like, 9 centimeter retractable claw on the middle toe of each foot. A bipedal dinosaur that may have hunted in packs with a name meaning "swift robber," FTP identify this dinosaur made famous by Michael Crichton's Jurassic Park.
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Like the thymus, this gland is larger in children and begins to shrink with the onset of puberty. It can be easily seen on X-rays due to small deposits of calcium that it receives, and it can be alternately referred to as the epiphysis cerebri. In lower vertebrates it functions as a light receptor and is believed to be the predecessor to the human eye. Its primary endocrine function in humans is the secretion of melatonin. FTP, identify this tiny gland, which derives its name from its pine-cone shape.
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Lowe syndrome causes a deficiency of an enzyme which affects the metabolic processes that take place in this cell structure. One of its main functions is the remodeling of oligosaccharides, while other functions include the synthesis of lipids like sphingomyelin and the addition of sulfate groups to tyrosine. Often located near endoplasmic reticulum exit sites, it uses clathrin-coated vesicles to send certain proteins to lysosomes and other vesicles to secrete proteins from the cell. FTP, name this organelle divided into stacks of flattened, membrane-bounded cisternae, which packages and sorts newly-created proteins.
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Many of this scientist's publications were narrow in focus, including "On the Various Contrivances By Which British and Foreign Orchids are Fertilized by Insects" and a detailed treatise on barnacles, the latter of which was intended to pass the time until he felt his most important work would be accepted. He attempted to address difficulties in his work in the late publication "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals", while earlier he had expanded on his groundbreaking work in 1871's "The Descent of Man", which elaborated on an idea developed independently by Alfred Wallace. FTP, who was this British scientist who described his ideas on natural selection in "On the Origin of Species"?
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Members of this phylum possess gelatinous mesohyl regions through which food-collecting amoebocytes travel. Most are hermaphrodites, lack nerves and muscles, and were not regarded as animals until the eighteenth century. Water flows through the osculum in and out of the central cavity, called the spongocoel. FTP, identify this invertebrate phylum which includes the sponges.
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Molecular factors that establish identity of these structures are the class B genes such as DEFICIENS and GLOBOSA in snapdragons and AP3 and PI in the model system Arabidopsis. The products of the AP3 and PI genes interact with a set of eponymous E class genes to promote development of these structures by transcription of specific targets. Eudicots often have four or five, while monocots often have three, and collectively they are called the corolla. Arising from the second whorl in the perianth along with sepals, FTP, name these highly modified leaves of the flower, the showy parts which attract pollinators.
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MuSK acts with rapsyn to colocalize receptors for this molecule when it binds to the proteoglycan agrin found in the basal lamina. Binding of this molecule to those receptors causes a rotation of five transmembrane M2 helices. Alpha-bungarotoxin blocks the activity of this molecule, which is broken down by a namesake esterase rather than reuptaken in the synaptic cleft. The enzyme that catalyzes this molecule's synthesis is at abnormally low concentrations in Alzheimer's patients. Black widow venom stimulates excess release of this molecule, while botulinum toxin blocks its release; both result in paralysis. For 10 points, name this molecule found at the neuromuscular junction.
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Much of this tissue's extracellular matrix consists of proteoglycans, primarily aggrecan bound to a hyaluronan backbone. The aggrecan core protein is heavily glycosylated by keratin sulfate and chondroitin sulfate, making it very negatively charged and extremely hydrated, properties which lead to its cushioning effect. Collagen fibrils give the matrix tensile strength, while the chondrocytes make up only a small percentage of tissue volume. FTP, name this non-vascular tissue that is found in the trachea, ear lobes, at the tip of the nose, and in joints.
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Mutations in the EFHC1 gene were recently found to disrupt their formation, which is inhibited by nocodazole in flow cytometry. Stathmin and Tektin interact with these structures, and they oscillate between "catastrophe" and "rescue" in a process called dynamic instability. The Gamma-TuRC complex assists with their formation. Drugs like Colchicine disrupt the dynamics of these structures. Dyein is a motor protein which moves toward the minus end of them, while kinesin moves toward the plus end. Nine doublets of them surround two singlets in flagella and cilia, and they form the spindle fibers that separate chromosomes during mitosis. For 10 points, name these structures composed of tubulin, which, along with microfilaments and intermediate filaments, make up the cytoskeleton.
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Naphthaline diimides exemplify the "threading" variety of this class of compounds. Most of them are cationic and planar in structure, a feature that allows them to displace the cationic sheath often formed by magnesium and sodium ions. The interaction of these compounds with their targets is facilitated by breathing and causes the targets to lengthen, differentiating these chemicals from compounds like distamycin A. Leonard Lerman described the "classical" model of these compounds based on his work with acridine orange. Another example, doxorubicin, is a topoisomerase II poison, while all of these compounds partially unwind their target substrate, inhibiting RNA polymerase II and causing insertions and deletions. For 10 points, name this group of mutagens which includes ethidium bromide, all of which distort the structure of DNA by inserting between base pairs.
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One of its phosphorylated derivatives acts as a coenzyme in the synthesis of sucrose, lactose, glycogen, and chitin, and often donates phosphate groups to ADP. It was first isolated from herring sperm, and this pyrimidine pairs naturally with adenine. For ten points, identify this nitrogenous base which is involved in RNA synthesis but does not occur in DNA.
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One of this muscle's insertions is on the xiphoid process, which exists in the arterior median. This muscle's medial crura arise from the bodies of lumbar vertebrae, while its medial arcuate ligament is attached to the transverse process of the II lumbar vertebra. Innervated by the phrenic nerve, the arch of the quadratus lumborum is perhaps this muscle's most telling feature. Shaped like a large dome, FTP, identify this skeletal muscle that expands and contracts the thoracic cavity during respiration.
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Orphaned before he turned five, his siblings sent him to St. George's hospital, where he trained under John Hunter before returning, at the age of 23, to Gloucestershire. One of the first doctors to associate angina with artheriosclerosis, he won his greatest award, induction into the Royal Society, for correctly describing the nesting habits of cuckoos. FTP, name the English doctor, who, fascinated with the folklore that milkmaids rarely caught smallpox, invented the first vaccination.
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Overproduction of endolymph in this organ can lead to a condition know as Meniere's disease. Here, shearing causes stereocilia to pivot at their base, which in turn causes the opening of ion channels and release of neurotransmitter. A gelatinous, spiral shaped mass, its over twenty thousand outer hair cells are rooted in the tectorial membrane. These cells amplify tiny movements of the basilar membrane of the cochlea; if the movement of this membrane is too harsh, its hair cells can die, leading to deafness. FTP, name this organ of the inner ear where sound waves are transformed into nerve impulses.
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Overproduction of the epsilon subunit of one of these proteins counteracts the SOS response generated to nalidixic acid, while the epsilon subunit of a different one of these proteins is phosphorylated by the cyclin-dependent kinase Cdc28. The idling turnover reaction is catalyzed by the Klenow fragment of a third protein in this class, and a homolog of that fragment in a certain bacteria is called Klentaq. The delta subunit of these proteins complexes with PCNA and Rfc to form a complex that kicks out a complex containing the alpha subunit after a primer is formed. For 10 points, name this class of proteins that add nucleotides to the leading and lagging strands of DNA during DNA replication.
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Pauwels classification describes fractures to one part of this bone, which suffers avascular necrosis in Legg-Calve-Perthes disease. Several muscles attach to this bone via the linea aspera, and its points of attachment to other structures include the lateral and medial condyles and the greater and lesser trochanters. This bone is the origin of the vastus lateralis. The head of this bone joins with the acetabulum of the coxal bone in a ball and socket style joint. This bone connects with the patella and articulates with the tibia. For 10 points, name this longest bone in the body which is located in the thigh.
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Peter Mitchell first enunciated its mechanism of action in 1961. All the clusters involved are non-heme proteins and are Iron-Sulfur conglomerations. All four transitions possess a negative delta G in this series of reactions that were the centerpiece of Mitchell's chemiosmotic theory. The b-c2 complex follows ubiquinone in this pathway that also utilizes NADH dehydrogenase and several cytochromes. The final step results in the production of two water molecules, FTP, in this pathway that follows the Krebs cycle in aerobic metabolism and releases energy for ATP formation.
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Phosphorylation of serine and threonine residues in PEST domains activates this process when it is mediated by calpains, and when mediated by the von Hippel-Lindau complex, a leucine at position 574 of HIF-1a is necessary. Ti and La are ATPases that perform this process in E. coli, and this process can also be performed using phenyl isothiocyanate. The cathepsins perform this process in lysosomes. An artificial version of this process uses phenyl isothiocyanate in a method named for a Swedish scientist. The F-box protein binds to proteins destined for this process to allow for ubiquitination. For 10 points, name this process whose "Edman" variety allows for protein sequencing, the breaking down of proteins.
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Pogo and tad are two of the few examples of these entities found in Neurospora. In May 2005, Kapitonov and Jurka found the first "free-living" one in a tunicate. Nancy Kleckner used the lacZ gene to demonstrate one process performed by them, while another process was modeled by Jim Shapiro, after whom an intermediate involving them is named. Johng Kim studied their hobo variety, and Discovery Genomics, Inc. has trademarked the Sleeping Beauty variant. Some forms of hemophilia may be caused by the LINE variety, and the SINE variety includes the Alu gene that accounts for around ten percent of human DNA. Unlike replicons, they do not contain their own replication origin. For 10 points, name these genetic elements that include the P element, which "jump" from place to place in a molecule of DNA.
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Political pressure led to a six-year investigation of its findings by the American Statistical Institute. Resulting from a zoology professor's frustration at the lack of available data, each participant was asked about three hundred questions on their own experiences, leading to conclusions such as the "ten percent" figure for homosexuals in the United States. FTP, name this influential 1948 collection of data on sexuality.
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Possibly a "living fossil", these mammals are found in Africa and parts of the Middle East. Some species are tree dwellers, others live on the ground, all feed on vegetation. They are about 20 inches in length, with a head that is thick and pointed; short, rounded ears; a short neck and squat body with short thin legs and a rudimentary tail. The feet, which are equipped with soft, elastic pads for climbing, have hooflike claws; each forefoot has four toes, and each hindfoot has three, with the inner toe on each foot much reduced in size. FTP identify these ungulate mammals which externally resemble rodents but in internal anatomy are related to both horses and elephants.
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Pott's disease softens this anatomical part and features migrating abscesses that move up and down the structure. It begins below the foramen magnum and features a primary curve modified by three more, while its consistent parts each feature a centrum with a y-shaped arch. Its sections at the top named atlas and axis form the cervical region, while the caudal region ends with the coccyx. FTP identify this structure which evolved from the primitive notochord and protects the Central Nervous System.
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Primary brain tumors result from their out of control reproduction, and their ependymal variety is thought to play a role in the blood brain barrier. Two main classes of them include astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. They are destroyed at the sites of multiple sclerosis lesions, so that damaged myelin is not repaired by their Schwann type. Smaller than neurons and 5 to 50 times more numerous, they make up half the volume of the central nervous system. FTP, name these cells that nourish and support other brain cells, perhaps named because of the postulate that they are the "glue" holding nervous tissues together.
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Repetition of a section of DNA on chromosome 4 is linked with the myotonic version of this disease, and is characterized by the inability of the muscles of the hands and feet to relax properly. A common version called the fascio-scapulo-humeral type affects the face and shoulders, and is found in both sexes. Becker's version is a more mild form of the main type, Duchenne's, which appears between the ages of 3 and 5, causing progressive wasting of the legs and pelvis. FTP, what is this disease that causes atrophy of skeletal muscle?
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RANKL and M-CSF can promote the transdifferentiation of osteoclasts into this cell type. Their namesake grabbing non-integrin protein promotes their interaction with ICAM-3 receptors. Steinman and Cohn first identified them in Mishell-Dutton culture. Subtypes of these cells include the plasmacytoid and follicular classes, while another subtype possess Birbeck granules, are found in the epidermis, and are called Langerhans cells. These immune cells are capable of cross-presentation of MHC-1-antigen complexes from other cells, and this type of cell can be pre-incubated with antigen and used as a vaccine. Unlike macrophages and lymphocytes, these MHC-2-expressing cells can activate both helper AND naïve T cells. FTP, name this class of antigen-presenting cells named for their branching pseudopods which resemble a type of neural structure.
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Recent developments in therapy for this disease have included BLyS [bliss] antagonists and DR5 agonists which act on B cells. The cause of Libman-Sacks endocarditis, serum markers of this disease include increased antinuclear antibodies, deposits of which are increased with renal diseases such as membranous glomerulonephritis. A disease that primarily affects women, massive joint inflammation and degeneration is often the most dehabilitating part of the disease. FTP, name this autoimmune disorder that often presents initially with a photosensitive butterfly rash on the face that can sometimes be described as a wolf bite.
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Recent research suggests that c-Jun N-terminal kinases are important for the development of these entities, a specific type of which, lacis cells, help to form an apparatus that controls blood pressure. These entities also have a large cytokine-secretion profile that includes tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-8. Some cytokines released by these cells are important in activating natural killer cells, and others play a role in activating the acute-phase response. Specific ones of these local to the liver are called Kupffer cells, while those local to the kidney are called mesangial cells. Descendants of monocytes, these cells mature when entering damaged tissue through the process of leukocyte extravasation. For 10 points, name these myeloid-lineage cells of the innate immune system that possess a name meaning "big eaters."
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Rokitansky syndrome results from the failure of this organ to develop, and the hormone modulator raloxifene, unlike tamoxifen, acts as an antagonist in this organ. Atrogin-1, an atrophy-related ubiquitin ligase, is highly expressed in this organ during involution. During adenomyosis, the junctional zone of this organ becomes thicker, and this organ comes in simplex, duplex, bipartite and bicornite varieties that correspond to different degrees of fusion of the Mullerian ducts among different species. Its lining is sometimes known as the decidua, but is usually called the endometrium. FTP, name this female reproductive organ in which gestation occurs.
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Samuel Murray has hypothesized that the first-discovered member of this class of molecules was actually a fragment of spp-24 that binds to them. Mesenchymal cells of the septum transversum use one of these molecules as a signal to induce albumin expression in the endoderm of the liver. Interaction between type I and type II receptors of this class of molecules can lead to the initiation of transcription of R-Smads, and juvenile polyposis can be mimicked through overexpression of noggin, an inhibitor of them. They were first discovered by Marshall Urist, and a gradient in them regulates the expression of Msx, a protein necessary for the specification of the neural crest. For 10 points, name this class of proteins named for their ability to induce formation of new bone tissue.
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Sandhoff disease is related to this disease, and the metabolism of 4-methyl-lumbelli-ferone is used in the biochemical test which detects this disease. It is caused by a mutation in the HEXA gene, which leads to a deficiency of hexosaminidase A. Compounds made of sialic acid and glycosphingolipids called gangliosides are not metabolized in this condition, which results in the "cherry-red" spot that can be seen on the retina of patients with this condition. For 10 points, name this fatal genetic disorder that mostly affects infants and is especially common among Ashkenazi Jews.
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Saturated in lipid membranes bound by lecithin, this molecule consists of two 1-1-dimethyl-2-ene-3-methyl-5-hydroxyl-cyclohexane rings linked by a 3-6-11-15 tetramethyl octadecene chain. Its namesake cycle, which occurs at high light intensities, enables non-photochemical quenching by gaining or losing two epoxide groups. At diminished light intensities, it transfers light energy to chlorophyll-alpha before decaying at lower temperatures to reveal anthocyanin and tannin. FTP, name this carotenoid alcohol responsible for the yellow color of deciduous plants in autumn.
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Several of its proteins contain a unique 36 amino acid sequence known as SXC domains. It can enter a dauer stage when stressed during development, whereas normally an anchor cell uses the LIN-3 growth factor to direct the formation of its vulva. The 2006 Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology was awarded for work on RNA interference in it, and Sydney Brenner is famous for using it to study apoptosis, which it uses to eliminate 131 cells on its way to a total of 959 somatic cells, each with a known lineage. Useful because of its transparency and developmental invariability, FTP, name this first multi-cellular animal to have its genome sequenced, a nematode often used as a model organism in biological research.
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Since Soai reactants are rigid gamma-aminoaldehydes, they cannot function as these. In plants, they increase the availability of nutrients and prevent nutrients from leaching, since free ions are not very stable. Vitamin B12 is an example involving a central cobalt ion and a corrin system, and they are generally chemical compounds that are found in the form of a heterocyclic ring that contains a metal ion attached by coordinate bonds to at least two nonmetal ions. FTP, give this word, which in medicine is used as a verb designating the process of removing a heavy metal from the bloodstream by one of the namesake objects, a coordination complex involving a polydentate ligand.
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Some of its members play an important role in reducing erosion along streams, and they have a sporophyte generation that has different nutritional requirements than that of the gametophyte. Very common in moist regions like the tropics and temperate locations, some can still withstand prolonged drought in more arid regions. Requiring free water to reproduce sexually, few of them grow to more than two centimeters in length due to this necessity. About 10,000 species total, they can contain slender projective roots called rhizoids to anchor them to their substrates. Containing liverworts, hornworts, and mosses, FTP, name this most primitive division of nonvascular plants.
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Some of the primary constituents of this are sodium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate, and cholecystokinin is the primary stimulus for its release through the sphincter of Oddi. The body produces about 600 milliliters of it per day, though most of its salts are recycled via the enterohepatic circulation. These salts are much more water-soluble than their precursor acids, giving them the amphipathic property necessary for this fluid's primary function. FTP, name this substance that helps emulsify fats for digestion, and which is stored in the gall bladder after being produced in the liver.
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Some of these units possess an attenuator site which can control processes according to the amount of end-product found in the cell. If a represser molecule binds to one of its adjacent loci transcription is prevented, but if an inducer binds to the represser its promoter site can bind the RNA polymerase, initiating transcription of its structural genes. Proposed in the Jacob-Monod hypothesis and modeled after the lac version, FTP, what are these genetic units which control gene expression in bacteria.
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Some organisms like Haemophilus and Legionella do not respond well to its last part, the usage of safranin, so sometimes a basic solution of fuchsin is substituted instead. The decolorization arising from what is generally a mixture of ethanol and acetone serves to get rid of a lipid layer, and its second step generally uses iodine as mordant to fix the dye. Its first and most important step sometimes uses methylene blue instead of the usual crystal-violet dye. FTP, identify this test for the presence of peptidoglycan in bacterial cell walls, named for its Danish creator.
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Sometimes detected by the application of Limulus Amebocyte Lysate, most enteric illnesses are attributed to this bacterial class. It is distinguishable from its counterpart by the presence of an outer membrane in the cell wall that is composed primarily of lipopolysaccharide. Endotoxins retained in the lipid portion of the outer membrane are released when these bacilli disintegrate, causing fever and circulatory collapse in the host organism. FTP, name these bacteria that lose their stain when a decolorizing alcohol is applied.
one with 14 amino acids and another with 28, the longer form is secreted by the pancreas where it inhibits glucagon and insulin. FTP, name this hormone whose shorter form is primarily produced in the anterior hypothalamus and carried to the anterior pituitary where it inhibits the release of growth hormone.
Stimulation of cells to produce this hormone is a long process when compared to others due to its dependence on cyclic AMP for stimulation of transcription. When at extremely high levels, it causes a syndrome of diabetes, gallstones, and inhibited stomach acid secretion. Modificatons in synthetic forms of this hormone include an ethylene bridge to replace a disulfide bridge, and is used in patients with carcinoid syndrome and acromegaly. Present in two forms
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Structurally, its transporter is unique among secondary transporters due to the presence of eight membrane-spanning alpha-helices and two pore-loop structures. Following a rise in calcium concentration, astrocytes release this compound to help communication. This compound activates AMPA and NMDA receptors that depolarize cell membranes, one of the reasons it is suspected of causing epileptic seizures. FTP, name this primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, which is also a negatively charged amino acid with side chain CH2CH2COO minus, and which may best known for its monosodium variety.
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Studies of metabolic similarities and ribosomal RNA sequences suggest that these organisms form a good, monophyletic taxon. Motile species of them utilize the same gliding locomotion as other gram-negative gliding bacteria, and while they are unicellular, they sometimes form colonies of filaments, sheets, or hollow balls joined by a sheath of mucilage. Some possess the red pigment phycoerythrin, while all of them possess phycocyanin, which led them to be misclassified. FTP, what are these prokaryotes found in all aquatic habitats originally misidentified as blue-green algae?
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Studies on one of these structures from a giant squid led Hodgkins and Huxley to a Nobel Prize for their experiments. Their extension is guided by growth cones found at their ends, and they begin tapering near a namesake hillock. In some cases, these branch out to form collaterals, which end in telodendria, and ones with a smaller diameter can aggregate to form a Remak bundle. Nodes of Ranvier appear along these structures that are insulated by myelin containing Schwann cells, which allows for the speedy conduction of action potentials. For 10 points, identify the long, slender projection of a neuron, often contrasted with dendrites.
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Substitutions of an alanine at position 143 or a histidine at position 175 allow this protein to bind to hsp70. Its L2 loop binds to an ankyrin repeat of a protein homologous to ASPP1. Wip-1 reduces the activity of this protein by dephosphorylating MAP kinase. The C-terminal RING finger motif of one protein promotes ubiquitination of this protein, while the N-terminal domain of that MDM-2 protein binds to it. Inheritance of only one copy of the gene coding for it leads to Li-Fraumeni syndrome. Human cancers typically involve mutations in either the retinoblastoma pathway or the pathway involving this protein. For 10 points, name this tumor suppressor, the "guardian angel of the genome."
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Sufferers of Caroli disease often show symptoms of vomiting because of this organ's enlargement, while receiving a transplant of healthy one improved the condition of some sufferers of Criggler-Najjar syndrome. Cavernous hemangiomata are the most common type of tumor found in it, while steatosis is caused by the accumulation of fat in its major component cells, and is a common condition among the obese and alcoholics. FTP, name this organ, whose more common disorders include cirrhosis.
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Swelling and the appearance of calcium deposits in this organelle signify that the cell is undergoing necrosis. Bounded by a smooth outer membrane, its inner membrane consists of several shelf-like folds called cristae. Possessing its own type of DNA, it contains the machinery for synthesizing proteins. FTP, what is this organelle which provides energy for animal cells.
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Techniques used to study this process involve detecting the breakdown of the LC3 protein, localization of LC3 to eponymous bodies, and direct identification of these bodies by their characteristic double-membrane form. Potentiators of this process include rapamycin, which induces formation of complexes of Atg proteins critical for induction of it. Too much of it can cause type II programmed cell death, although in cancers it can also promote cellular survival. Primarily induced in response to low nutrient levels, FTP, name this cellular process in which old organelles are surrounded by a membrane and fused to lysosomes for recycling, which takes its name from the Latin for "self-eating."
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The "pre" version of this occurs only in plants and forms a namesake microtubule band underneath the cell membrane. Before this stage can begin in some plant cells, a phragosome must be formed to bisect large vacuoles. Molecular motors drive the centrosomes apart during it, and microtubules connected to the centrosomes form the spindle apparatus. During it, the nucleolus disappears and, at its end, the nuclear membrane dissolves. Condensin facilitates the chromatin condensation of this phase and each chromosome that forms during it contains two chromatids connected by a centromere. FTP, name this first stage of mitosis.
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The Omi/HtrA2 and DIABLO families of proteins binds to enzymes that inhibit these proteins, one of which processes the transcription factor SATB1 in activated T cells. Abnormally high concentrations of one of them are found in polycystic kidney disease, and two others cleave the huntingtprotein in Huntington's disease. Granzyme B activates multiple proteins in this family. One of them is recruited by FADD, and another by a cytochrome c/Apaf-1 complex. Numbers 8 and 9 are the "initiators" of their namesake cascade, which occurs at the death-induced signaling complex. CED-3, which performs their function in C. elegans, is a homolog of ICE, or number 1 of these enzymes. For 10 points, name these proteases that play a critical role in apoptosis.
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The third version is involved in regulating mast cell proliferation, while the fourth is thought to be a B-cell growth factor. The most useful is probably number 2, which stimulates production of other cytokines, colony stimulating factor, and gamma interferon, and has been researched as an anticancer agent. FTP, identify this class of cytokines which serve to interact with and mediate leukocyte behavior.
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These viruses share a family with infectious salmon anemia virus and thogotovirus. Their genome encodes the M2 ion transporter protein, which is the target of amantadine and is responsible for uncoating the virus upon infection. Human forms of these viruses have a lysine residue at position 627 of its PB2 protein, and these viruses consist of 7 or 8 different negative-sense RNA that can reassort in a carrier. Zanamvir and ostelamvir interferes with these viruses ability to bind to and process sialic acid residues on cell surfaces, which is performed by hemagglutinin and neuraminidase, respectively. Usually classified using an H-x-N-y notation, and occurring in Moscow, Hong Kong, and Spanish varieties, FTP, name these orthomyxoviridae which cause the flu.
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This Hungarian man died in a mental asylum in 1865, ironically from a cut in his finger which brought on a disease similar to the one he had helped prevent. Twenty years earlier, he began working in the first obstetrical clinic of the Vienna general hospital. He noticed that about ten percent of women were dying of puerperal fever, and realized the cause was doctors going directly from the morgue to the delivery room. After introducing aseptic cleaning in chlorinated lime solution, the mortality rate dropped to almost zero, but he met with opposition and was dismissed. FTP, identify this misunderstood pioneer whose ideas were later popularized by Joseph Lister.
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This substance's patent was acknowledged as among the ten which shaped the world. Isolated while studying the biochemistry of actinomycetes, it is closely related to the substances clavacin, neomycin, and grisein. A Nobel Prize was awarded to Selman Waksman for, for ten points, the discovery of what antibiotic, the first effective treatment for tuberculosis.
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Total internal reflection microscopy is often used in the single-molecule version of this technique, which popularly uses a malemide-based reaction to tag cysteine residues. Its efficiency is directly proportional to an overlap integral dependent on the fourth power of wavelength, and that calculation usually assumes an orientation factor of 2/3, meaning freely rotating dipoles. Cy3 and Cy5 are a popular pair used in this technique, which even more commonly uses CFP and YFP. Dipole-dipole coupling allow transfer of an excited chromophore's energy to an acceptor chromophore in this technique, causing a detectable shift in color when two molecules are close together. For 10 points, name this technique commonly used to screen for protein-protein interactions, in which two molecules are labelled with different dyes and then imaged.
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Transport across this organelle's membrane is facilitated by the tic and toc proteins. Lynn Margulis theorized that this lumen-containing organelle, like the mitochondrion, originated as a separate prokaryotic organism before it was taken into the eukaryotic cell in a process called endosymbiosis. Thylakoid stacks arranged in this organelle create grana, which are the location of a process in which ATP and NADPH are used to turn carbon dioxide into glucose. For 10 points, name this green plant organelle, the site of photosynthesis.
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Two species of them supply aphids with leaves to eat and eat the honeydew that the aphids secrete. First appearing in the Cretaceous period, they are distinguished by a pedicel formed from the first few abdominal segments and their elbowed antennae. Much interest has surrounded their use of pheromones and their enslavement of other species. Found in the order Hymenoptera, FTP, name these insects from which formic acid, the irritant of its sting, derives its name.
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Two types of blockages can cause this disease. One, in the porous tissue between the anterior chamber and the canal of Schlemm, results in the chronic version of this disease; the second causes the narrow-angled version and is due to the pressure of the aqueous humour on the iris. For ten points, name this ocular disease often linked to diabetes and sometimes treated with marijuana.
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Two whose expressions are commonly seen include c-neu [see-new] and c-L-myc [see-ell-mike]. Based on the action of the Rous virus, src [s-r-c] became the first one discovered. When working properly, RB and p53 counter their effects, but when defective, they become the inherited type. They are often activated by retroviruses performing insertional mutagenesis or simply by point mutation, amplification, or translocation, as in the "Philadelphia chromosome." FTP, name these chromosome sections that, when altered, spur cancerous replication.
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Umezawa et al showed that the signaling of this molecule is regulated by protein phosphatase 2C. The pathway for the synthesis of this compound begins with a zeaxanthin precursor and ends with the cleavage of a C40Â carotenoid into xanthoxin, which is finally oxidized to this molecule; that process of this molecule's synthesis is called the MEP pathway. Functions of this hormone include promoting gene transcription for proteinase inhibitors in response to wounding and producing a-amylase in order to act against the effects of gibberellins. It also plays a major function in regulating the closure of the stomata. For 10 points, name this plant hormone that is sometimes called dormin, which is responsible for the inhibition of seed germination, fruit ripening and budding.
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Use of it was noted by Europeans as early as the 16th century. At the end of the 19th century German chemist, Arthur Heffter, determined which ingredient was responsible for its effects. When ingested, it can produce hallucinations, frequently of a visual nature, characterized by vivid colors, designs, and distorted space perception. It stimulates the autonomic nervous system and can cause nausea, vomiting, sweating, rapid heartbeat, pupillary dilatation, and anxiety. FTP identify this spineless cactus, containing mescaline, used in religious rituals by native Americans of the Southwest.
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Used to manufacture medical gloves and to trap pollutants in smokestacks, a zymogram can be used to examine the results of enzyme separation by this process, which won a Nobel Prize for its discoverer, Arne Tiselius. Via polyacrylamide gel, one can use it for rapid gene sequencing. FTP, name this process by which electrodes immersed in fluid attract charged particles suspended in the fluid.
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Volcher Coiter and Fabricius were among this man's pupils, while he was a pupil of Vesalius before becoming professor of anatomy at Pisa in 1548. Along with naming the cochlea, palate, placenta, and vagina and discovering several important nerves, he gave the first accurate description of the inner ear. FTP, identify this Italian anatomist who failed to determine the function of the tubes leading from the ovary to the uterus that are now named after him.
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W. D. Hamilton and John Jaenike were among the earliest proponents of this idea. Its first part states that, in tightly coevolved interactions, evolutionary changes by one species could lead to extinction for another species, and that the probability of such an event is independent of the species' age. Originally named by Leigh Van Valen, its other more famous part states that coevolution could lead to sustained oscillations in genotype frequencies. FTP, identify this hypothesis of evolutionary biology named after a character in Alice in Wonderland.
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When broken down into skatole and indole, it is the main cause of the foul stench of feces. In 1988, the production of this molecule by Showa Denko K.K. using genetically engineered bacteria resulted in the death of thirty-seven people from eosinophilia myalgia syndrome. First isolated from casein, it works with lysine to reduce cholesterol levels and can form niacin when low in the body, thus a lack of it causes pellagra. FTP, name this largest essential amino acid with a cyclic side chain, a metabolic precursor to serotonin.
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When connected to the cell membrane, they are called episomes. While not essential to bacterial life they may confer a selective advantage. One type produces antibiotic proteins that can kill other bacteria and another confers resistance to antibiotics. These two types are Col and R factors respectively. They are useful in genetic engineering because they replicate autonomously and produce lots of desired DNA molecules. For 10 points, name these genetic elements of bacteria that replicate independent of the chromosomes.
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When inactive, these heterotrimeric proteins are associated with transmembrane receptors. When active, a subunit's dissociation activates an enzyme, typically adenylyl cyclase, triggering the formation of a second messenger. The subunit's ability to hydrolyze GTP, causing the trimer to reassemble, regulates the activity of, for ten points, what protein class, whose malfunctions are linked to cholera and diabetes, and which won Alfred Gilman and Martin Rodbell a 1994 Nobel Prize.
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While its exact method of attachment and entry are unknown, it is thought to bind to the host cell via MSP-1. These organisms are known for giving rise to a series of apical organelles throughout their life cycles, including the microneme, the rhoptry, and the dense granule. A member of phylum Apicomplexa, it modifies the erythrocyte by exporting proteins such as PfEMP1 on the host surface. Containing 14 chromosomes, 1 mitochondrion, and 1 plasmid, species in this genus include falciparum, vivax, and ovale, and it changes form from a merozoite to a trophozoite, and then to a sporozoite. FTP, identify this genus carried by the Anopheles mosquito, the agent that causes malaria.
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Working by inhibiting angiogenesis, recent studies suggest that by acting against paraprotein it is effective in the treatment of Multiple Myeloma. Approved by the FDA in 1998 for use against leprosy, its marketer, Calgene, created the STEPS program for its safe and effective dispensation. Capable of causing phocomelia if given to persons of child bearing age, FTP, name this drug infamous for causing birth defects when given to women with morning sickness.
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Wright's landscape of this property shows how non-global maxima of it can become stable. Fisher's fundamental theorem says that the rate at which this property changes is in the mean equal to its genetic variance. Hartl's version of this property is computed by integrating the parental probability times the distribution of phenotypes over phenotypes; better-known is the absolute Darwinian kind, the ratio of the numbers of individuals with a given trait in successive generations. FTP, name this property of genetic traits, a principle whose survival evolution depends on, according to Herbert Spencer.
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mKate, tdTomato, and kindling protein are among the proteins that perform a similar function to this protein. Its T203Y mutant was based on the crystal structure of this protein's S65T mutant. An arginine at position 96 and a glutamate at position 222 are thought to catalyze a reaction in the Ser65-Tyr66-Gly67 sequence of its beta barrel. It was first purified by Osamu Shimomura, who along with Martin Chalfie and Roger Tsien shared the 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work with it. For 10 points, name this protein isolated from Aequorea victoria, a jellyfish, which produces a colorful glow when exposed to blue light and which is often used as a reporter gene.
Golgi body [or Golgi apparatus; or Golgi complex]
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Golgi complex or apparatus
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Gonorrhea (prompt on "the clap" before mentioned)
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Gram Negative bacteria or G-minus bacteria
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Gram Stain Negative Bacteria
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Graves' Disease [accept Basedow's Disease until read
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Green Florescent Protein or GFP (FYI, the Lictman/Staines thing is called "Brainbow". How awesome is that?!)
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Hemlock or Poison Hemlock
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Hepatitis
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Hepatitis B or HBV (prompt on "hepatitis" or "chronic hepatitis" or "bloodborne hepatitis" or "serum hepatitis")
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Herpesviridae [or Herpes viruses]
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Homo erectus (prompt on Java man or Peking man)
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Homo sapiens neanderthalensis
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Hox genes or Homeobox genes
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Hugo Marie De Vries
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Human Immunodeficiency Virus
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Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1
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Hunter and Downs plot
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Huntington's Disease
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Huntington's chorea [prompt on "chorea"]
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Huntington's disease
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Hymenoptera
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Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis
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'In this work, a discussion of the niceness of Miss Marie, also known as the prostitute Maginot Line, precedes the beating of a character for splattering a berry cobbler on the floor. Henry Washington performs a magic trick with a disappearing penny in this work, which contains a scene in which the protagonist is blamed by Junior for killing his cat. That protagonist is convinced by Soaphead Church to feed poisoned meat to his landlord's dog. In its “Summer†section, the marigold seeds planted by Frieda and Claudia MacTeer fail to blossom, which signifies the premature death of the child born from Cholly's rape of his daughter. The protagonist of this work idolizes Shirley Temple's features. For 10 points, name this novel about Pecola Breedlove's desire for an azure iris, by Toni Morrison.'
Kaposi's Sarcoma [accept "Castleman's disease or "primary effusion lymphoma" before mentioned]
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Karl Ernst von Baer
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Klinefelter's Syndrome
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Klinefelter's syndrome or 47 XXY Male Syndrome
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Krebs cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle or citric acid cycle
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L-dopa or levorotatory-dopa
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Lambda phage
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Lepidoptera
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Medflies or ceratitis capitata or Mediterranean fruit fly (prompt on "fruit fly")
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Mycobacterium tuberculosis or TB (prompt on "consumption" before it is mentioned)
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Niacin [or Nicotinic Acid; accept Vitamin B3 before mentioned]
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Oligochaeta or Oligochaetes
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On the Origin of Species
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nucleolus
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A beta-sheet sandwich structure is common to all types of these whose Fab and Fc regions can be separated by papain based on their crystallizability. Their effector functions are increased through CSR, while somatic hypermutation occurs in their variable regions and renders a higher affinity for binding sites. They are used in the ELISA process, and Kohler and Milstein got the Nobel in Medicine for producing the monoclonal varieties of these. They can easily change isotypes, of which humans have five, and they attach to epitope of their targets by induced fit. For 10 points, name these y- shaped proteins produced by B Cells, that target and attack foreign antigens.
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A cleft-like structure sometimes remains in Rathke's pouch which forms its pars tubullaris and pars distillaris, and infarction of this organ occurring during pregnancies is known as Sheehan's syndrome. It is situated in a depression in the sphenoid bone called sella turcica. Its adenohypophysis is divided into acidophil, basophile, and chromophobe regions, and herring bodies are found on the axons of the neurons that connect it to the hypothalamus. Divided into an anterior and posterior lobe, for 10 points, name this organ often called "master gland" which secretes prolactin and growth hormone, and is located at the base of the brain.
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A common problem when using this class of reagents is star activity, in which changes in salt concentration cause them to act aberrantly, losing the stringent control that generally makes them so useful. Another problem can arise as a result of DCM or DAM methylation by bacteria, which can prevent them from performing their catalytic function. A particularly useful one is NotI ("not one"), as it only recognizes a specific 8 base pair sequence, and the most commonly used ones include HindIII ("hindi three") and EcoRI ("eeco are one"). FTP identify this type of bacterial enzyme that cuts double stranded DNA at specific base pair sequences.
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A government laboratory in Guatemala zaps them with radiation and covers them with orange dye before they are shipped to MacDill Air Force Base, where they're grown, chilled, loaded onto a USDA plane, and dumped in the air as a "people-friendly" alternative to malathion. For ten points, what insect will waste time trying to mate with these sterilized partners in their 30 day lifespan, an agricultural scourge.
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A heterozygous individual who exhibits no signs of this disease still scores substantially higher than a normal person on a plasma tolerance test. Mothers who are heterozygous carriers of the disease are at risk for serious pregnancy complications. Clinical signs include eczema and decreased pigment in skin and hair. Its classical form is an autosomal recessive disorder of a locus on chromosome 12. Normally the body would produce the amino acid tyrosine, but due to a deficiency of a hydroxylase, another amino acid can build up to toxic levels. FTP, name this disease that can cause mental retardation following consumption of a certain amino acid, and whose name derives from the musty odor of the patient's urine.
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A higher thoroughput modification of this technique starts at a high temperature but lowers it in small increments until it reaches a specified point. In addition to that touchdown variant, another variant of this technique simultaneously quantifies its product in real-time. It employs cations like magnesium 2+ to stabilize its products and uses dNTPs as building blocks for those products. This process uses different temperatures for its denaturing, annealing, and elongation stages, and it was greatly improved with the thermostable Taq polymerase enzyme that carries it out. For 10 points, name this common laboratory technique used to amplify a sample of DNA.
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A lariat-dependent version of this process is known as LaNe RAGE, while another variation of this procedure uses the S-Tbr molecule and smaligos. A digital version of this procedure carries it out within emulsified droplets, while the Polony method suspends the targets in a solid matrix. Pfu or Pfx can replace one reagent in order to increase fidelity, and background products can be reduced by ramping down the temperature in the touchdown variant. SYBR green is a florescent probe often used in the real-time variation of this procedure, and modifying the amount of magnesium ions, template, and primer concentration is necessary for optimizing it. FTP, name this technique which amplifies a segment of DNA using Taq polymerase, developed by Kary Mullis.
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A member of this species was found buried in the fetal position and soil analysis showed that it had been buried with medicinal flowers. In addition to that "Flower burial," nine of their skeletons were found at Shanidar, a site in northeast Iraq. The "Quina" culture of stone-tool making is a subset of this species' Mousterian style of flint-knapping, and it gave way to the Chatelperronian culture. Another fossil of this species known as "the Old Man" was found in Chapelle-aux-Saints France, and other notable finds occurred at La Ferrassie and Le Moustier. FTP, name this subspecies of the Homo genus with a distinctly heavy brow that coexisted with Homo sapiens and are named after a German valley.
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A mixture of nitric esters of this compound is the main ingredient of gunpowder. A polymer of glucose, it contains beta-glucosidic bonds much stronger than the alpha bonds found in starch. The strong bonds mean this molecule cannot be digested without bacterial help, which is lacking in humans. For ten points, name this molecule, the primary component of plant cell walls.
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A mutation in the enzyme catalyzing the final step of its biosynthesis gives rise to Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome, while its presence in plasma is measured by the Lieberman-Burchard test. The SREBP transcription factors are regulated by this molecule. One step of its biosynthesis sees the creation of a certain 2,3-epoxide, which then cyclizes, and it is sometimes stored in chylomicrons. Farnesyl pyrophosphate and squalene are intermediates in that process and that pathway begins with the condensation of three acetyl coAs to yield HMG-CoA, which is reduced to mevalonate. That step is regulated by drugs called statins. For 10 points, identify this ubiquitous steroid that can cause atherosclerosis when bound to lipoproteins.
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A ring-shaped or "bulls-eye" rash is seen in about 60 percent of cases of this disease, which is caused by the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi. Even after the spirochete is dead, many patients suffer from symptoms that resemble fibromyalgia or multiple sclerosis. Marked by fatigue, swollen lymph glands, and fever, it is transmitted by insects of genus Ixodes, and over 90% of U.S. cases are in the mid-Atlantic and the northeast, where the first known cases occurred in 1975. FTP, what is this disease named for a town in Connecticut and carried by deer ticks?
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Along with the reflection coefficient, this is the only variable to appear in both of the Kedem-Katchalsky equations. For a polymer gel, it is roughly equal to the temperature over the cube of the mesh size. A nonlinear increase in this property is sometimes due to the Gibbs-Donnan effect, and Alexander et al defined it as the negative partial derivative of the free energy with respect to volume with a fixed number of macroions. Alfred Gilman related this property to the voluntary intake of water in humans, showing that it does not increase until its value for a solution of urea is greater than that of a solution of salt. It is directly proportional to the ideal gas constant, temperature, and concentration by the Morse equation, and Einstein related it to the molecular theory of heat. For 10 points, name this colligative property, a gradient in which causes water to flow across a semipermeable membrane, which is dependent on the van't Hoff factor.
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Although it almost forms a perfect cylinder, it is not perfectly vertical; rather, each member of the pair inclines downward and inward towards the other. Near its head can be found the acetabulum and two large prominences, known as condyles, are on either side of its lower end. Initially it shows the development of arcs of bone known as trabeculae, which later disappear. At the upper extremity are two trochanters [tro-KAN-ters], while the lower extremity contains a depression known as the patellar surface. FTP, name this bone that connects the pelvis to the kneecap, the longest and strongest bone in the human body.
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Although its origins are unknown, some scientists theorize that it may have formed from gastric pouches of Cnidarian ancestors. In annelids and mollusks, it is usually formed from splitting and hollowing of the mesodermal mass in embryonic development, while in humans, it develops between the somatic and splanchnic layers and can be divided into pericardial and peritoneal portions. Usually containing openings for food intake and ejection of waste, protostomes and deuterostomes are the two divisions that contain it. FTP, name this central body cavity only present in higher animal phyla.
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Although its panacinar form can be caused by a genetic deficiency of the enzyme alpha-1-anti-trypsin, its more common centrilobular form usually results from a far more nefarious activity. This disease leads to chronic dilation and destruction of air spaces without fibrosis, leading to a great increase in compliance of the lung and shortness of breath. FTP, name this chronic obstructive lung disease common to smokers.
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Although there is no loss or gain of genetic associated with these, there is almost certainly a positive or negative position effect on the phenotype. They have a great effect on recombination because during crossover in meiosis, one chromosome will be forced to make a loop. This will result in gametes that will not have a full set of genes. Along with translocations, they are the most important physical alterations of chromosomes. FTP name this condition in which the orientation of a portion of a chromosome is reversed.
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Asherman's syndrome and leiomyomata are among the conditions affecting this organ, and it is covered by a reflection of visceral peritoneum known as the broad ligament. Incomplete fusion of the paramesonephric ducts may result in this organ being didelphic, and its analogous remnant in the male is the prostatic utricle. FTP, what is this organ which sheds its stratum functionalis starting at menarche and whose most important function culminates in labor and delivery?
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At one end, it forms a plexiform network that is collected into about twenty branches that then pass through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. It terminates in several small branches that ramify in the soft mucous membrane. It does not originate within nuclei of the diencephalons or brain stem and instead is the only cranial nerve that is attached directly to the cerebrum. Having a special sensory function, FTP, name this first cranial nerve, the one associated with smell.
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Carle and Olson developed an "electrophoretic" version of this technique that involved orthogonal field alternation. Though it has nothing to do with clinical trials, another form of this technique has "3+3", "2+3", and "3+2" types, where the second number indicates the number of haptene-labeled probes. Visualization methods in this technique include the "trypsin-Giemsa", or "G-banding", technique. Cells used in this technique must be treated with colchicine so that they can be arrested in metaphase. In normal humans, this technique visualizes a set of 46 genetic structures. For 10 points, identify this technique used during pregnancies to screen for fetuses having chromosomal abnormalities, which produces an ordered plot of an individual's chromosomes.
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Defects in this class of enzymes can result in Bloom's syndrome and Werner syndrome. The type found in the bacteriophage T7 was recently found to have a hexameric ring structure. Common types in various organisms include UvrD, PhoH, and YjhR, though the first to have its structure determined was PrcA. Generally requiring a 5-prime overhang for operation, this enzyme uses the energy from the splitting of a phosphate off of dTTP during nucleotide pair hydrolysis. Preceding DNA polymerase III, FTP, identify this enzyme that unwinds the DNA strand during replication.
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Defects in this pathway leads to HHH syndrome and lysinuric protein intolerance, and one intermediate in this pathway can be decarboxylated to putresciene. The main enzyme of this process is controlled allosterically by N-acetylglutamate, and that enzyme, mitochondrial carbamoyl phosphate synthetase, transfers a group from glutamine to phosphorylated bicarbonate. It is linked to the Krebs cycle via the creation of fumarate, and ther intermediates in this process include citrulline and ornithine, the latter of which is produced by the cleavage of arginine. FTP, name this cycle that takes place in the cytosol and mitochondria, responsible for creating a namesake nitrogenous molecule and component of urine.
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Deficiency of this compound can result in skin lesions known as Casal's necklaces, as well as diarrhea and dermatitis. When administered in gram quantities, it can be used as a cholesterol-lowering drug with flushing as a major side effect. It can be biosynthesized in a multi-step pathway via cleavage of the five-membered ring of tryptophan and rearrangement of the remaining six-membered ring. Its coenzyme form acts as a substrate for poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase and is synthesized in the light reactions of photosynthesis along with ATP. FTP, identify this water-soluble vitamin whose nutritional deficiency is called pellagra and was originally isolated as an oxidation product of nicotine.
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Deficiency of this substance can sometimes result from Hartnup's Disease and Carcinoid syndrome, the latter of which occurs because tumors cause tryptophan to be used to create serotonin rather than this vitamin. Children at risk of Type-I diabetes are injected with its derivative to protect beta cells from decay, while its non-derived form has been used to reduce LDL levels. A more typical deficiency of this vitamin comes from diets reliant primarily on maize, an affliction known as pellagra, and its derivative is primarily used in the body to form coenzymes NADP and NAD. For 10 points, name this substance also known as Vitamin B3.
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Diseases caused by defects in these include hyperoxaluria, Refsum's disease, and Zellweger syndrome. Although involved in bile acid synthesis, amino acid metabolism and cholesterol synthesis, the most important function of these organelles may be the beta-oxidation of long chain fatty acids. FTP, name this type of organelle which contains enzymes such as catalase and is named due to its role in the production and decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
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Double strands of DNA are denatured into single strands and primers are added to their 3' (three prime) ends. To finish the process, an enzyme catalyzes new strand production. It wasn't feasible until Kerry Mullis discovered the Themus aquaticus bacteria, which had the proper metabolic machinery and resistance to high temperatures. For ten points, what process geometrically increases the number of copies of a particular DNA sequence?
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Early onset forms of this condition include Stargardt's disease and Best's disease. Recent studies have indicated that mutations in factors H and B and protein C3 of the complement system play important roles in the progression of this disease, leading to problems with glycosaminoglycans in areas like Bruch's membrane. The build-up of material in that membrane leads to Drusen, a sign of this disease that can be monitored with the Amsler Grid Test. Anti-angiogenics may hold promise for treatment of its "wet" form. For 10 points, name this normally age-related condition that causes central vision loss due to the destruction of the namesake area of the retina.
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Even though this phylum develops as a protostome, it still shows radial cleavage and coelom development follows the pattern seen in deuterostomes. The genus Lingula under this phylum is likely the oldest surviving genus of animals. They contain a lophophore which is a ridge around their mouth; this trait relates them to phyla Phoronida and Ectoprocta. They resemble bivalve molluscs but their shells develop on the dorsal and ventral surfaces rather than on the left and right surfaces of bivalves. FTP name this phylum that dominated marine life in the Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras that contains lamp shells.
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First licensed to practice medicine in 1873 as a doctor in Cuba, he didn't graduate as a doctor in medicine from Madrid until four years later. The first director of the National Institute of Hygiene in Madrid, he worked to develop a staining method that showed individual nerve fibers. He proved Wilhelm His's idea that the axons conducted signals only away from nerve cells. FTP, name this Spanish neurohistologist, co-winner of the 1906 Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine with Camillo Golgi.
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In 1691, he reluctantly became the papal personal physician. Qualifications included his advances in anatomy and embryology and his pioneering use of the microscope. Even today his name is given to a layer of the epidermis and a structure discovered while studying the organs of silkworms. For ten points, name the man who explained the link between respiration and circulation and who discovered capillaries.
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In 1859, the same year that Charles Darwin's Origin of Species appeared, this man published a work on human skulls suggesting that stocks now distinct might have originated from one form. During his extensive travels throughout Russia, he developed a great scientific and practical interest in its fisheries, and he was the first naturalist to collect specimens from Novaya Zemlya, which was then uninhabited. FTP, identify this Prussian-Estonian embryologist who discovered the mammalian ovum and the notochord and established the new science of comparative embryology alongside comparative anatomy.
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Infertility is one of the two most common complaints leading to its diagnosis. In addition to taurodontism, it causes linguistic impairment and fatigue-induced learning disabilities but does not cause mental disability. Increased maternal age may be a risk factor for this syndrome, which affects one in seven hundred males and causes infertility, increased height, gynecomastia, low levels of body hair, and small genitalia due to inadequate testosterone production. FTP, name this genetic syndrome, caused by an extra X chromosome.
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It can be prepared by the hydrolysis of ethanal cyanohydrin or the oxidation of propan-1,2-diol using dilute nitric acid for use in the dying and tanning industries. Having formula CH3 CH(OH) COOH, it is produced from pyruvic acid in active muscle tissue when oxygen is limited, causing cramping pains before being removed to the liver to be converted to glucose. FTP, what is this end product of bacterial fermentation, the most common acidic constituent of fermented milk products?
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It is divided into a medial zone, an intermediate zone, a lateral zone, and a flocculonodular zone; and dispersed throughout these zones are its namesake olivo-, cuneo-, ponto-, and vestibulofibers. It contains an inferior peduncle composed of fibers that arise from Clarke's column in the spinal cord. Consisting of two hemispheres separated by a vermis, this part of the brain is concerned with the coordination and regulation of muscle activity and maintenance of muscle tone and balance. FTP, identify this section of the brain that lies superior to the medulla oblongata.
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It sometimes is precipitated by a darkening of the urine due to the presence of glucuronides. It may be caused by Mirizzi's syndrome, Gilbert's [gil-BEAR's] syndrome, or glucose-6-phosphatase deficiency and also by breastfeeding, but breastfeeding may itself reverse its effect in newborns, therefore preventing brain damage in a condition known as ker-nic-turus. Causes resulting from conjugated forms include cancer and pregnancy, while those stemming from unconjugated forms include fasting. It can also be divided into prehepatic, hepatic, and post-hepatic causes, and is directly correlated with rising serum levels of bilirubin. Most commonly associated with gallstones and alcoholic liver disease, FTP, name this clinical sign that describes patients with yellow skin and eyes.
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It was developed in the last century to drain excess fluid, and was used in the 1930's to detect the blood disease erythroblastis fetalis. Today it also measures alphafetoprotein in order to predict spina bifida, and can detect neural tube defect, Rh problems, Tay Sachs, Down syndrome, and the sex of the fetus. FTP identify this common procedure, in which fluid is extracted from the uterine sac via a long hollow needle.
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Its T664P mutant is known as the "O-helix mutant," while the substitution of phenylalanine for valine at position 667 promotes chain termination by this protein. A commonly used purification approach for this enzyme involves a one-hour incubation at 75 degrees followed by cation exchange chromatography. This enzyme may be used in a non-cyclic process to prepare inserts into Topo-linked vectors, and an eponymous probe system relies upon the separation of fluors from quenchers by this enzyme's 5' to 3' exonucleolytic activity. Unlike similar proteins, this enzyme leaves overhanging As, which is useful in the aforementioned TA cloning process but makes it a worse choice for blunt-end cloning than Pfu. For 10 points, name this PCR reagent, a high-fidelity polymerase derived from Thermus aquaticus.
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Its functions include inhibiting seed germination and halting transpiration in droughts. Mediating the plant's reaction during times of stress, it is found in the stem, root cap, and older leaves. FTP, name this plant hormone which, in contrast to auxins, promotes the falling, or abscission, of leaves before winter dormancy,
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Its most common form features a chelate with a cyclopentanone ring esterified with a phytol side chain. Unique to this configuration is the presence of a keto group at the ninth position of the alicyclic pentanone ring. Its synthesis begins with glycine and succinic acid and results in a structure in which four 5-membered tetrapyrrole rings join to form a giant macrocycle. One of the common porphyrins, it would be similar to hemoglobin except that it contains magnesium instead of iron. Often associated on a cellular level with carotene, FTP, name this green pigment that enables plants to carry on photosynthesis.
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Its only reversible portion involves an isomerase enzyme that can act on dihydroxyacetone phosphate. The penultimate product, PEP, results after the removal of a water molecule by enolase. Other involved enzymes, like hexokinase and aldolase, effect a phosphate transfer or cleavage into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. Four ATP are made but two are used in this process, which occurs entirely in the cytoplasm outside of the mitochondria. FTP, name this chemical pathway that, in aerobic conditions, converts glucose into two molecules of pyruvic acid.
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LepA can reverse this process, and in some organisms, this process sees protein EF-3 utilize ATP to reduce affinity for the substrate at L1. The characteristic ratcheting mechanism of this process involves GTP hydrolysis by EF-G, while EF-Tu, which works as a proofreader, also employs GTP to bind the substrate. Beginning with binding to the Shine-Dalgarno sequence in prokaryotes, it sees movement of the substrates through aminoacyl, peptidyl, and exit sites. This process ends when the nascent peptide is complete and the two subunits dissociate. For 10 points, name this second step of protein synthesis in which a ribosome reads messenger RNA following transcription.
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Lesions to this dysgranular body, which corresponds to Brodmann's area 44, can result in masticatory seizures. Its pars triangularis, which is involved in plurimodal association, sits anterior to its pars opercularis, which is situated near the primary motor cortex. Damage to this area results in a "telegraphic" type of communication. Though Marc Dax may have identified this locus earlier, it is named after the man who studied the brains of Lelong and Leborgne. FTP, name this part of the brain which is connected by the arcuate fasciculus to Wernicke's area, an area involved with the motor functions of speech.
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Libriform fibers are long pit-containing cells found throughout this tissue, and perforation plates found at the ends of this tissue can be described as simple, foraminate, or scalariform. The primary type of this tissue is located closest to the pith, and it is made up of tracheid vessels in most conifers with trachea elements performing most of its function. This tissue must use the evaporation of water at mesophyll cells in leaves and negative back-pressure at the roots to carry out its function in a process called transpirational pull, which allows water and minerals to travel up through plants. For 10 points, identify this dead vascular tissue in plants that functions differently from phloem.
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Once believed to be caused by a lack of inhibin, this disease causes individuals to have a very high risk of germ cell tumors, diabetes, and vascular disease. However, the same people are protected from recessive sex-linked syndromes by the presence of an extra Barr body. Symptoms include a lack of facial hair, a rounded body type, breast enlargement, and sterility, due to the acquisition of an extra sex chromosome during meiosis. FTP, name this syndrome exclusive to males that results in an XXY chromosome arrangement.
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One assay for measuring this entity's activity involves production of the yellow byproduct orthonitrophenol from ONPG. In vivo, IPTG can be used to directly induce this entity's activity, which can then be monitored by breakdown of X-gal. This entity's structural elements produce permease and transacetylase enzymes. Cyclic AMP binds to catabolite activator protein in the positive regulation of this genetic construct, which also produces the enzyme beta-galactosidase. Its activity is negated in the presence of large amounts of glucose because glucose can substitute as a carbon source for its namesake sugar. For 10 points, identify this operon regulating the breakdown of that sugar, which is found in milk.
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One class in this phylum is distinguished by its posterior-end opisthaptor, a second class has an anterior-end scolex, and a third class has sub-epidermal rhabdites. They contain filling tissue known as parenchyma, and some species have photoreceptors known as ocelli. Some species of this phylum engage in penis fencing, while cross-fertilization and transverse fission are common in the cestodes and the free-living turbellaria, respectively. These triploblastic acoelomates are unsegmented and bilaterally symmetric. Flukes and tapeworms can be found in, FTP, this phylum of flatworms.
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One intermediate in this pathway is also used by ALA synthase, where that compound is combined with glycine to yield aminolevulinic acid, and an enzyme in this pathway is involved in a shuttle which uses the transamination of aspartate to "transport" NADH across a membrane. Another enzyme in this pathway, like the PDHC, uses thiamine pyrophosphate and a dihydrolipoamide succinyl-transferase. Yet another step in this pathway sees the isomerization of an intermediate via aconitase, while the succinate dehydrogenase in this pathway is alternatively called "complex II" in the electron transport chain. Preceded by the decarboxylation of pyruvate, this is, for 10 points, which cycle of cellular respiration which sees a molecule of acetyl coA yield several high energy electron carriers, sometimes named for the citrate intermediate formed at its beginning?
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One of the causes of systemic sclerosis involves production of anti-Scl 70 antibody which attacks class I of this enzyme. The mechanism of quinolone antibiotic action depends on inhibition of the bacterial class IV version of this enzyme, while in humans, the chemotherapeutic agent teniposide and doxorubicin have their effects in part to inducing double stranded DNA breaks by inhibiting class II of this enzyme. Necessary because of tangling, class II enzymes break both strands where two chromosomes cross, while class I enzymes break single phosphodiester bonds transiently in order to decrease torsionals force due to the movement of the replication fork. FTP, name these enzymes of the DNA replication complex which change the supercoiling, and therefore the topology, of DNA.
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One of the two widely studied forms of this process is attributable to the action of Vif proteins, which cause this reaction in response to APOBEC expression. That form of this mechanism was discovered first in spleen necrosis virus and was then in other lentiviridae. Another form of this biological process requires in its aftermath uracil-DNA glycosylase to undertake gene-specific high-fidelity repair to suppress the creation of lymphomas. That second form of this process is initiated by AID complexes, which induce it in proliferating plasma cell candidates after an encounter with a novel antigen; it is known as the "somatic" form and is the mechanism through which B cells acquire specificity. For 10 points, name this biological mechanism, the first form of which results in a high frequency of guanine-to-adenine changes and is used by HIV to evade detection.
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Proteins destined for this structure are tagged at their N-linked oligosaccharides by mannose-6-phosphate, which allow receptors to mediate vesicular transport of tagged proteins. Malfunction of this process is the cause of inclusion cell disease, while the lack of a critical enzyme inside this organelle leads to diseases such as Pompe's disease and Hurler syndrome. The lack of hexos-aminidase A causing buildup of gangliosides in this organelle is the cause of Tay-Sachs disease. Proton pumps and ion channels in this organelle maintain the pH of 4.8 that is critical for enzymatic function. Discovered in 1949 by Christian de Duve, FTP, name these organelles that destroy cellular waste and aid in the breakdown of macromolecules.
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Recent experiments have shown that this mechanism can relay extracellular ouabain binding signaling into compartments of the cell through the regulation of tyrosine phosphorylation of proteins like EGFR; in general, its serves as a signal-transducing receptor for cardiotonic steroids. Cardiac glycosides are widely used to increase the strength of contraction of the heart because it inhibits this process by raising the intracellular calcium concentration. cAMP downregulates this process, in which the dephosphorylation of ATP causes the exchange of three intracellular ions for two extracellular ones. Jens Skou discovered, FTP, which enzyme in the cell membrane that deals with the active transport of two group 1 elements?
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Recent studies have found that these molecules can be responsible for a specific cleavage and can control transcription in a ColE1 plasmid. The two classes of enzymes that act on them differ in the presence of HIGH and KMSKS consensus sequences and which terminal OH group of these molecules that they affect. Roughly L-shaped in tertiary form, one part of their secondary structure is the T-psi-C loop, where psi represents pseudo-uridine. Usually depicted as a clover-leaf structure, the wobble hypothesis explained why there can be fewer of them than possible codons. For 10 points, name these RNA structures that bring amino acids to a growing polypeptide chain.
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The Ames cancer test uses a strain of this bacteria whose typhi and paratyphi types cause typhoid and paratyphoid fever. Rod-shaped Gram-negative bacteria, they can exist for long periods outside their hosts, often in sewage and surface water, and are best known for causing disease when occupying the intestines. FTP, what is this bacteria which can cause gastroenteritis and septicaemia and are often transmitted by unhygienic food preparation?
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The Ascomycetes member provides shade and forms structures, including haustoria and appressoria, which penetrate the photosynthetic cells. Often the first colonists of rocky areas, these organisms, which include reindeer moss, live in some of the world's harshest habitats, including within 4 degrees of the south pole. For ten points, name these mutualistic associations between fungi and algae.
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The Big Brother type of this protein from the Drosophila slowpoke gene is blocked by charybdotoxin, while the apamin-blocked type has greater sensitivity to calcium, and mediates the slow hyperpolarization in spike adaptation, blockage of which contributes to the poisonous effects of honeybee stings. The hyperpolarizing delayed rectifier is represented by Shal, Shab, Shaw, and Shaker in Drosophila, and its pore is selective against sodium. Regulated in part by sulfonylurea receptors, examples of these proteins are the calcium-gated BK and SK varieties, and a large number of these proteins lie in the proximal tubule of the kidney. FTP name this class of mostly voltage-gated membrane proteins that allows its eponymous ion to flow out after action potentials.
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The Dakota sandstone Pierre Shale are two formations dating from this period, during which the Tethys Ocean became a shallow sea. Chalk deposits left by the Western Interior Seaway during this period formed the Smoky Hills Chalk in America, and the Dover Cliffs chalk in Europe was also formed at the same time. This period closed with the eruption of the Deccan Traps in India, which may be related to an impact that resulted in a thin layer of iridium forming between this period and the one that follows it. The Alvarezes posited that the KT boundary marks the stratigraphic border between this period and the Tertiary. For 10 points, name this period in which the T. Rex lived, the last period of the Mesozoic era that probably ended with a big meteor impact at Chixtulub.Â
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The Ericoid variety of these structures is found in acidic conditions, and is often associated with the telomorph-forming families Leotiaceae and Myxotrichaceae. The Arbuscular variety is formed by organisms such as the Glomales, which cannot grow independently. First described by A.B. Frank in 1885, they often work by producing proteases that release nitrogen and phosphorus from the surrounding soil. FTP, name this symbiotic relationship in which the hyphae of a fungus exchange nutrients with a plant root.
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The North Pacific is the largest variety and can be 18 feet long. Usually lacking a shell, it uses chromatophores in its skin to blend with the background. During reproduction spermatophores are placed in the female mantle cavity by the hectocotylus, a modification of a male arm. What cephalopod order is among the most intelligent invertebrates and, for ten points, is related to cuttlefish and squid?
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The Rosa26 strain uses lacZ expression as a reporter for this molecule's activity, and five-one-one sites can be used to control the directionality of its activity. The mechanism of this molecule's action was elucidated by the Van Duyne lab and involves the formation of a Holliday-type intermediate after DNA is cleaved by tyrosine-324. This protein is structurally similar to lambda integrase, and its active tetrameric form results from the binding of this enzyme to two 34-bp palindromic recognition sites. ERT2, a modified form of the estrogen receptor, is often fused to this protein, causing the administration of tamoxifen to produce gene rearrangements in model organisms. For 10 points, name this recombinase derived from P1 bacteriophage, which is used to engineer conditional knockout animals by rearranging DNA at loxP sites.
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The activated plasma protein angiotensin II acts on these organs, stimulating the release of a hormone that stimulates reabsorption of sodium, increasing blood volume and blood pressure. One portion of it is divided into such parts as the reticularis and fasciculata. Its medulla is under the control of the sympathetic nervous system, and its cortex produces steroids as well as mineralocorticoids like aldosterone. Lying atop the kidneys, FTP name these glands whose products include epinephrine.
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The best evidence for its validity was found in freeze-fracture micrographs, which found two dark surface lines separated by an interzone. This concept assumes that hydrophilic carbohydrate groups of certain glycoproteins and glycolipids extend into the polar environments of membrane surfaces. This theory classifies membrane proteins as integral and peripheral according to their association with the phospholipid bilayers that "flip-flop" when a molecule is transported. Created by Singer and Nicholson, FTP, name this cell membrane model stating proteins are suspended directly in a dynamic surface.
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The cancer treatment hydroxyurea has recently been found to aid in treatment of this disease, increasing life expectance to approximately 45 years. Children with the disease often suffer from "crises" linked with closing of the blood vessels. The gene which causes it specifies the abnormal Hb S hemoglobin, which cause damage to tissues by becoming clogged in capillaries. Resulting from a recessive gene which makes the carrier resistant to malaria, FTP, what is this disease seen mainly in people of sub-Saharan ancestry, which distorts erythrocytes into the namesake shape?
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The cheapest way to produce a high yield of it is by hydrolysis of human hair due to the 25% content of this substance in keratin, which has led some to wonder whether doing so constitutes cannibalism. One of the five amino acids that is broken down to pyruvate, it is one of three amino acids synthesized in the body from 3-phosphoglycerine through serine. A strong nucleophile, it is highly reactive at cellular pH, and thus is critical for production of the antioxidant glutathione. The only amino acid that can create a disulfide bond, FTP, name this amino acid characterized by its thiol group, symbolized by the letter C.
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The cuneiform and corniculate portions of it are immediately dorsal to its most ventral section. The paired and pivoting arytenoids act as a moveable posterior attachment for it and the muscles that regulate it. In humans and most mammals the base of this structure is formed by the signet-shaped cricoid cartilage, which lies posterior to the thyroid cartilage, its most ventral portion. Above it lies the structure that sometimes serves as its lid, the epiglottis. FTP, name this chamber which leads from the lower pharynx to the trachea and is commonly called the voice box.
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The decidual type of these cells have increased expression of galectin-1 relative to other subtypes of these cells. These cells are especially abundant in the gravid uterus. They express Ly49-like C-type lectins and KIRs on their surface, allowing them to recognize MHC class I molecules on other cells. These cells are identified by their surface expression of CD56 and CD16, which recognizes the Fc [read "F-C"] portion of immunoglobulin G and results in the release of interferon gamma in the process of ADCC. These components of the innate immune system release granzyme and perforin, inducing apoptosis of their targets, typically tumor cells or virus-infected cells. For 10 points, name this type of lymphocyte that destroy cells without requiring activation, unlike cytotoxic T cells.
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The effect of proteins like OXA-18 on these agents can be mitigated by the co-administration of clavulanic acid, which counteracts resistance to these chemicals. Another mechanism of resistance to these agents is mutation of serine 403 in the enzyme they target. Members of this class are structural analogues of the NAG/NAM peptide of the protein whose transpeptidation they inhibit. The variable binding of PBP subtypes to members of this class of drugs, which includes the cephalosporins, affects the relative abilities of these drugs to inhibit the crosslinking of the bacterial cell wall component peptidoglycan. For 10 points, name this class of antibiotics with a namesake central ring structure, a class that includes penicillin.
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The efficiency of this process is improved by chloroquine when using the di-ethyl-amine-ethyl-dextrose protocol that was first devised by Arthuro and Seed in 1987, while either BES or HEPES buffers are used for this process in another protocol described in 1973 by Graham and van der Eb using calcium phosphate. In 1987 Life Technologies first described the compound DOTMA which mediates this process through liposome fusion, while Wong and Neumann were the first to shock cell membranes into opening pores to initiate this process. FTP, each of these protocols allows the occurrence of this process, in which foreign nucleic acids is introduced into eukaryotic cells.
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The first host of an endoparasitic digenea and the intermediate host of species of Schistosoma are members of this phylum. Mercenaria mercenaria is a member of this phylum that contains a pallial line, a ctenidium composed of demibranchs, byssal glands, a ventricle wrapped around the rectum, a protuberance known as the umbo, and a chitinous toothed structure called the radula. Eric Kandel uses the ganglia of one member of this phylum for neurophysiological studies. In addition to the model organism Aplysia, this phylum consists of members in classes such as Polyplacophora, Bivalvia, and Cephalopoda. For 10 points, name this phylum, members of which have a mantle that is responsible for secreting the shell, and include chitons, clams, oysters, snails, and squids.
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The inferior angle of this bone is formed by the union of the vertebral and axillary borders and has a dorsal surface that provides attachment to the teres major and the latissimus dorsi. A ridge between the inferior and medial angles provides a point of attachment for the serratus anterior. Its posterior surface contains a projection that joins a forward-pointing hook called the acromion, while a projection off the lateral angle is known as the coracoid process. Near the base of the coracoid process lies the glenoid cavity, and the insertion of the lower trapezius muscle lies over a smooth, triangular area of the bone. FTP, name this bone connecting the humerus to the clavicle, commonly known as the shoulder blade.
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The largest known example in this division, Noctiluca, can reach 2 millimeters across. Their nuclear structure is unusual, as they can have up to 400 chromosomes, which are attached to the nuclear membrane and remain condensed except for DNA replication. Some types of corals engage in symbiosis with the Zooxanthella type, and the light-producing species are responsible for much of the phosphorescence seen in ocean water at night. Each has two of the feature that they are named for, one of which wraps around the cell and the other of which beats back and forth to propel it. FTP, name this division of occasionally toxic protists which are the cause of red tides.
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The rate at which this process occurs is governed by a group of proteins that contain repeated structures called "finger domains". In eukaryotes, it begins in the TATA box, 25 nucleotides upstream from the initiation sites, and sees RNA polymerase II add to the three prime end of the new molecule until the conclusion, which is commonly induced when the sequence AATAAA is achieved. FTP, what is this process in which the genetic information of DNA is transferred to a molecule of messenger RNA, the first step in protein synthesis?
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The last sentence begins "There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one". Six editions were published by the author and its fourteen chapters include "Instinct", "Hybridism", and "On the Imperfection of the Geological Record". For ten points, name this 1859 work influenced by Thomas Malthus and written by Charles Darwin.
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The lesser end of this organ extends towards the spleen and is placed over the left kidney. The ascending portion of the transverse meso-colon covers the convex front part of the body of this organ. The splenic artery and vein can be found in the thick upper border of this organ, through which the Canal of Wirsung extends from the left to right of the substance of this organ. Its secretions include chymotrypsin and trypsin, which help break down proteins, and the sphincter of Oddi controls the release of liquids through the Ampulla of Vater, which contains secretions from the gallbladder and this organ. The alpha cells of regions of this organ secrete glucagon, while the beta cells secrete insulin. For 10 points, name this organ, home to the islets of Langerhans.
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The levels of this hormone in the body are controlled by the release of CSH from the hypothalamus. Because it is synthesized in the anterior pituitary gland as part of a precursor protein that also contains melanocyte-stimulating hormone, pigmentation of the skin accompanies its overproduction in disorders such as Cushing's disease. It stimulates the production of aldosterone and corisol by the adrenal glands. FTP, identify this hormone, a deficiency of which results in Addison's disease.
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The main diagnostic symptom of this disease also characterizes a disorder that is one of the Jones criteria and is associated with streptococci infections, called Sydenham disorder. This disease causes depletion of CREB binding protein, and the main protein involved in this disease interacts with HIP1, a clathrin-binding protein. It chiefly occurs due to the presence of an excess of 36 contiguous glutamine residues in a polyQ sequence near the amino terminus of said protein. The mutation of a namesake gene on chromosome 4 results in, for 10 points, what autosomal dominant disease that causes involuntary muscle movements and progressive cognitive degeneration due to the aggregation of a misfolded protein in the central nervous system.
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The major structural proteins of these entities use the PTAP motif to recruit the ESCRT-1 ["escort-one"] complex and the LYPxL motif to recruit the ALIX protein in order to facilitate the budding process. In addition to possessing the Gag polyprotein, these entities produce the Vif protein which counteracts the effects of the cytidine deaminase APOBEC3G. They are unable to infect individuals who possess a homozygous 32 base pair deletion in the CCR5 protein. The glycoprotein gp120 found on them allows them to dock onto CD4 receptors, and azidothymidine is a reverse transcriptase inhibitor that is used to treat infections by this agent. For 10 points, name this retrovirus that mostly infects immune cells and which causes AIDS.
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The manager of a French sugar beet processing factory discovered the first one in 1833 when he was able to separate it from malt extract. The second example was discovered three years later, when Ambrose Schwann was able to demonstrate that adding an extract from stomach lining worked much better than hydrochloric acid alone in digesting meat. The term for these substances was finally coined in 1878 by German physiologist Wilhelm Kuhne whose vitalist predisposition led him to believe that the ability to cause fermentation was a property of living material only. FTP, diastase and pepsin are examples of this class of substances, which act as catalysts for cellular reactions.
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The mechanism of action of these substances is mediated by binding and activation of their eponymous G-protein receptors, of which three classses have been identified: mu, delta, and kappa. Capable of constriction of the pupils and suppression of the cough reflex, endogenous forms of these substances are produced from cleavage of peptides such as POMC, and include the dynophins, enkephalins, and endorphins. Antagonized by naloxone, the mu receptors in the dorsal horn of spinal cord mediates its major effects, which is to hyperpolarize and inactivate postsynaptic neurons that transmit pain. FTP, name this class of substances, examples of which include methadone, codeine, heroin, and its prototype, morphine.
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The population of cells in this tissue is regulated by the CLAVATA and WUSCHEL genes. Cells in this entity are activated by a lipochitin oligosaccharide to enter the cell cycle. This tissue contains cells with bodies that can develop into ones containing prolamellar bodies, known as etioplasts, or into entities containing porphyrins with a central magnesium. Layers within one type of these include L1, L2, and L3, which make up the tunica and corpus, and the dominance of that type is regulated by auxin. The intercalary type is found in monocots, and the lateral type forms vascular cambium. FTP name this collection of dividing and differentiating cells in plants, which comes in floral and apical varieties.
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The presence of the E4 allele of apolipoprotein E increases the risk of this disease. Other disorders that may cause similar physical symptoms include Binswanger's disease and another disease that involves alpha-synuclein-containing Lewy bodies. Definitive histological diagnosis involves Bielschowsky or Congo red staining of a 40- to 43-amino-acid-long peptide derived from its precursor, A-P-P. Co-discovered by Kraepelin and its namesake, it prominently affects the hippocampus and association areas of the cortex. FTP, name this neurodegenerative disorder marked by accumulation of tau protein and beta-amyloid in neurofibrillary tangles and plaques, the most common cause of elderly dementia.
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The prokaryotic analog of their monomers, FtsZ (pronounced "fits-zee"), recruits proteins for formation of the Z-ring at the site of the new cell wall in dividing cells. They nucleate at a ring complex with the aid of gamma-ring proteins, and their stability is modified by proteins such as katanin, colchicine, and taxol. Proteins that may associate with them include stathmins and CLASPs, which are associated with the kinetochore during mitosis. Consisting of a polymer of 13 protofilaments and exhibiting dynamic instability, FTP identify these cellular structural elements that nucleate at the centrosome, found in doublets in cilia and made up of alpha/beta dimers of tubulin.
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The protein gelsolin acts on these structures to condense the protein nebulin at their boundary-defining disks, but does not affect the largest known protein, titin. They are surrounded by lattices of desmin filaments, and their anisotropic regions are bisected by H zones. The sliding filament model describes the action of these structures. This action occurs when calcium ions bind to troponin C, causing them to contract and pull their terminal Z-lines together. Action and myosin filaments in myofibrils are organized into, FTP, these functional units of striated muscle.
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The proximal end is rounded for articulation with the acetabulum; distally, it expands into two condyles, below which lie the medial and lateral menisci. Near the proximal end are trochanters for muscle attachments, including the gluteus medius and minimus. For ten points, what legbone forms a ball-and-socket joint with the hip.
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The three layers of this organ are the epithelium, the stroma, and the endothelium, and diseases that can affect it include lattice dystrophy, herpes, and shingles. When the organ is damaged, a patch called a leukoma may form on it, but because few blood vessels lead to it a transplant may be performed with minimal risk of rejection. FTP, name this most-transplanted organ in the body whose malfunction can cause astigmatism and which functions as a protective layer for the pupil and iris.
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The torsin protein, a member of the AAA protein family, is crucial for carrying out the role of this molecule, which tightly binds to the N-terminal domains of DnaK and Hsp70. In order for tRNA to be aminoacylated, this molecule must first react with free amino acid, and seven of these molecules can bind to the GroEL/GroES chaperone complex. It is the product of an enzyme containing F0 and F1 subunits that harness a proton gradient produced by the electron transport chain. Produced by a namesake synthase, about 36 of these molecules are generated per glucose entering cellular respiration. For 10 points, identify this energy-storing molecule, which consists of three phosphates bonded to an adenosine sugar.
unnaturally rapid rice enlargement caused by these plant hormones. FTP, name this class of plant hormones that stimulate stem and leaf growth.
The transcription factor for these chemicals is repressed by DELLA and they are received by a namesake "-insensitive dwarf mutant 1" complex. These nineteen- or twenty-member heterocyclic rings are unsynthesizable in the presence of ancymidol, function by altering transcription, and display an atypical sigmoidal dose response. Mendel's Le gene is for a protein synthesizing these hormones which is understandable since that gene affects pea height. Discovered by Kurosawa in 1926, they were later named for the fungus that he noted as the cause of "foolish seedling" disease
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The trifascular system gives rise to them and the best place to look for them is the inner ventricular wall, just beneath the endocardium. Consisting of modified cardiac muscle tissue, they are mostly free of myofibrils except at the cell periphery. They form part of the ventricular conduction system in which they transmit impulses from the bundle of His [HISS] to the ventricular muscle. FTP, name these thin conducting filaments named after a Czech physiologist.
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There are over 100 biotypes of this disease, but only 01 ("oh-one") and 0139 ("oh-1-3-9") possess both the VPI pathogenicity island and the CTX prophage that confer its characteristic exotoxin. It is caused by the Vibrio bacterium, which never enters the cells, but adheres to the intestinal lining and secretes a toxin that deactivates ion pumps and increases the cells' permeability to water. It can be prevented by basic sanitation and it runs its course within 2 weeks if patients are kept hydrated. FTP, what is this disease marked by severe diarrhea, vomiting, and dehydration?
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There are two sexes in this organism: a self-fertilizing hermaphrodite and a male. The adult essentially comprises a tube, the exterior cuticle, containing two smaller tubes, the pharynx and gut, and the reproductive system all within a one-millimeter package. All 959 somatic cells of its transparent body are visible with a microscope, and its average life span is a mere 2-3 weeks. Perhaps the most interesting thing about this nematode, though, is its 97-million base pair genome. FTP, identify this worm, the second eukaryote after budding yeast to have its genome completely sequenced.
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There's this thing called being so open-minded your brains drop out. So writes this biologist, the main developer of the paradigm that the replicator, whether genetic or cultural, is the fundamental unit of evolution. FTP, name this Oxford professor, author of The Blind Watchmaker and The Selfish Gene, who has added the word "meme" (pronounced "meem") to the English language.
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These organisms may have evolved from Spriggina and Parvancorina, while those of the order Lichida may have had horns. Their earliest order is Redlichiida, which did not have the natant hypostome of the ensuing Ptychopariida and Harpetida types, and the Proetida were the longest-lasting. Though the Agnostina were eyeless, other orders were among the first species to develop complex compound eyes. Containing over 17,000 identified species, they came into existence during the Cambrian period but died off with most other marine species during the Permian-Triassic Extinction. For 10 points, name these small arthropod fossils, named for their three-lobe structures.
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They were first discovered by Werner Arber during attempts to render E. coli B/r sensitive to the lambda phage. Most of them fall into the type II variety, and examples such as HpaI and HaeIII result in blunt end digests. More useful ones include NotI and BamHI, which create 5-prime phosphate extensions and leave characteristic "sticky ends" in order for DNA ligases to add different inserts. Perhaps the most common example of these proteins is one that cleaves the site GAATTC, known as EcoRI. FTP, identify these digestion proteins used to cleave DNA at specific sites.
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They were first identified by Roger Guillemin in the 1970s. They are associated with appetite control and the release of sex hormones, and many researchers believe that the rapid secretion of the beta- type, which is found almost exclusively in the pituitary gland, occurs immediately after a severe trauma like a gunshot wound or an amputation. The effects of acupuncture have also been attributed to these compounds. FTP, name these neurochemicals, the body's natural painkillers.
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This amino acid has been used as an appetite suppressant as it stimulates the production of cholecystokinin and as a mood enhancer as its d-type stimulates endorphins. Metabolic pathways in the liver can convert it to norepinephrine, but more commonly it is converted by the enzyme PAH into tyrosine. FTP, name this amino acid that, with aspartic acid, makes up NutraSweet and which can not be process properly in people with PKU, or phenylketonuria.
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This animal experiences approximately 8 hours of REM sleep per day, which is the highest of any mammal. Like snakes, certain defensin-like proteins are found in this animal's venom. Both males and females have ten sex chromosomes, and they may be the only mammals that follow the ZW sex determination system, a characteristic shared with birds. They belong to genus Ornithorhynchus, and other similarities to birds, including the use of a cloaca for reproduction, show these animals' early divergence from the placentals and marsupials. For 10 points, name these primitive mammals, certain egg-laying monotremes with duck bills.
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This structure becomes invaginated and buds inwardly in a process mediated by clathrin. During apoptosis, this structure bulges out in a process known as “blebbing.†Signaling proteins that span this structure often have a seven alpha-helix motif. Sphingolipids and cholesterol are elevated in this structure's “lipid raft†domains, which help localize proteins in this structure. It is modeled as a phospholipid bilayer in the fluid-mosaic model. For 10 points, name this selectively permeable barrier structure, which, in plant cells, is located just inside the cell wall.
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This structure disconnects from its rostral organ in Zenker's Diverticulum, and Schatzki rings can impede the function of this structure. Plummer-Vinson syndrome causes webbing to appear in this structure, and Barrett's syndrome is caused by metaplasias in one portion of this structure. Zollinger-Ellison syndrome leads to lesions in it due to the overproduction of gastrin. Its mucosa consists of a layer of non-keratinized squamous epithelium, and it passes through a namesake hiatus in the diaphragm. It is bound by the epiglottis and cardiac sphincter, and peristalsis moves a bolus through this structure. FTP, name this muscular tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach.
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This type of algae can occur in running water and in vegetative form, but most are of the conjugative variety and are found in mats over still waters. All of them possess a slippery unbranched filament composed of cylindrical cells containing torodial green chloroplasts and take an uncomplicated structure ideal for microscopic study in secondary schools. With a name meaning "coiled-ring", FTP, what is this type of algae also known as mermaid's tresses, water silk, and pond scum?
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This type of organism has a namesake pit that can occur when limited states exist. The functional responses of these organisms are divided into three types, with "type two" including saturation and extinction. The canonical differential equation for them includes a conversion efficiency factor. Changes in their population size lead to trophic cascades. Their interaction is described by the Lotka-Volterra equation. Mobbing is a response to them, as is aposematism and mimicry. Those that do not have any organism in a similar relationship to themselves are apex ones. For 10 points, name this type of organism that kills prey for sustenance.
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Though it has two sensory ganglia, its only sensory function is for a tiny area around the opening of the external ear. The most complex of its family of nerves, it stimulates secretion of stomach and pancreatic juices, contributes motor impulses to muscles in the larynx and pharynx, controls involuntary muscles in the bronchi, esophagus and small intestine, in addition to its more well-known function of slowing heart rate. FTP, identify this tenth and longest of the cranial nerves.
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Uncouplers of this process include 2,4-dinitrophenol and cyanide. Resulting from the conversion of succinate to fumarate and the hydrogen ions delivered by NADH, intermediates in it include the cytochromes and coenzyme Q, also known as ubiquinone. Several iron ions along it are repeatedly oxidized and reduced, and it provides the gradient for ATP synthase, which then completes the process of chemiosmosis. Oxygen serves as the final acceptor of, FTP, what energy-producing pathway in the inner mitochondrial membrane involving negatively-charged particles?
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When its upper apo-physic growth area is irritated by repetitive stress, its attached tendons can become inflamed by Osgood-Schlatter disease. Near its top, Gerdy's tubercle allows for a namesake band of tissue to pass through it. The gracilis [gra-SIL-is] and semi-tendi-no-sus tendons insert into it, and the sartorius muscle is attached to its upper inner section. At its bottom, the medial malleolus articulates with the talus. Its two intercondylar tubercles meet the patella at its top. FTP, name this bone which forms the shin and creates the structure of the lower leg along with the fibula.
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When mitochondria are damaged, this is released into the body of a cell, and its release from a cell is often indicative of apoptosis. Some molecules that perform analogous functions use azurin or ferredoxin, but its prosthetic group consists of a heme group with an iron ion inside. Attaching electrons to oxygen molecules before they are combined with hydrogen, this is, for 10 points, what molecule found near the end of the electron transport chain?
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A common, commercially available example of these catalysts is M-MuLV [EMM-mulf]. The long terminal repeat is a transposable element in the human genome with sequences for this type of enzyme. Baltimore, Termin, and Mizutani first discovered them in 1970, and even "good" ones have error frequencies on the order of one a thousand. After these enzymes are used in the laboratory to form cDNA, DNA polymerase is typically used to form double stranded DNA. FTP, give the name of the enzymes that use RNA as a template to form DNA and which are best known for their presence in retroviruses, especially HIV.
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A class of proteins that contain a baculovirus internal repeat, including XIAP and hIAP1 and 2, are responsible for inhibiting this process, and that protein is inhibited by Smac and Omi. Protein 14-3-3controls this process, and is elevated in the cerebrospinal fluid in patients with CJD. Another series of proteins responsible for regulating this process contain some combination of domains BH1 through 4; the prototype of that family is Bcl-2. Methods of assaying for this process include watching for the exclusion of the dye tryphan blue or nick-end labelling via the TUNEL assay. This process occurs interdigitally during limb development, during selection of T-cells, and exactly 191 times during the development of C. elegans. For 10 points, name this process, known as programmed cell death.
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A derivative of this compound prefixed by pseudo- is an important modifier of the T-arm of tRNA, while its fluorine derivative is used to inhibit the enzyme thy-mi-dyl-ate syn-thase, effects of which are essential to its use in chemotherapy. Its N-gly-coy-lase is an important excision enzyme, participation of which explains the absence of Okazaki fragments on the leading strand; it is also essential to protection from damage resulting from deamination of another compound to this nucleotide. First identified in herring sperm, FTP, name this pyrimidine in which the lack of a methyl group is the only difference between it and the nucleotide it replaces, thymine, in RNA.
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A derivative of this molecule serves as a cofactor for the methyl-malonyl-Coenzyme A mutase, and it is also needed for the action of the methyl-transferase that converts homocysteine to methionine. The inactivity of that enzyme leads to a thymine shortage, which is the cause of problems associated with deficiencies in this molecule. It can only be absorbed through cubulin receptors in the terminal ileum while bound to a product of parietal cells known as intrinsic factor. For 10 points, name this vitamin needed to prevent pernicious anemia, which is also called cyano-cobalamin thanks to its central cobalt atom.
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A major signaling pathway in these cells is the APS-Cap-CBL pathway. Individuals with Berardinelli-Seip disease lack this cell type. P-P-A-R-gamma-two regulates their differentiation and also functions as a thi-a-zo-lid-ine-di-ene receptor in these cells. This cell type features an unusual cortical actin structure associated with caveolae "rosettes", which was first characterized in the 3T3-L1 cell line. With increasing age, differentiation of marrow stromal cells shifts to favor this cell type over osteoblasts. This cell type's secretions include resistin, estrogen, and leptin. The unilocular, or "white", type of this cell predominates in adults, while newborns have more of the mitochondria-rich multilocular, or "brown" type. For 10 points, name this type of cell which stores fat.
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A precursor to this group of compounds is present in the endosperm of germinating seeds, and moves to the root tip after germinating to stimulate mitosis. Working by binding to a receptor protein to the plasma membrane of a cell, Zeatin moves into the nucleus and activates several nuclear transcription factors, which produces mass quantities of mRNA. Derived from adenine, some other functions these compounds are involved in are differentiation root tissue, differentiation of the meristem, leaf formation, and the development of chloroplasts from etioplasts. FTP, name these plant hormones, which, unlike auxins, cause growth rather than elongation, and take their name from their role in stimulating cell division.
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A recent Science article attempted to identify the "kernels" of the networks made up of these objects, defining these kernels as "evolutionarily inflexible subcircuits." The duplication of a set of these objects about 520 million years ago is thought to be responsible for the Cambrian explosion. In vertebrates, they are organized into 13 paralogues and 4 clusters, and each cluster is the same size as the Ubx gene in Drosophila, the animal in which these types of genes were discovered. About 180 base-pairs long, these genes encode transcription factors and act on the embryo in the sequential order that they occur on the chromosome. FTP, identify this family of genes active during development which directly control an organism's body plan.
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About 60 types of these units have been identified in humans, including the c-neu [see-new] and c-L-myc [see-ell-mike] varieties, where the "c" indicates cellular, as opposed to viral, origin. First discovered in retroviruses, they were shown to derive from normal genes by Bishop and Varmus in the mid-1970s. They can be formed from those normal genes by point mutation, translocation, or amplification but are no longer prefaced with the "proto" prefix at that point. FTP, identify these genes, named for their tumor-inducing potential as the genetic cause of cancers.
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Among the most famous types of this animal are sooty, laysan, and black-browed, and because of their tameness on land they are also known by common names like mollymawk and gooney. Making up the family Diomedeidae, they are among the most spectacular gliders of all birds, using their long, narrow wings to stay aloft in windy weather for hours, although in calm air they have trouble keeping their stout bodies airborne and prefer to rest on the ocean surface. Known for their size, the wandering version has a typical wingspread of more than 11 feet, the largest among living birds. FTP, what is this type of bird which sailors held were bad luck to kill?
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Among their specialized types are cytotoxic and delayed hypersensitivity, both of which are categorized as effector types of these cells. Originating from bone marrow, the helper type carry receptors that recognize class II antigens and release interleukin-2, which in turn triggers the release of other cytokines, leading to a proliferation of B lymphocytes. FTP, name these principal agents of cell-mediated immunity which derive their name from the fact that they mature in the thymus.
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Among vertebrates it appears only in a small number of marsupials and primates. The goblet cells that line it secrete an antibacterial mucus to control organismal growth in the surrounding region. Other than in rudimentary versions this structure of the alimentary canal is absent in all invertebrates. It is seemingly vestigial, but it can possibly affect the health of the adjacent cecum [SEE-kum]. Attached to the ileum, FTP, name this organ preceded by the adjective "vermiform," and which can inflame and burst in humans.
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Granular bodies in these structures are named for a German whose stain revealed them, Franz Nissl. They contain a tight junction called a hillock. Saltatory conduction is used to transport action potentials across myelinated sheaths called Nodes of Ranvier in these structures. They receive metabolic and structural support from neighboring glial cells. The body of these cells is called the soma, and they possess dendrites and axons. For 10 points, name these specialized cells that connect to each other to form networks in the body's central and peripheral nervous systems.
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In a typical one, the tunica intima and tunica media have ruptured, leaving the tunica adventitia as the only containment. A pulsating enlargment behind the knee is cause by one occurring in the politeal artery, however the aorta is even more prone to them. For ten points, name this bulge usually found in the walls of diseased blood vessels.
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In platelets, much of this protein is found attached to a peptide named Fx, which was found to be identical to thymosin beta-4. Branching of this protein is stimulated by WASp proteins; the branch points are occupied by a protein typically isolated due to its ability to bind profilin. CapZ is responsible for calcium-independent capping of the plus end of one form of this protein. A toxin from the so-called "angel of death" mushroom, phalloidin, works by preventing this protein's filamentous F form from being depolymerized into G monomers. Microfilaments are made up of this protein, which is absent in the H zone of a sarcomere. For 10 points, name this protein that slides alongside myosin to produce muscle contractions.
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In their experiments Lederberg and Zinder discovered one that was coded for by the p-h-e+ and the t-r-p+ genes. The greatest family of them known to exist is the T-even group, and the first to be discovered, T2, was from this family. Numerous enzymes participate in their function, particularly lysozyme, whose digestion of the cell wall allows their release upon assembly. These substances are known to mediate one specific type of recombination, transduction. First identified in the Hershey-Chase blender experiment, FTP, name this class of bacteria-infecting viruses.
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In these, early cleavage occurs radially, and individual cells can still develop into complete organisms after several cleavages. Because they fit into this category, phoronids, lophophores, and starfish are considered more closely related to vertebrates than the seemingly more complicated insects and crustaceans. FTP, name this classification of animals whose blastopore develops into the anus, the opposite of protostomes.
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In this stage, polar microtubules grow longer and push the spindle poles apart. Simultaneously, kinetocore microtubules no longer fight each other as they move to opposing spindle poles, pulling attached chromosomes with them. The separation of sister chromatids into independent daughter chromatids characterizes, for 10 points, what stage of mitosis preceded by metaphase.
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Its metabolism is controlled by the 11-beta HSD system, which uses NADPH and NAD+ to convert it to and from its precursor. Though it can weaken the immune system by rendering interleukin-2 unresponsive to interleukin-1 in T-cell formation, it also inhibits loss of sodium in the small intestine and stimulates hepatic detoxification by mobilizing arachidonic acid to induce cytochrome P-450. An abundance of this hormone results in Cushing's disease, while a lack of it can result in Addison's disease. Synthesized from cholesterol in the zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex, FTP, identify this corticosteroid hormone often referred to as the "stress hormone".
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Its parts include the square and flat body, and two each of the greater cornua and lesser cornua. The lesser cornu is small and conical, and from the medial side of its base arises the Chondroglossus. The cranial surface of the greater cornu is the origin of the Constrictor pharyngis medius. Suspended from the tips of the styloid processes of the temporal bones by ligaments, FTP, name this bone named for its "U" shape, which serves as the anchoring structure for the tongue.
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One model that explains the allosteric change in this protein is the Monod, Wyman, and Changeux model. The Koshland, Nemethy, and Filmer model states that one subunit's change in the structure of this protein promotes conformotional state changes in adjacent subunits. This molecule fluctuates between T and R states. 2,3-bi-phospho-glycerate and inositol hexa-phosphate act to promote the disassociation between this protein and the molecule that it most commonly binds to. The fact that the aforementioned disassociation is promoted when this protein is at low pHs is called the Bohr effect. The carbamation of its N-terminal amino groups allows this protein to carry carbon dioxide. For 10 points, name this iron-containing protein found in red blood cells, responsible for carrying oxygen.
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One type of bodies found in these were identified by the fusion of RAR alpha with PML proteins in promyelocytic leukemia patients. Pores in its membrane are made of proteins rich in phenylalanine and glycine residues, and import into and export out of this structure requires karyopherins, and is regulated by Ran proteins. Cajal bodies are also found in this organelle, which can be visualized by Hoechst or DAPI staining. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is continuous with its double membrane, and it is the location of mRNA splicing as well as DNA transcription. For 10 points, name this organelle which contains chromatin that is only found in eukaryotes.
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One variant phenotype of this group is known as the "weak D". One nomenclature for identifying it was developed by Fisher and Race, which uses the letters c, d, and e to mark its alleles, while an older nomenclature is named for Weiner. Phillip Levine connected this set of factors to a condition that is currently prevented by the drug Rhogam, known as erythroblastosis fetalis or hemolytic disease of the newborn, in which a mother produces antibodies to this factor. Originally discovered in a namesake species of monkey, for 10 points, name this blood group that is usually notated by a plus or minus when noting one's blood type.
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Prominent in ventral tegmental area, the superior colliculus, and the arcuate nucleus, it is released from the hypothalamus and inhibits prolactin secretion. Synthesized from tyrosine, it can be further metabolized into norepinephrine and epinephrine. However, it is better known for its association with a disease that degenerates the substantia nigra. For 10 points -- name this neurotransmitter, levels of which are increased in schizophrenia but depleted in Parkinson's disease.
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Proteins destined for these structures are post-translationally modified to include mannose-6-phosphate residues on their N-linked oligosaccharides. The addition of the M6P tag to enzymes, such as aryl-sulfytase A, is being investigated as a potential treatment for diseases that affect these organelles, which diseases include metachromatic leukodystrophy and Fabry's disease. Once inside these structures, the proteins and their M6P tags dissociate due to the environment created by vacuolar ATPase, which is closely related to the proton pump used in oxidative phosphorylation. FTP, identify these organelles containing hydrolases that function best at a pH of about 5 and which are structurally similar to peroxisomes.
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The duct of Wirsung is found in this organ which secretes zymogens that transform into the majority of digestive enzymes. Besides secreting a form of amylase and lipase from its acinar cells, this compound gland is easily affected by acetylcholine and CCK. Attached to the duodenum, for ten points, is what insulin-secreting gland, site of the islets of Langerhans?
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The Hickman group pioneered a cell-free system to study their development. Contactin-associated protein 2 localizes to these structures and is thought to organize Kv1.1 localization and, along with C-fibers, these sites are where Nav1.6 most frequently localizes. Features located proximal to these structures include lateral loops, transverse bands, and Schmidt-Lantermann cells. The sequestration of the sodium-potassium pump and voltage-gated channels to these sites ensures that little to no loss of membrane depolarization occurs between these sites. When these sites are absent, continuous conduction occurs; in their presence, saltatory conduction occurs. For 10 points, name these neuronal structures that consist of the gaps in myelin sheaths.
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The brain of this class of animals is unusual in that the cerebellum is reduced to a mere band. Some, such as Siredon mexicanum, become sexually active at the larval stage. The adult heart consists of a muscular ventricle and two auricles, but in earlier stages the circulation resembles that of fish. Except for caecilians, which have small scales in the outer folds of the body, their skin is smooth and moist, with numerous glands secreting a fluid that is often irritating and poisonous. FTP, name this class of animals which includes hellbenders, axolotls, sirens, and toads.
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The disease erythroblastosis fetalis is caused by incompatibilities in this substance, discovered independently by Karl Landsteiner. Since 15% of people lack it, the Kleihauer-Betke test which detects potential problems by looking for fetal red blood cells is used during pregnancies. For ten points, what blood antigen derives its name from the animal in which it was originally found?
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The discovery of this group of substances was influenced by earlier experiments by Charles Darwin, Boysen-Jensen, and Paal. Frits Went removed the tips from coleoptiles, and placed them face down on blocks of agar for about an hour. The blocks could then be attached to the original plant in order to make it resume growth or bend, proving that the stimulus was chemical. Also responsible for the maintenance of apical dominance and the initiation of root formation in cuttings, FTP, identify this class of plant hormones including indoleacetic acid, named by Went from the Greek word for "increase."
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The gastrointestinal version of this hormone is released by L cells, and ironically, its only purpose is to spur production of a substance strongly antagonized by the other type. That other type is a 29 amino-acid polypeptide released by alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans that aids carbohydrate metabolism and opposes the operation of insulin. FTP, what is this hormone that increases the concentration of glucose in the blood by stimulating the breakdown of glycogen?
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The more familiar members of this order are in suborder Apocrita, while the less familiar are in suborder Symphyta. Rather than familiarity, however, this order is divided into suborders based on the width of the "waist" between the thorax and abdomen. Small hooks called hamuli join the front wings to the smaller hind wings in almost all adults, and Isoptera is the only other order in its class to display the same complexity of social behavior. FTP, identify this order of class Insecta, which includes sawflies and horntails as well as the more familiar ants, bees, and wasps.
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They may be classified further by the chemical composition of their somatic or O-antigen determinants. An abundance in the core region of the phosphorylated compounds 2-keto-3-deoxyoctonoate and L-glycero-D-mannoheptose may be used to render the namesake classification in varieties like Pseudomonas and Yersinia. However, their chief distinguishing feature is the depletion in peptidoglycans observed in their double membranes. FTP, name these bacteria whose cell walls trap safranine, but allow the primary crystal-violet to escape upon addition of acetone, causing them to appear red in the namesake stain.
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They often form stacks of G-quadruplexes with potassium or sodium ions between each quadruplex. They are not necessary or present in most prokaryotes, especially those with circular DNA, and are only maintained in the germ cells of multicellular eukaryotes. When they become uncapped, they can lead to apoptosis or senescence of somatic cells, which may be the root of normal aging. Considered the solution to Watson's "end-replication problem," FTP, identify these repeated nucleotide sequences that protect and define the ends of chromosomes.
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This animal is characterized by peglike teeth without roots or enamel. Members have almost 100 teeth, more than any other mammal. Although omnivorous, insects form the bulk of their diet. Species range from the giant variety which reaches 4 feet and 100 lbs to the fairy pichiagos which only reach 6 inches. The nine-banded species is the only species found in the US. FTP, identify this armored mammal of order Edentata.
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This hormone's releasing factor is the human analog of bombesin, and activation of somatostatin-2 receptors on the cells that release this hormone can inhibit its release. One form of this peptide acts upon the D cells of the antrum, and overproduction of this hormone leads to Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. Usually secreted in the presence of calcium and amino acids, it binds to enterochromaffin-like cells and stimulates the release of histamine, and it also binds to chief cells to stimulate the release of pepsinogen. For 10 points, name this digestive hormone secreted by G cells, which regulates the secretion of gastric acid in the stomach.
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This man's name is applied to the effect in which the differences in the sensitivity of the eye between day and night conditions can be attributed. He is also known for having coined the term "protoplasm", though its meaning has since changed. His name also graces a particular model of cell genesis. For ten points, name this Czech physiologist whose eponymous fibers relay cardiac impulses to the ventricular cells, causing the ventricles to contract.
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This pathway's first enzyme, a transcarbomylase, requires an input of carbomyl phosphate. The synthetase at this pathway's antepenultimate step requires aspartate, which is dehydrated and combined with citrulline. Sometimes called the Krebs-Henseleit cycle, it requires three ATP, which it reduces to two ADP and an AMP. This double-celled cycle regenerates its required fumarate from arginosuccinate, after which arginase produces its namesake compound. FTP, name this biological pathway, the first metabolic pathway discovered, that degrades amino acids to a certain nitrogenous waste product.
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This phenomenon can be present in stable forms only when the ends of the DNA are not free, as in a covalently closed circular DNA molecule. It is commonly the result of tension created ahead of the replication fork during the unwinding of the DNA during replication, and can be relaxed by the enzyme DNA gyrase. For ten points, name this phenomenon that manifests itself as added twists in a DNA molecule.
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This phylum is unique in that its members do not exhibit growth or repair after embryonic development is complete. Characteristics of this phylum include chitin-containing trophi, which they use to grind up their food and which are contained in a pharyngeal organ called a mastax. One class in this phylum can survive extreme desiccation by leaving itself in a cysted state, known as cryptobiosis; that class is Bdelloidea. The largest class in this phylum is the Monogononta. This pseudocoelomate phylum gets its name from their crown of cilia that draws a vortex of water into their mouth. For 10 points, name this phylum of animals which has a name meaning "wheel bearer" in Latin.
ethylene or ethene [accept C2H2 before it's mentioned]
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femur
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follicle-stimulating hormone or FSH
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frontal lobotomy (accept prefrontal lobotomy before the final clue)
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gallbladder (prompt on "cholecyst")
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restriction endonuclease(s) or restriction enzymes
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restriction enzyme; accept "restriction endonuclease"
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riboflavin [or B2 before mentioned]
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electron transport chain (accept chemiosmosis prior to "succinate")
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electron transport chain (prompt on "oxidative phosphorylation")
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emphysema
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endoplasmic reticulum [accept smooth endoplasmic reticulum before "calsequestrin"]
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endorphins
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enteric nervous system [or ENS]
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epidermis (prompt on buzz of "skin" before *, otherwise do not accept)
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erythrocytes (accept red blood cell on early buzz)
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esophagus
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electrocardiogram or ECG or EKG [Elektrokardiogramm]
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The first atomic structure of one of these was published by Ban et al. in 2000. Its leading end is labeled P and is followed by A. In prokaryotes, it is made of three strands and consists of 30S and 50S subunits; in eukaryotes it has four strands. It uses an initiator called fMET and then works by using peptidyl transferase to bind two amino acids, creating a peptide bond; it does this by reading mRNA and using tRNA to create its product. FTP, these, sometimes located within the mitochondria or in the cytoplasm, are, what protein-assembling organelles, most commonly located on the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
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When a seed absorbs water, some of these substances appear in the embryo and are translocated to the aleurone layer, where they activate the metabolism to initiate sprouting. They generally increases the thickness and internodal length of the stalk as well as increasing flowering and germination while reducing leaf growth and chlorophyll production. Used commercially by the agricultural industry, they were discovered by a Japanese scientist studying "foolish seedling" disease. FTP name this class plant of hormones responsible for the rapid growth of beans and bamboo.
keratin
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loop of Henle
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lotus
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kin selection (do not accept altruism)
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reverse transcriptase or RNA-dependent DNA polymerase
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lac operon [accept beta-galactosidase until “induceâ€]
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lactate [or lactic acid]
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lactic acid
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lactic acid [accept lactate until "acid"]
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lactose
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lambda phage
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lamprey
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larynx (prompt on "voice box")
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lupus (or systemic lupus erythematous or other reasonable equivalents)
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lysine
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lysosome
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lysosomes
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leprosy [accept: Hansen's disease until mentioned; accept lepromin until "this disease"]
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lichen
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lichens
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lipopolysaccharide or LPS or endotoxin
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liver
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intercalating agents [accept intercalators]
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interferons
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interferons [or IFNs]
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interleukins
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introns
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introns (or intervening sequences)
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jaundice or icterus (accept hyperbilirubinemia before "rising")
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karyotyping [accept word forms]
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glucose [accept dextrose before mentioned; prompt on C6H12O6 before mentioned]
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glutamate or glutamic acid
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glycine
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glycine [or amino acetic acid, aminoethanolic acid, and prompt on "G" or "Gly"]
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glycolysis (accept Embden-Meyerhof Pathway before *)
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glycolysis (accept Embden-Meyerhof on an early buzz)
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glycolysis or Embden-Meyerhof pathway
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glycolysis or the Embden-Meyerhoff pathway
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gram stain (accept gram-negative)
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grasses (accept Poaceae early)
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hyphae (before "extension of the terminal cell," accept mycelium or mycelia and prompt on septum or septa)
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hypothalamus
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influenza or flu
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A deadly avian adenovirus causes the "marble" disease that affects this organ, and,it is completely absent in Ivemark syndrome. Deletions in 7q31-32 give rise to a lymphoma of its marginal zone, and it contains the cords of Billroth between its sinusoid vessels. It is surrounded by a fibroelastic and serous coats. This organ contains Malphigian corpuscles that contain germinal centers for lymphocyte production. Its marginal zone separates its red pulp and white pulp, and it can become enlarged as a result of diseases like Gaucher's and Epstein-Barr. Notably sequestered in sickle-cell anemia, for 10 points, identify this organ of the lymphatic system in which erythrocytes are both destroyed and stored.
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A debate among Nussbaum, Wilkinson, Laurin, and Reisz ended with the conclusion that the ancestral member of this group of organisms lacked EER; a central issue in this debate was the classification of caecilians. Early members of this group of organisms could be distinguished from their ancestors by the presence of eleventh and twelfth cranial nerves and the astralagus bone in the ankle, and the Joggins fossils indicate that this group of organisms diverged into the synapsids and sauropsids. Another synapomorphy of this clade contains several sacs, including the allantois, the chorion, and its namesake sac, and its development permitted vertebrates to expand further inland. For 10 points, name this clade that encompasses most living terrestrial animals and which is named for a structure which, in humans, is a fluid-filled membrane surrounding the fetus.
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A debate exists as to whether the parasitic Myxozoa belong to this phylum, of which one of the classes is differentiated from the other three by their body type never leaving the polyp stage. Members of that class, the Anthozoa, do contain the defense mechanism common to the phylum, but apparently lack the delivery mechanism capable of making it harmful to humans, and many of them are dependent on a symbiotic relationship with dinoflagellates. Two other classes, Scyphozoans and Hydrozoans, are far more dangerous to humans due to their deployment of nematocytes during their medusoid stages. FTP identify this phylum formerly known as Coelenterata but now named for an alternate term for their stinging cells, which includes sea fans, corals, anemones, and jellyfish.
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A mutation in this kind of sequence is responsible for the nondeletion form of beta-thalassemia, and one of these from the cytomegalovirus is commonly used in animal and cell culture studies because it is constitutively active. Footprinting has been used to determine which parts of them are bound to an enzyme that makes use of their -35 region and Pribnow box in prokaryotes, while in eukaryotes, a protein that then recruits its "associated factors" binds to the minor groove of their TATA box. For 10 points, name these sequences of DNA that can be silenced via hyper-methylation, which work in concert with enhancers and silencers to facilitate transcription.
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A namesake protein component of this structure is detected by Toll-like Receptor 5. Tg737, whose mutation causes polycystic kidney disease in mice, is responsible for transport within this structure, which is also dependent upon complexes of IFT proteins. Y. Pestis uses a structure homologous to these to inject virulence factors into host cytoplasm, known as the Type III secretory system. They have a P, L, and MS ring in gram-negative bacteria, and in all organisms their central body is called the axonene. In Eukaryotes, they contain a 9+2 set of microtubules around a central pair and use dyenin and ATP hydrolysis to power their whipping motion. Similar to cilia, for 10 points, name these projections used by cells to swim.
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A popular model organism in this order is Manduca sexta. This order can be divided, based on the relationship between the ovipore and copulatory pore in females, into montrysians, exoporians, and ditrysians. Organisms in this order have four wings, each of which are covered in scales. Some organisms in this phylum can synthesize hydrogen cyanide. One species in this order, Biston betularia, exhibited a marked shift in the ratio of its light and dark forms during the Industrial Revolution. Larvae in this order include tent worms, armyworms, and inchworms, as well as the most common form, caterpillars. For 10 points, giant silk worms and monarchs belong to which order of insects consisting of moths and butterflies?
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A salt correction formula derived from 1998 SantaLucia paper is commonly used to design a component used in this technique. The emulsion variant of this lab procedure uses capture beads and oil in water microreactors. That variant is used in 454 sequencing. Mastermix is a combination of many of the chemical components needed in this process. It was enzymes such as TAQ that made this technique possible because of the high temperatures. This technique typically consists of a denaturation step, followed by annealing and elongation. It uses primers and DNA polymerase. For 10 points, name this laboratory technique which is used to amplify DNA samples.
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American plants like the deerclover and bastard indigo are members of a genus with this name in the Leguminosae family, a name also applied to a European tree from the Ulmaceae family which bears small, cherry-like fruit. The name is further applied to the flower of the Nelumbo pentepetala, which is sacred to Hindus, and to "white" and "blue" flowers from the Nymphaceae which figure in Egyptian art, but it most famously identifies a member of the buckthorn family native to the Southern Mediterranean, especially Greece. FTP give this common botanical name, whose Zizyphus variety yields fruit which can be made into bread, wine, or eaten raw to produce a forgetful, contented feeling as described in the Odyssey.
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Commercially available samples of this protein are obtained from one of two sources: Avian myeloblastosis virus or Moloney murine leukemia virus. It was initially discovered in David Temin's experiment involving actinomycin D applications to cultures of cells infected with Rous sarcoma virus. It can be helpful as typified by its use in a specific type of PCR to do such things as clone cDNAs, but its most troubling form is one coded for by the pol gene in a certain disease. FTP, identify this enzyme found in retroviruses, which synthesizes DNA from an RNA template.
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Deviation from optimal pH or ionic strength results in star activity in this class of proteins. Dcm and Dam methylation in bacteria introduces resistance to the activity of these proteins, which are used to analyze RFLPs. Engineered constructs with multiple cloning sites can be acted on by many of these enzymes. Examples of these enzymes common to digests are XbaI [x b a one] and BamHI [bam h one], and the action of these enzymes results in the formation of either blunt or sticky ends. For 10 points, HindIII [hin d three] and EcoRI [eeko r one] are what types of bacterial enzymes that are useful for cleaving DNA at specific sites in biological experiments?
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Diagnosable by Giemsa staining, one of the remedies for this disease may cause cinchonism in the patient, and the recommended therapy for it now involves extracts from the Artemisia annua plant. It is actually four separate diseases, and symptoms tend to set on 10 to 28 days after infection. Despite a 1950s campaign to eradicate it, this disease, which causes flu-like symptoms and potentially coma and severe anemia, still kills over one million people a year. Treatable by quinine, FTP identify this plasmodium-induced illness, characterized by high fever and chills and transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes.
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Dicumarol, a coumarin derivative, inhibits this process by blocking the VKORC enzyme, thereby preventing proper carboxylation of proteins involved in it. Warfarins prevent this process in a similar feedback system, and it involves a certain factor that binds to exposed collagen in endothelial cells. That von Willebrand factor is deficient in the same-named disease characterized by an abnormality in this process. One of its initiating factors is thrombin, which converts fibrinogen into fibrin to form a thrombus. This process is characterized by fibrin polymerization to form a mesh-like framework together with platelets at the site of a wound. For 10 points, identify this deficiency of hemophiliacs, the process by which blood clots.
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Disorders associated with their performance include Bernard-Soulier syndrome and Scott's syndrome. They contain RNA, a canalicular system, and alpha granules containing vitronectin and von Willebrand factor. Their inhibitors include prostacyclin and nitric oxide, while their activators include human neutrophil elastase, convulxin, and thromboxane A2. Produced in the bone marrow, they carry serotonin and L-tryptophan and originate in cells called megakaryocytes. Individuals with ITP have a shortage of them, and the function of activating fibrin from its zymogen form inside them is performed by thrombin, which gives these cells their alternate name. FTP, name these cells also called thrombocytes, a crucial component of blood clotting.
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Dominant mutations described by this prefix often involve genes that encode diffusible factors, such as the wild-type lacI+ gene. Monocistronic mRNAs are produced from polycistronic primary transcripts in trypanosomes by this type of splicing, which combines a short leader exon and any of several independent coding exons. For most peptides this planar form is about 1000 times more stable than the alternative, unless the second residue is proline, in which case it is only about 4 times more stable. As a result, in most native proteins the C O and N H groups point in opposite directions, as indicated by, FTP, what configurational prefix contrasted with cis?
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Electrical currents driven by proton gradients in symport with amino acids in these structures provide signaling with regard to apical localization. Also at the apices or divisions of these structures are the Spitzenkörper, which are collections of organelles and vesicles. These structures are also found in unrelated oomycetes, whose motile spores derive from them. Clusters of these structures are present in the soredia and are necessary for asexual reproduction of certain symbiotes. Croziers or clamp connections are required for the formation of the dikaryotic type of this structure, which eventually form the mycelium. Separated by chitin walls known as septa, FTP, name these threadlike filaments that are the base components of fungi.
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Enzymes used during this process include hexokinase, enolase, and aldolase. After the preparatory steps, two molecules of PGAL are created, which are then oxidized by the reduction of NAD. Eventually, there is a net gain of two ATP molecules, and the end result is two molecules of pyruvic acid. FTP, identify this process also known as the Embden-Meyerhof pathway, the first step of cellular respiration.
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First proposed by the French microbiologists Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod in the early 1960s, these objects generally consist of a group of structural genes in a metabolic pathway located contiguously on a stretch of DNA which are controlled by a promoter. They act as a genetic regulatory system of single-celled organisms and their viruses, providing prokaryotes with the means to produce proteins only when and where they are required, allowing the cell to conserve energy . For 10 points name these cellular objects named because they were assumed to be essential to cell activity, which control the synthesis of enzymes in a cell.
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Following the expression of the RAG-1 gene, the V and J genes are randomly joined just before the formation of one of the four major portions of these substances. Susumo Tonegawa first explained their variability in the 1970s by using recombinant DNA cloning and pointing out differences in their kappa and gamma chains. All of them consist of two domains known as constant and variable regions, which are present on both their heavy and light chains. Divided into five classes of "I-sub-G's" or immunoglobulins, FTP, name these proteins produced by B cells in response to the presence of an antigen.
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Haptoglobin-related protein in a certain HDL is thought to account for the natural resistance of humans to a pathogen similar to the one responsible for this disease. New therapies may be inspired by a recent proteomic analysis of the flagellum of the responsible agent, a kinetoplastid parasite. The pathogen promotes its own growth by triggering secretion of interferon-gamma and produces multiple waves of fever by generating clones covered by different variable surface glycoproteins. After breaking down the host's defenses, the parasites cross the blood-brain barrier, producing slurred speech and mobility issues. FTP, name this disease caused by trypanosomes and carried by the tsetse fly associated with odd slumber habits.
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He first gained note for his work with vernalization, which involves moistening seeds to force germination, then cooling the sprouts so they would develop quickly later when planted. Among his theories were the idea that viruses could transform themselves into bacteria and the doctrine of noncellular life forms. He also followed Lamarck's notion of the inheritance of acquired characteristics and had those who disagreed accused of the crime of "Morganism." FTP name this Soviet scientist, whose close ties to Stalin and Khrushchev kept him in power for 25 years as head of the USSR's Institute of Genetics.
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He obtained his doctorate with a dissertation on the theory and practice of staining animal tissues and later showed that all the dyes used can be classified as being basic, acid, or neutral. He also showed that the toxin-antitoxin reaction is, as chemical reactions are, accelerated by heat and retarded by cold. After becoming director of the Royal Institute of Experimental Therapy, he discovered a cure for the disease caused by Treponema pallidum, which he called compound 606. FTP, name this scientist who discovered Salvarsan, the "magic bullet" cure for syphilis.
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In 1904 he became a subdirector of the Pasteur Institute in Paris. His early studies were concerned with intracellular digestion in invertebrates. Later, he named phagocytes and in 1884 he announced his concept of phagocytosis which formed the basis for the theory of immunity. FTP, name this recipient of the 1908 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine which he shared with Paul Ehrlich.
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In 1921, its functional significance was determined. Otto Loewi took fluid from a frog's heart, whose contractions had been slowed, and let it perfuse a second, unstimulated heart, slowing its beating as well. Mimicked by nicotine, this neurotransmitter plays a major role in memory as well as muscle control. FTP, name this primary neurotransmitter between neurons and muscles.
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In 1989 the causitive gene was identified by teams of researchers in Michigan and Toronto promising more reliable diagnosis. As yet, there is no cure, and treatment concentrates on alleviating the symptoms, which include respiratory and digestive problems resulting from impaired chloride passage through cell membranes. Occurring most frequently in Caucasian Europeans, it is the most common fatal genetic disease of Caucasian children. FTP, identify this rare disease of the endocrine glands that affects the pancreas, sweat glands, and respiratory system.
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In 1995 scientists at Ohio State discovered that they possess a property called "homing." Theories of how they arose are divided into the "late" and "early" camps and could not be resolved when they were discovered in the cyanobacterium Fischerella. They can occur in the middle of a domain, and sometimes even within a single codon. They are located by spliceosomes and those genes possessing them are termed "split." FTP, name these pieces of DNA that are excised as opposed to exons.
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In 1995, a team at Ohio State found that some examples possess a capability called "homing", in which RNA transcripts splice them into DNA at the exact spots they are found in other genes. Much debate still rages about the two major theories of their origins, the "early" and "late" theories. Confined to eukaryotes, they are removed in the cell nucleus by spliceosomes. A Nobel Prize was awarded to Philip Sharp and Richard Roberts for leading the teams that discovered them in 1977. FTP, what are these nucleotide sequences that do not code for the gene product, as opposed to exons?
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In 2002, this compound was the first to be used successfully to prevent muscle loss in certain lung cancer patients. It can be used to treat asthma and diabetes, and in the body it acts as a neurotransmitter, but its most important function was discovered by Fritz Lipmann and Herman Kalkar in 1941. In cells, it readily loses a phosphate ion by hyrdolysis, providing the means for organelles to carry out biological processes. The predominant source of energy in living cells, FTP what is this compound named in part for the D-ribose component's possession of three phosphate groups.
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In 2006, a study published by Shinya Yamanaka showed that expression of this gene, along with Sox2, Oct4, and Klf4, could induce somatic cells to become stem cells, a significant barrier to human use because of this gene's other functions . Its function is antagonized by the Mad protein, which competes for binding its important dimer, the Max protein. Also important to its function is its basic helix-loop-helix domain, which allows to to bind to consensus E-box sequences, which then lead to expression of genes such as cyclin D2 and CDK4 that are important for cellular proliferation. First characterized as part of a translocation in Burkitt's lymphoma, FTP, name this protooncogene that is amplified in many cancers.
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In Arabidopsis, a crucial function of the first part of this period seems to be controlled by SOLO DANCERS. In the Xenophus model species, Chk1 kinase arrests oocyte development at this point. Secondary replication occurs during its second sub-phase and it terminates with attachment of non-kinetochore microtubules. Divided into leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, and diplotene sub-phases, this phase ends with diakinesis. During it, the process of synapsis is completed, homologous chromosomes join into tetrads, and crossing-over takes place. FTP, name the phase followed by metaphase I; the first stage of meiosis.
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In Asian populations, this disease is most commonly caused by an arginine-to-leucine point mutation at position 778 of the gene responsible for it, while among Western populations, it can be caused by a deletion of cysteine at position 3402 or a histidine-to-glutamine point mutation at position 1069. That gene, found on chromosome 13, codes for a P-type cation transport ATPase called ATP7B. This disease causes liver damage via Fenton-like chemistry and deposition in Descemet's membrane called Kayser-Fleischer rings, and often results in decreased ceruloplasmin levels. After treatment, patients often take zinc acetate to prevent an excess amount of a particular element. Usually treated with penecillamine or chelating agents like syprine, for 10 points, name this condition, the most common cause of copper accumulation in the body.
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In Britain, it is referred to as its namesake's "chorea," referring to the most notable outward symptom of this disease. Onset is strongly correlated with the number of repeats of a sequence on chromosome 4, with a larger number equaling an earlier onset. An autosomal dominant disorder, the gene causing it has persisted in the human gene pool because symptoms usually do not until after the age of 30, and sometimes do not appear until after 50. Once onset occurs, however, the disease progresses quickly, causing personality changes, dementia, uncontrolled writhing before ending in death. FTP, what is this degenerative genetic disorder?
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In Drosophila, the fuzzy onions gene regulates the fusion of these organelles in sperm, which creates the nebenkern. One disease that affects these organelles results in a “salt-and-pepper†pigmentation of the retina. In another disease, these organelles take the appearance of “ragged red fibers†under a Gomori trichrome stain. In addition to the aforementioned Kearns-Sayre syndrome, the TIM/TOM complex sees the translocation of proteins into them. Enzymatic abnormalities in these organelles can result in significant oxidative stress, and cytochrome C is found within these structures. It contains inner compartments called cristae. For 10 points, name these organelles with namesake matrilineal DNA, known as the “powerhouse†of the cell.
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In a 1975 article, Harper critiqued a recent competitior of this theory, claiming that it presented a contrary rather than a contradictory case. Sometimes characterized by its critics as the "synthetic theory," one critic of this idea took his inspiration from Richard Goldschmidt's concept of the "hopeful monster." Robert Ricklefs proposed a mathematical model of this theory that uses an exponential equation in situations where timescales are small compared to the speciation time, and those who argue against this theory claim that the fossil record lacks a sufficient number of transitional forms to support it. A theory that contradicts this one has been proposed by Niles Eldredge and Steven Gould. For ten points, identify this theory of evolution which is opposed to punctuated equilibrium.
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In a landmark review by Judson and Normark, the unexpected discovery of organisms which had long displayed this characteristic was termed "scandalous". Darwinulids display unusually low genetic diversity for organisms with this characteristic. A method for confirming the ancience of this phenomenon by determining the degree of divergence between allelic pairs was demonstrated in bdelloid rotifers by Meselson. The accumulation of harmful mutations in organisms with this characteristic is called Muller's ratchet. In plants, apomixis and a process involving nucellar tissue are two sorts of this process, and another type, which is employed by sharks and Daphnia, is called parthenogenesis. For 10 points, name this process employed by bacteria and protists in which offspring are produced without gamete fusion or fertilization.
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In addition to Aicardi-Goutières syndrome, a mutation in the TREX1 gene is associated with this disease. A drug-induced type of it can occur after long-term use of isoniazid or quinidine. A number of genes on chromosome 1 have been linked to it, including those for Fc? receptors and interleukin 10. High levels of antiphospholipid antibodies found in sufferers of this disease may accelerate atherosclerosis, and this disease may also cause Libman-Sacks endocarditis. Sufferers of this disease, prevalent in nine times as many women as men, demonstrate high levels of circulating apoptotic cells, and its most recognizable symptom is a photosensitive butterfly-shaped rash. For 10 points, name this "great imitator," a chronic autoimmune disease in which that facial rash resembles the fur on the face of a wolf.
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In one of the forms of this, 6-Formylpterin enhances it by activating protein kinase C-prime, while it may be blocked by upregulation of HSP-70. It is initiated by the migration by Bak or Bax to Bcl-2 binding sites, or via binding to CD95 by Fas ligand. Exposure of peroxidized phosphatidylserine occurs in its final stages, after caspase 9 binds to cytochrome c from the mitochondrion and a certain protease activates factor-1, leading to degradation of chromosomal DNA and breakdown of cellular organelles into vesicles. FTP, name this process, which occurs in endometrial shedding during menstruation and finger formation, and is a form of programmed cell death.
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In addition to creating a namesake convertase, C3b functions to facilitate this process, which is conducted by TLRs of immature dendritic cells. The actual action is a function of actin-myosin contraction, and initiates using NF-kB activation on PAMP sites. Most factors in Yersinia pestis, which causes plague, are particularly resistant to this process, which is necessary for Helper T cells to activate and functions via opsonins. In amoeboid organisms, this process is carried out by using pseudopodia to capture particles which are then moved to a pteroid or vacuole. Monocytes, neutrophils, and white blood cells all function via, FTP, what biological process in which the cell membrane engulfs foreign solids, whose name comes from the Greek for "eating"?
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In an important experiment, its beta subunits were bonded to nickel on a glass surface, and an actin filament attached to its gamma subunit was observed. Its mechanism was elucidated in an experiment when sunlight was shone towards artifical vesicles containing bacteriorhodopsin, and it is inhibited by DCCD and oligomycin. The gamma subunit of the F0 rotates as protons pass through, and the proton motive force releases the product of this enzyme. For 10 points, identify this enzyme present in the mitochondrion, which uses chemiosmosis to catalyze the production of a high energy molecule by phophorylating ADP.
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In birds this body contains magnetic material needed for navigation. Also called the epiphysis cerebri, it is largest in children, shrinking during puberty and calcifying with increasing age. In all humans it appears to play a major role in sexual development and sleep patterns. It may indirectly be the cause of Seasonal Affective Disorcer because it is photosensitive and increases the release of melatonin during the winter. FTP, identify this gland also known as the "third eye" and named for its pine-cone shape.
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In conifers, this tissue is made up mainly of tracheids, thus presenting a uniform, nonporous appearance characteristic of softwood. The primary type is derived from the growth of the apical meristem, while the secondary type is derived from the cambium. It has several components, including the tracheids, which are elongated conduction and support cells, parenchyma cells for food storage, and woody fibers. FTP, name this type of vascular tissue that conducts water and nutrients up from the roots.
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In contrast to other related compounds, these compounds have their acidic side chains esterified with methanol or phytol. The "e" type is a rare type found in golden algae, while the "c" and "d" types are often found with the "a" type, which with the "b" type is the major type found in land plants and green algae. Found in the grana of plant cells, they are porphyrins which contain magnesium. FTP, what is this green pigment which allows plants to carry out the process of photosynthesis?
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In flies, the recruitment of MSL proteins to sites within this structure is necessary for dosage compensation, and KASH domain proteins interact with SUN domain proteins within this structure. Nesprins anchor this structure to the actin cytoskeleton, while emerin and other proteins containing LEM domains help anchor it to a proteinaceous structure on its inner surface. In most organisms this structure is destroyed during cell division and is subsequently reformed from the endoplasmic reticulum under the guidance of the lamin A receptor. 125-megadalton protein complexes composed of Nups form channels through this structure, allowing mRNAs and proteins containing NES sequences to be exported to the cytoplasm. For 10 points, name this double-layered structure that surrounds the nucleus.
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In herbaceous dicots like alfalfa the outer side of the cambium produces the secondary form of this tissue. Its main constituents include sieve elements, which are often associated with parenchymatous ("Pair-en-ky-mat-us") "companion cells", and transfer cells which are often found in leaves and other green areas. For ten points, what vascular tissue transports photosynthetic nutrients in plants.
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In humans and some animals its most notable form may be ptyalin. First purified from malt in 1835 by Anselme Payen and Jean Persoz, its discovery prompted the theorization of enzymes. Important in the brewing process of some beers, this enzyme is also known as "diastase." It hydrolyzes starch to create glucose, maltose and the limit-dextrins. Necessary for the digestion of carbohydrates, FTP, name this enzyme most well known for its role in saliva.
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In humans, the largest cluster of genes for these proteins is found at locus 6p21, with several of the genes reiterated multiple times. They all share a similar structure of a long central helix flanked by a loop and smaller helix, and certain ones interact via a "molecular handshake" to form heterodimers. They are some of the most highly conserved proteins in eukaryotes, containing high percentages of arginine and lysine, which carry positive charges important for their major function, though namesake acetyltransferases block these charges to allow transcription. Type 1 is a linker, while types 2A, 2B, 3, and 4 form the core of nucleosomes.. FTP, identify these proteins that act as spools around which DNA is wound.
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In lower animals, it begins with an involution of the vegetal pole at the dorsal lip. In mammals, it begins with a thickening of the posterior epiblast and formation of the primitive streak. In either case, cells from the outside of the embryo migrate into the blastocoel to become endoderm and mesoderm. FTP, name this developmental process immediately following blastula formation.
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In mammals, these entities may be influenced by light-sensitive melanopsin ganglion cells. They are entrained by a periodic environmental signal called the zeitgeber and are called "free running" in the absence of such a signal. Their occurrence is coordinated by an area within the anterior hypothalamus, the suprachiasmatic nucleus, and disorders related to these in humans include advanced sleep phase syndrome. Â In diurnal animals these are controlled by levels of melatonin. For 10 points, identify these cycles providing the body with an internal clock lasting approximately 24.3 hours in humans.Â
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In marine diatoms, the catalytic metal in this enzyme may be substituted with either cadmium or cobalt. In humans, this enzyme is inhibited by drugs such as acetazolamide in order to treat glaucoma, hypertension, and osteoporosis. A mutation in which alanine replaces the histidine at position 64 decreases catalysis by this enzyme, lending support to the hypothesis that that histidine deprotonates an aqua ligand to start the reaction it catalyzes. The resulting hydroxide ligand then attacks a linear triatomic substrate to generate a biologically important buffer ion. It was the first discovered enzyme to have an active site including zinc. For 10 points, name this enzyme that catalyzes the hydration of carbon dioxide to form bicarbonate.
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In one relationship, they envelop the gonidia or allow reproduction via the soredia. The first structures to emerge from the propagule, they are composed of chitin, and secrete the enzyme laccase. They lack plastids, though their central vacuoles are surrounded by a multinucleate cytoplasm that provides mass for their statolithic function. Modified in parasites to form tissue-penetrating haustoria, during symbiosis, their specialized mycorrhiza form invades invaginations of the cell membrane of vascular plants. FTP, name these threadlike filaments that make up the mycelium in true fungi.
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In photosystem II, this process involves electron transfer to and within the cytochrome b/f complex. In mitochondria, it sees the first donated electron reduce Cytochrome C while the second passes through cytochromes b566 ("b 566") and b562 ("b 562"). Assimilation of matrix protons into the radical molecule replenishes the reducing agent, ubiquinol. Each ubiquinol oxidation is accompanied by the release of four protons into the intermembrane space, producing the pH gradient for chemiosmotic ATP synthesis. FTP, identify this proton-motive cycle sharing its single-letter designation with a key coenzyme.
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In plants, production of this chemical via P450 mono-oxygenase helps eliminate poisonous ammonia. The enzyme catalyzing this compound's production depends on biopterin and is found in large abundances in Raphe neurons. Myo-inositol in consumed foods serves to modulate activity of this neurotransmitter. In the body, about 80% of this neurotransmitter in the body is synthesized by the gut's enterochromaffin cells. Both MAOI and TCA therapies parallel a current method of treating depression by increasing extracellular levels of this tryptophan derivative also known as 5-HT. For 10 points, name this neurotransmitter regulating mood and appetite whose reuptake is selectively inhibited by anti-depressants like Prozac and other SSRIs.
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In rare cases it may caused by a mutation in the A-I-R-E gene, but more commonly may be caused by HIV, tuberculosis, or metastatic cancer, or most commonly autoimmune causes. Symptoms of this disease include salt loss and hyperpigmentation, which differentiates it from secondary causes. Leading to atrophy of the zona fasciculata and zona reticularis, in nearly 90 percent of cases, autoantibodies attack the enzyme 21-hydroxylase, interrupting the production of aldosterone and another hormone. Producing profound weakness and pallor, FTP, name this disease from which John F. Kennedy suffered, an inability of the adrenal glands to produce cortisol, which is named for the British physician who first described it.
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In samples, the presence of gram negative cocci pairs displaying a typical kidney bean shape is usually a diagnostic of this disease. Occasionally, it can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease or even death if the infection spreads to the lungs, heart, or brain. A member of the genus Neisseria, it is usually treated with Cetriaxone, Cefixime, Ciprofloaxin, or Ofloxacin, but not Penicillin, as it has developed resistance to that drug. Characterized by appearance of pus and a burning feeling during urination, this is, FTP, what venereal disease also known as "the clap?"
what is this primary second messenger of the body, a derivative of a purine ribonucleotide?
In slime mold amoebas, starvation induces secretion of this compound, causing the amoebas' walls to stick together end-to-end. Earl Sutherland discovered it and determined many of its functions, one of the most important of which is activation of protein kinase A. Pertussis toxin generally decreases levels of this compound, while cholera toxin generally increases it by permanently activating a G protein. Its production inside cells is catalyzed when hormones outside the cell activate adenylyl cyclase. For 10 points
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In the middle layers of this structure, amacrine, bipolar, and horizontal cells work together to produce a graded response to synaptic input from receptors, which they transfer to the outermost layer of ganglion cells, neurons whose axons constitute the output from this structure to the brain via the second cranial nerves. The innermost layer is known as the pigment epithelium, and serves to prevent backscattering of light. FTP, name this structure of the eye that also has two types of photosensitive receptor cells, commonly referred to as rods and cones.
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In this process the carboxylase combines with phosphoenolpyruvate to create an oxaloacetate. It stores CO2 in the form of malate and was discovered by Hatch and Slack. The involved carboxylase is much more efficient than rubisco and even provides enough CO2 to prevent rubisco from undergoing photorespiration. It was found that in certain plants, like corn and sugar cane, it works in tandem with the Calvin cycle. FTP, identify this cycle used in plants to continue photosynthesis, even at night, and which was named for the number of carbons in the central molecule.
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Individuals with this condition have numerous abnormally long, thin dendritic spines. Females heterozygous for this may experience early menopause, while a less severe version of this was discovered to cause problems with balance and memory. Males with this condition often have abnormally large testicles, as well as weak builds and elongated faces. It is caused by a mutation in the FMR1 gene, which results in the methlyation-induced silencing of its namesake protein, FMRP. FTP name this most common inherited cause of mental retardation, which occurs when a certain sex chromosome has too many CGG repeats and is prone to break.
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Infection with an anaerobic gram-positive rod causes this disease, which is mediated by a plasmid-produced toxin. The toxin that causes the symptoms of this disease is absorbed by peripheral nerves and is transported to the brainstem and spinal cord, where it binds to specific presynaptic nerve terminals. That prevents the release of glycine and GABA, leading to the increased firing rate of alpha motor neurons. Cardinal signs of this disease include a sustained grimace or sneer, arched back, and difficulty swallowing. Typically beginning with spasms of the masseter muscle, FTP, name this bacterial disease, uncommon in the US due to vaccination, which can be acquired by stepping on a rusty nail.
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Inflammation can mediate the formation of stacks of these cells called rouleuax. Systems which classify these cells by surface antigenic response include the Colton, Diego, and Duffy systems, while the sole form of energy production in these cells occurs through fermentation. The object of the direct Coombs' test, overproduction of these cells results in the condition polycythemia vera. Damage to these cells leads to formation of schistocytes, and they are the best known example of cells without nuclei. The site of the location of diseases such as thalasemia, sickle cell disease, and pernicious anemia, FTP, name these cells which contain hemoglobin, the transport cells of oxygen of the body.
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Inhibited by Pseudomonas and E. coli Ivy proteins, this protein's active site requires the E35 and D52 acidic residues. Because it can be purified in large quantities, it was the first protein to be characterized at a 2-Ångstrom level, by Lord David Phillips in 1965. In a classic example of convergent evolution, Alexander Fleming showed that the bacterial form of this enzyme has no sequence or structural elements in common with the hen egg variety, which is frequently used as a model source of peptides for inducing antibodies or cytotoxic T cell responses. It hydrolyzes 1-4-beta-glycosidic linkages in polysaccharides that make up chitin and bacterial cell walls, protecting the body surface of mammals and some insects from infections. For 10 points, name this enzyme, which along with defensins is released by the granules of white blood cells, and is also found in tears, saliva and inside lysosomes.
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Investigations for diagnosing this disease include searching the EEG for triphasic spikes, testing the spinal fluid for 14-3-3 protein, and checking an MRI for high signal intensity in the caudate nucleus and putamen bilaterally on T2-weighted images, but the only definitive diagnosis is made from biopsy of tonsils or the brain. Symptoms include jerky movement, ataxia, speech impairment, and dementia, leading to hallucinations and personality changes within one year. Characterized by cavitating lesions in the brain, the disease is incurable. Acquired by one person in a million, including anatomic pathologists and choreographer George Balanchine, FTP, what is this transmissible spongiform encephalopathy in humans caused by a prion?
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It arises from a population known as initials, and its namesake identity genes activate a cascade involving cadastral genes. Vegetative types are known as inflorescence and give rise to bracts as well as floral varieties. Often featuring a tunica-corpus organization, one type features the quiescent center, a region of cells that rarely divide but can be induced to replicate after an injury. Following Frits Went's experiment with coleoptile tips, auxins were found to be produced in it. Responsible for primary growth, it gives rise to the stem and ground varieties as well as protoderm and procambium, which go on to form the epidermis, endodermis, and stele. FTP, name this totipotent plant tissue responsible for shoot and root growth.
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It binds close to M2 alpha helices with aspartate residues that repel negative charges, at alpha-gamma and alpha-delta junctions of an alpha-2-beta-gamma-delta pentamer. Botulin acts by blocking its release, while atropine does so by blocking its receptors, and the disease known as myasthenia gravis occurs when the body produces antibodies against its receptors. The first neurotransmitter to be identified, it is also the only one broken down by its namesake esterase. FTP, name this compound that binds to both nicotinic and muscarinic receptors, crucial for acting in neuromuscular junctions to generate muscle contractions.
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It can form in the bloodstream from the breakdown of hemoglobin. Taurocholic and cholic acids, glycine, and taurine are among the components of this substance, a deficiency of which can cause jaundice. Its release can triggered by pancreozymin, found in cholesterol-rich foods, which it is used to digest. Together, the hepatic and cystic ducts form the "common" duct for its passage to the duodenum. FTP, identify this substance stored in the gallbladder.
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It does not require that the data be collected at a constant substrate or inhibitor concentration; thus, it is superior to the Cornish-Bowden, Dixon, and Easson-Stedman approaches. If the process studied is noncompetitive, its slope is zero. Defining gamma as the ratio of inhibited to non-inhibited rates, it plots total inhibitor concentration times gamma divided by one minus gamma against substrate concentration. FTP, name this graph which indicates the dissociation constants of enzyme inhibitors.
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It employs headful packaging of its genome during replicating, directed by a site known as cos [koss], so named because it contains cohesive ends that allow it to connect its 48 kilobase linear chromosome in a circle. Unlike most of its kind it can be either lysogenic or lytic, and integrates into the host genome at a cis-acting DNA sequence att-P. FTP, name this widely studied bacteriophage of E. coli that shares its name with a Greek letter.
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It forms the tubes secreted by phoronids, who live in those tubes. It makes up the setae, or bristles, protruding from annelids such as the clam worm and sandworm. Taking its name from the Greek for "tunic," it is composed of acetylglucosamines linked in beta-1,4 manner. FTP, name this natural polymer that is found in the beak-like mouth of a squid, the cell walls of fungi, and the exoskeletons of insects and arthropods
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It has recently been discovered that the neuronal form of this molecule controls developmental loss in axon regeneration. Hormones taking advantage of this molecule include epinephrine, calcitonin, and FSH. Phosphodiesterases are responsible for its degradation, while an increase in its production leads in protein kinase stimulation. These molecules bind to and stimulate the activation of G proteins. FTP, identify this best-known secondary messenger molecule.
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It is a Gram negative bacillus of 2,200 serotypes grouped into three species, and it is closely related to Shigella. Host entry is gained in the small intestine where the bacteria injects a toxin into the normally non-phagocytic M cells that causes them to ingest the bacteria where it infects the lamina propria, causing such symptoms as gastroenteritis. These organisms are rarely fatal except in cases where they cause typhoid. FTP, name this bacteria that is most difficult to detect in egg shells but is largely associated with dairy products and poultry.
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It is a hereditary, autosomal dominant disorder caused by a defective gene involved in the production of fibrillin. The most dangerous effect of this disorder is a proclivity towards aortic aneurysms, as the aorta is weak and tends to bulge. More common symptoms include a concave chest cavity and long, spindly limbs and torso. FTP, name this genetic disease of which many believe Abraham Lincoln was a victim?
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It is composed of a central ribose group, a purine, and a trailing chain of three ion groups. Because the change in free energy caused by its hydrolysis at a pH of 7 is only about 8 kilocalories per mole, a healthy eukaryotic cell uses approximately one million of this type of molecule every minute. FTP, name the compound whose exergonic hydrolysis is the major source of energy in cellular reactions.
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It is connected to the inferior vena cava by Cantlie's line and positioned at the bottom right side of the falciform ligament. Located on its walls are tubular structures called the ducts of Luschka, which drain into it, until it eventually contracts and empties upon the release of the hormone CCK by the duodenum. A common disorder that affects this organ is cholelithiasis [KO-lay-lith-EYE-uh-suss], which occurs when salts or cholesterols build up into crystalline deposits. FTP, name this small organ that is located next to the liver and has the primary function of storing bile.
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It is divided into three types: sporadic, iatrogenic, and genetic. In 1996 new type of this fatal disease was discovered and it has been termed "new variant." 10 percent of the cases develop dementia, while the other 90 percent progress to death within one year. It is a specific type of human spongiform encephalopathy that is linked to the names of its two discoverers. FTP, name this brain degradation disease that is caused by a prion infection.
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It is found in a number of plants, where its function is unknown. Nitric oxide is distributed throughout the body by this substance and production of it requires iron, vitamin B(12), and folic acid in the diet. Intrinsic factor, produced in the stomach, is necessary for the uptake of vitamin B(12). A lack of intrinsic factor results in pernicious anemia. In lungs, it releases carbon dioxide and takes up oxygen. This protein consists of two parts: a helical chain, and a ring complex made of iron and a porphyrin compound, and is produced in the bone marrow. FTP identify this red-pigmented protein in the red blood cells of all vertebrates and some invertebrates.
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It is generally divided into three phases, the last two of which are reduction and regeneration. The reduction of thioredoxin to a dithiol by ferredoxin activates several important enzymes that catalyze it, including seduheptulose bisphosphatase, which along with an aldolase results in the conversion of erythrose-6-phosphate. Xylulose-5-phosphate is eventually epimerized to ribulose-5-phosphate within this set of reactions, which also uses NADPH and ATP to produce PGAL. Also preventing photorespiration through use of Rubisco, FTP, name this cycle of reactions that takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast and is part of the so-called "dark reactions".
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It is highly unlikely that one would find this amino acid in either an alpha helix or beta sheet; rather it is most often found in a beta turn. A member of the alpha ketoglutarate family, it is derived from glutamate via a series of reactions including an oxidation, reduction, followed by an NADPH dependent reduction of the pyrroline double bond. It, along with its 4-hydroxy version, composes some 30% of collagen. FTP name this amino acid who has the fourth smallest molecular weight and is unique because it is the only one whose R group is bonded to the amino group.
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It is not valid in the presence of mutations, natural selection, or non-random mating. But, for a large population without the above factors, it states that the proportion of alleles at a given locus remains constant. For ten points, what rule, named for a British mathematician and a German physician, forms the basis of population genetics.
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It is produced by the oxidation of tyrosine or tryptophan (TRIP-toe-fan), therefore its production is inhibited in patients suffering from phenylketonuria (fee-null-key-toe-NOO-ree-ah) because the hydroxylation of tyrosine is inhibited by elevated phenylalanine (fee-null-AL-ah-neen) levels. Found sometimes in the adrenal gland but more commonly in the eyes, hair, and skin, its absence results in paleness and lack of hair color. FTP name this black skin pigment, whose production is stimulated by the presence of sunlight.
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It is synthesized by cleaving the aromatic heterocycle of tryptophan, which rearranges the alpha amino group, and forms the intermediate known as kynurenine. A deficiency of it in the body results in maculopathy, and it is known to promote HDL increases in the blood. However, it is better known for its derivatives, which include NAD, NADH, and NADP. First discovered in nicotine, it is also known as nicotinic acid, and a deficiency in it can cause pellagra. FTP, identify this water-soluble vitamin otherwise known as B3.
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It is synthesized from glutamate and sometimes converted by posttranslational modification into a hydroxy form, both of which are present in high quantities in collagen. Its built-in bend causes it to destabilize alpha-helices and to also be present in kinks and turns. Technically, it is not an amino acid, but instead an alpha-imino [eye-mee-no] acid. FTP, name this amino acid whose symbol is P.
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It is synthesized in the magnocellular neurons of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei, and its secretion is triggered by stimulation of the organum vasculosum, the subfornical organ, or the area postrema. Commonly found in excess in the urine of those individuals with a chromophobe adenoma, its two major forms differ only with the presence of either a lysine or an arginine. The essential feature of diabetes insipidus is the lack of this hormone or a blocking of its action. This octapeptide, like oxytocin, is produced in the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary gland. FTP, name this hormone that acts on the kidneys to retain water and reduce urine output.
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It is used in pain sensitization as a signaling molecule that binds to purinergic receptors. It is also potent inhibitor of both pyruvate kinase and phosphofructokinase. In muscle cells it is often indirectly transported throughout the cell via creatine, which can accept or donate a phosphate group and form this organic molecule. The enzyme adenylate cyclase converts it into the second messenger cyclic AMP, but this molecule is most famously associated with the metabolic processes of photosynthesis, glycolysis, and oxidative phosphorylation. FTP, name this nucleotide used by most cells as the "energy currency."
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It keeps the body in homeostasis through neural signals to the autonomic nervous system or endocrine signals sent in conjunction with the pituitary. These signals regulate body heat, fluid intake, and body weight, the latter by monitoring the body's "set-point". For ten points, the name of what region indicates it lies below another brain structure?
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It suppresses plasma membrane permeability in sufferers of renal Fanconi syndrome, thus reducing nephrotoxicity, and a point mutation in a gene for its receptors causes hereditary hyperplexia. Substitution of it by aspartate in the protein COL2A1 causes cataracts and retinal detachment, and William Stein discovered that potassium trioxalatochromate could be used to identify this precursor of creatine. A co-agonist of glutamate, it is the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in the spinal cord, and many molecules of it can be found in collagen helices. For 10 points, name this nonpolar and optically inactive amino acid, which owes its small size to having only a hydrogen atom as its side chain.
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It was first identified by Frederick Addicott in 1963 and originally called dormin since it was thought to play a role in bud dormancy. It is synthesized from the 40-carbon carotenoid violaxanthin, which is converted to xanthonin and then this compound's aldehyde. Unlike auxins, its movement does not exhibit polarity. It induces the closure of stomata, inhibits shoot growth despite its lack of influence on roots, and inhibits the effects of gibberellins on synthesizing a-amylase. FTP, identify this plant compound named after its ability to cut fruits from plant stems.
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It was first identified in Barr and Bertram's experiments with cats, and this structure can now be determined by its positive stain in the Feulgen [fell-gen] reaction. This highly condensed structure lies against the nuclear envelope of interphase cells, and its existence was finally explained by the hypothesis formulated by Liane Russell and Mary Lyon. The number of them that are present follows an N-1 rule, where N is the total number of X chromosomes present. Also known as a sex chromatin body, FTP, name this structure that is an inactivated X chromosome.
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It was first isolated in 1957 by Arthur Kornberg and colleagues. In 1969, Peter DeLucia and John Cairns reported the discovery of a mutant strain of E. coli that was deficient in it, which they offered as the reason for the strain's inability to repair UV-induced damage. So far two types of the number one variety have been discovered, and it is known that all three types possess exonuclease activity in the 3 prime to 5 prime direction. FTP, identify this enzyme that catalyzes, from a template model, the replication of DNA.
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It was originally called dysthymia or cyclothymia, and it was first described in the 2nd century by Aretaeus of Cappadocia. Scientists have not determined the reason why the first episode of this disorder occurs on average ten years earlier in each successive generation, but a predisposition to it has been linked to a dominant gene on chromosome 11. This disorder has often been linked to creativity, and both Anne Sexton's and Sylvia Plath's mental breakdowns were probably the result of it. Lithium can help control the fluctuations of amines that cause swings between euphoria and despair in, FTP, what mood disorder that was formerly called manic depression?
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It was the dominant phylum in the late Precambrian period. Creatures in it phylum have bodies consisting of an internal gastrovascular cavity, a soft, pliable middle body layer known as the mesoglea, and an external dermis. Its members often live in two phases, a sessile, asexual polyp and a free-moving, sexual medusa. FTP, name this phylum that includes hydra and jellyfish.
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It's preceded by a ball of epithelial cells from which, in humans, cells migrate along the primitive streak to produce the archenteron, or primitive gut cavity. When formed it has differentiated into three layers of geminal cells which later develop into organs. With a typical cup-like shape, for ten points, what embryonic form follows the blastula and is named for the development of the digestive system.
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It's the preferred procedure to diagnose subarachnoid hemorrhaging. Conceived by Allan Cormack and Godfrey Hounsfield, in it an X-ray source and photon detectors are rotated about the body. Absorption data is numerically analyzed to produce a sharp cross-sectional map of body tissue. This technique, for ten points, was developed in the early 1970's and is known by what acronymic name.
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Its 3 and 4 forms work in tandem with XRCC1 and XRCC4, respectively, and in some cases, its major function is assisted by the Ku protein. The activity of the most common form of this molecule can be inhibited by both sodium chloride and potassium chloride, and increased by the addition of polyethylene glycol. NAD is used as a cofactor for the one derived from E. coli, but the most commonly used one requires ATP as a cofactor and is derived from the T4 bacteriophage. It functions through the formation of phosphodiester bonds between the 5-prime phosphate and the 3-prime hydroxyl. FTP, identify this enzyme, responsible for joining Okazaki fragments into a single DNA strand.
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Its 3A protein depletes tumor necrosis factor receptor expression on the cell membrane of its host, while its 3C protein cleaves TATA-binding protein to shut off host RNA synthesis. Reference strains of this pathogen include Mahoney and MEF-1, and the Nomoto group's development of the TgPVR mouse created the first non-primate model organism system for studying it. SV40 was first identified in co-culturation with this pathogen in monkey kidney cells, and the first discovery of an internal ribosomal entry sequence occurred in this picornavirus's genome. A small fraction of infections with this enterovirus result in infection of anterior horn motor neurons, which causes spinal paralysis. For 10 points, name this small RNA virus against which vaccines were developed by Sabin and Salk.
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Its abundance is accounted for by a couple of reasons. First, its phi and psi angles lie in the center of an allowed, minimum energy region of the Ramachandran map; and second, its radius allows for favorable Van der Waals interactions. Theoretically it can be left-handed, but all of those found since their 1951 prediction by Pauling and Corey have been right-handed. Each of its components occupies a vertical distance of 1.5 angstroms, with 3.6 of them per turn of its coils and a distance of .54 nanometers between those coils. FTP, name this type of secondary structure in a protein, which bears a slight resemblance to the less common beta-pleated-sheet.
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Its causes and symptoms are similar to von Willebrand's disease, which is sometimes known as the "vascular" form of this disease. It can be passed on to both sexes in the version caused by PTA deficiency, but more common are the versions caused by deficiency of either factor VIII or factor IX, the latter of which is called "Christmas disease". The major physical disability associated with it is chronic joint disease, or "arthropathy", which stems from the seeping of blood into the joints. FTP, what is this disease associated with several historical royal families, an X-linked recessive genetic disease that leads to inefficient blood clotting?
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Its first symptom is the formation of orange crystal structures in the infants' feces. Caused by a defective gene on the long arm of the X chromosome, it results in the defective manufacture of the enzyme HPRT. The prognosis for this disease is bleak, as there is no way to repair the genetic damage, and uric acid buildup in the bloodstream leads to extreme retardation and certain death. FTP, identify this genetic disease, best characterized by agonizing bouts of the patient's uncontrollable self-mutilation.
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Its four divisions operate a National Library and 13 research centers, a research hospital, the Clinical Center, and the Fogarty International Center. It was founded in 1930, and is a subdivision of the Department of Health and Human Services. FTP, name this agency centered in Bethesda, Maryland, that specializes in biomedical research related to diseases and other health problems.
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Its generic name is mifepristone. It blocks the uterine absorption of progesterone, thereby causing the uterine line and any fertilized egg to shed. Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain, although vaginal bleeding may result and a follow-up vacuum aspiration is necessary. FTP, identify this pill used since 1988 to terminate pregnancies.
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Its integration occurs via the proteins int and IHF, which bind to the site att and build an intrasome. The integration itself is a sequential exchange via a Holliday structure. Thus, the parts B-O-B prime and P-O-P prime of the host plasmid are recombined and this structure is integrated. It is a lysogenic structure that lives in E. coli and enters into the prophage state, which codes for proteins that look for stress to the host cell. FTP, identify this specific type of phage named after a Greek letter.
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Its late genes, including vpr, vpu, and vif, require Rev to be expressed, while its early gene Nef, or negative factor, is the first protein to be detectable following infection with it. It was originally discovered by a group searching for a common cause behind a cluster of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Two strains are known to infect humans, though one is more virulent and classified into three groups, one of which is further broken down into nine subtypes plus circulating recombinant forms. A member of the lentivirus family, infection with it is typically treated with reverse transcriptase and protease inhibitors. FTP name this virus that infects CD4 positive T cells in over 30 million people worldwide and causes AIDS.
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Its outermost component is separated into two layers, which create the trigeminal cave of Meckel containing the ganglion of Gasser. This part lies above another membrane, which the ventricular system interacts with through the apertures of Magendie and Luschka. This part gets its name from the cobweblike trabeculae that crisscross its space. The final, innermost part interacts, via cisterns filled with cerebrospinal fluid, with the organ that this complex protects. Composed of the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater, FTP, identify this connective tissue membrane that protects the brain.
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Its precursor is pregnenolene and derivatives include dexamethasone. Although in the short-term it can cause improved memory, long-term elevation of this hormone causes damage to the hippocampal memory centers. Pituitary gland tumors cause its chronic presence in the bloodstream leading to Cushing's disease, as ACTH constantly stimulates the adrenal gland to release it. Used as an antinflammatory drug given to asthmatics and recent recipients of organ transplants, FTP name this steroid hormone that is released in stressful situations and causes immune system suppression.
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Its second layer is composed of flattened, closely packed cells containing the precursor eleidin, while its maintenance depends on cell divisions occurring in the rete mucosum of Malphighi, its bottommost section. The outermost section is the stratum corneum, and consists of dead, flattened cells composed of plates of keratin, while the basal layer contains the melanocytes which give it its color. Responsible for preventing water loss in the body, FTP, what is this outermost part of the skin?
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Its significance was identified in 1972 by Kerr, Wylie, and Currie. Affecting scattered single cells, features include the disintegration of cell junctions, cytoplasmic condensation, and fragmentation of the nucleus. A mutation in gene p53 stops this process which cells in the uterine wall undergo monthly. For ten points, name this alternative to necrosis, a programmed form of cell death.
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Its transition zone may develop benign hyperplasia, while the anterior fibromuscular stroma is the anchoring point of the urethral sphincter. The central zone features the connection of the seminal vesicles and the peripheral zone can be felt by a finger in the rectum. For ten points, these are parts of what chestnut-sized gland surrounding the urethra, found beneath the bladder of men.
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Its under surface contains a Middle Line which accommodates the basilar artery. It contains the nuclei of the trigeminal, abducens, facial, and statoacoustic cranial nerves, and it bulges forward in front of the cerebellum, from which it is separated by the fourth ventricle. Containing several nuclei of gray matter and numerous tracts between the cerebral cortex and the spinal cord, it was discovered in the 16th century by Varoli. FTP, what is this part of the brainstem that links the medulla oblongata and the thalamus?
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Jim Hasseloff and colleagues discovered an 84-nt cryptic intron in this protein's cDNA sequence, making codon alteration a necessary step in this protein's expression in Arabidopsis. Well-characterized mutations of this protein include a serine-to-threonine mutation at position 65 described by Roger Heim, which can be combined with a phenylalanine-to-leucine mutation at position 64 to generate a super-ecliptic pH-sensitive variant of this molecule. The structure of this molecule consists of a beta barrel, and its maturation involves modification of a serine-tyrosine-glycine tripeptide that makes up its chromophore. In 2008, Martin Chalfie and Roger Tsien were awarded the Chemistry Nobel for their work with this molecule, whose major emission peak occurs at 509 nanometers. First isolated from the Aequoria victoria jellyfish, for 10 points, name this molecule often used as a biological marker that when exposed to blue light, emits its namesake colored light.
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Like several other organs, this organ is restrained by the peritoneum. Attached to the peritoneum below the capsule are the two ligaments that hold its protective serous and fibroelastic coats in place and allow this organ to expand and contract after digestion. Below the hilum, one of its coats reflects inward into branching sheets that radiate the trabeculae that separate its pulp-containing areolae, where the reticulum connects this organ to the lienal artery and allows it to fulfill its primary function. Made up of red and white pulp, in times of bone marrow breakdown it produces red blood cells. FTP, name this primary filtering organ for the blood.
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Mutations in the SERPING1 gene product and other components of the complement pathway are a risk factor for diseases of this structure, as is the presence of reticular zinc-rich bodies. Toxoplasmosis infection can cause stellate exudates in it. Dichroism in this structure is thought to explain the phenomenon of Haidinger's brushes. An elongated layer of S-shaped axons under this structure is called the fiber layer of Henle. The accumulation of drusen and the vascularization of Bruch's membrane are symptoms of the "wet" form of a disease of this structure. Zeaxanthin is one of two pigments that give it a yellow color, and a cone-rich pit within this structure is called the fovea. For 10 points, name this part of the retina, whose degeneration causes a common type of blindness.
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Mycoplasma genitalia produces only one of these and Streptococcus coelicolour makes 63, but in E. coli there are eight different kinds. Type 32 is involved in responses to heat shock and unfolded cytoplasmic proteins while type 54 is linked to metabolism of nitrogen sources other than ammonia. The most famous of these proteins is type 70, which is involved in transcription of housekeeping genes and is required for normal growth. Type 70 binds sequences at 10 and 35 bases upstream of the start of transcription site to help form a closed complex. FTP, name this bacterial factor that assists promoter recognition during initiation of transcription by destabilizing nonspecific binding of RNA polymerase to DNA.
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Myrmecophiles participate in the Wasmannian type of this phenomenon, which is termed Vavilovian in certain cases involving weeds. The Bakerian form is exemplified by the Caricaceae species, whose members do not produce nectar yet still attract pollinators. One version is best demonstrated in monarch and viceroy butterflies, and is often confused with another type that involves unrelated species that are distasteful. FTP, name this ecological term that describes how one organism resembles another for concealment or protection, with Mullerian and Batesian varieties.
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Neostigmine is used to treat myasthenia gravis because it inhibits the breakdown of this substance. Curare is a competitive inhibitor of it for N1 nicotinic receptors, causing paralysis. It is released from all pre-ganglionic sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons and from all post-ganglionic parasympathetic neurons. Synthesized from two common biological molecules, one of which is bound to co-enzyme A, FTP, name this neurotransmitter.
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One class of these compounds is synthesized via the octadecanoid pathway from linoleic acid. Besides jasmonates, another class of these compounds was discovered during Kurasawa's investigation of the bakanae disease. Another of these compounds regulates dormancy, and is known as abscisic acid. Ethylene functions as one of these compounds by causing ripening. One class of them leads to apical dominance and the elongation of stems. For 10 points, name these compounds that signal plants to grow, classes of which include gibberellins and auxins.
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One class of these enzymes is classified by a DEAD box motif within a Walker B domain, and the Drosophila protein Twister is a homolog of another one of these enzymes found in yeast, Ski2. Another one of them responsible for initiating repairs is RecQ, while Werner's syndrome is caused by a mutation in another one of them. Other examples of these enzymes include the E. coli DnaB and the gp4 protein encoded by the T7 phage. Many of these enzymes appear as a ring-shaped hexamer that also contains an N-terminal primase domain. During replication, they hydrolyze ATP to move the replication fork forward. FTP, name these proteins that unwind DNA.
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One class of these medications acts by inhibiting the demethylation of lanosterol. Ergosterol is the main target of both the azole and polyene types of these drugs. A classical example of these named for its mutual acid/base reactivity is amphotericin B. These drugs are indicated in cases of cryptococcosis, aspergillus infection, and candidiasis, while examples include Tolnaftate, Lamisil, and Lotramin. Some like nikkomycins targets chitin synthesis. For 10 points, name this class of drugs that treat yeast infections, athlete's foot, and other diseases caused by members of a certain taxonomic kingdom that includes mold and mushrooms.
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One condition affecting them can be diagnosed with a dexamethasone suppression test and results from the over-production of a molecule in its zonas fasciculata and reticularis. Another condition can be mimicked by eating too much licorice and affects their outermost zona glomerulosa. Besides Conn's and Cushing's syndromes, their inner-most portions can develop pheo-chromo-cytomas, which overproduce catecholamines. Plasma ion levels influence their production of aldosterone, while a namesake trophic hormone stimulates the production of cortisol in their cortex. For 10 points, name these glands whose medullas secrete their namesake hormone, also called epinephrine.
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One cytotoxic reaction to it is the Type II hypersensitivity reaction in newborns known as erythroblastosis fetalis. When blood-donors are not properly screened for its presence, hemolysis can result in transfusion recipients as a result of their bodies producing agglutinins in response to its introduction. First described when rabbits were injected by Wiener and Landsteiner with a different animal's blood, FTP, identify this blood protein, separate from the ABO group and which was named for a certain type of monkey.
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One disorder involving this organelle is caused by a mutation in E325K on the NAGA gene, called Schindler disease. One method of transporting molecules to it involves an hsc70-containing chaperone complex. Another disorder results in enzyme transport to the extracellular space rather than this organelle and is called I-cell disease. Proteins are marked for this structure with mannose-6-phosphate, and proton pump activity in this organelle maintains the acidic pH necessary for its primary function. One genetic defect results in ganglioside buildup in this organelle and thus causes Tay-Sachs disease. For 10 points, identify this cellular organelle that breaks down macromolecules with the aid of acid hydrolases.
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One example of these molecules regulates the production of GlmS based on glucosamine-6-phosphate presence in the cell. Another of these molecules has an activity-essential motif consisting of G5, G8, and G12, as well as a U-turn that gives it its namesake shape. Examples of these molecules capable of catalyzing in vivo Diels-Alder reactions were described by Seelig. Another type of them might allow for production of HIV-resistant T-cells. They provide evidence for Gilbert's RNA world hypothesis, and these molecules are capable of hydrolyzing their own phosphodiester bonds. For 10 points, give this term for RNA molecules with enzyme-like catalytic activity, such as the “Hammerhead†type.
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One group in this phylum probably descended from heteractinids, which went extinct during the Paleozoic Era. This phylum's immune response includes the accumulation of grey cells. In organisms in this phylum, totipotent amoebocytes allow for reproduction and the distribution of nutrients digested by current-producing choanocytes. Those choanocytes, with epidermal pinocytes, bound a gelatinous matrix known as the mesohyl, which separates the two layers of organisms in this phylum. The asconoid and syconoid body forms also feature an osculum along with spicules produced by sclerocytes. For 10 points, name this invertebrate phylum of sessile, suspension-feeding animals commonly known as sponges.
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One group of species in this phylum became hermatypic during the Middle Triassic, and palytoxin was first isolated from a species in this phylum. The order Rhyzostomea includes organisms with mouths found along their arms, such as the Cassiopeia. Members of one class possess a tissue called the velarium which aids in locomotion, and the largest class in this phylum includes sea pansies and sea fans and is called Anthozoa. Members of this phylum possess a structure called the operculum, within which nematocysts are found, and members go through both polyp and medusa stages. For 10 points, name this phylum which includes anemones, hydras, and jellyfish.
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One major pathway involving this compound is the tuberoinfundibular one that transfers it from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland. This compound is involved in voluntary motor control via its nigriostriatal pathway, and it binds with lactotrophs in order to inhibit the secretion of prolactin, which is a major antagonist of it. It is the immediate precursor of norepinephrine in the epinephrine synthesis pathway. Antagonists of this neurotransmitter are used to treat schizophrenia, and deficiency of this neurotransmitter can lead to Parkinson's disease. For 10 points, name this neurotransmitter associated with the brain's pleasure center whose precursor is L-dopa.
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One of the diagrams it can generate is known as the Eadie-Hofstee, which magnifies departure from linearity that may not be apparent in the better-known diagram that it generates. It simply assumes that the rate of the formation of the product, P, is proportional to the concentration of the complex. A curve can be generated from it using the Lineweaver-Burke plot and "V sub M" or maximum velocity occurs at the point where the curve flattens out. It states that velocity is greatest when all active sites are filled with substrate. FTP, identify this hypothesis named for its two discoverers that offers a general explanation of the velocity and mechanism of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
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One of the principal inhibitors of this process is 2-carboxy-arabinitol-1-phosphate. The presence of magnesium stimulates it, in part due to that ion's actions on FBPase and SBPase, which are two of the critical enzymes in its recovery phase. In the first step of this process, the rate-limiting part is the conversion of one reactant into an enediolate prior to its nucleophilic attack on the other input's lone carbon, which then leads to the formation of two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate. Some of the 3PG molecules are converted to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, which can become a source of glucose, while others regenerate ribulose bisphosphate. FTP name this process that begins with the actions of the enzyme rubisco, used by plants to fix carbon dioxide into sugars.
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One of this author's theories takes its name from a device used to set the quadripartite symmetry of the dome of St. Mark's Cathedral in Venice, and was discussed in a paper on the "Panglossian paradigm" which critiqued the "adaptationist program." He coined the neologism "exaptation" to support that "spandrel" theory, which denies that all extant features of an organism are actually selected for. As a graduate student at Columbia, this scientist worked on the Cerion snail in Central America. His column "This View of Life" in Natural History is collected in the book Ever Since Darwin, but contemporaries such as Ernst Mayr have criticized him for works such as The Mismeasure of Man, The Flamingo's Smile, and The Panda's Thumb. FTP, name this evolutionary biologist who, with Niles Eldredge, formulated the theory of punctuated equilibrium.
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One of this microorganism's lesser-known traits is the ability to produce small amounts of vitamins K and B12. In genetic engineering it is the preferred microorganism for hosting gene-splicing for cloning. The most toxic known strain of this bacterium is 0157:H7, which can cause a potentially deadly hemolytic-uremic syndrome like the one seen in a 1993 outbreak in Washington state. A normal inhabitant of the intestinal tract of animals and humans, FTP, what is this bacterium, the most famous member of genus Escherichia?
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One order of this taxonomic class of animals is known as Polypteriformes and can only be found in Africa. That order is found in the subclass Sarcopterygii, and an infraclass of this group is known as Teleostei and has the most members. Primitive members have ganoid scales, while more modern ones can exhibit cycloid scales that have annuli which can be used to predict age. An operculum covering the gills is present in all these organisms as well as a swim bladder. For 10 points, identify this class of vertebrates separated into 'fleshy-finned' and ‘ray-finned,' and whose main difference with Chondrichthyes is their bony skeleton.
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One part of it contains the median aperture of Magendie and the lateral aperture of Luschka. Meckels cave is found in its outer layer, a strong fibrous connective tissue, contains a sickle-shaped partition known as the falx cerebri. One part of it contains filaments known as trabeculae that transverse the space between the inner and middle layers. Its three layers are known as dura matter, arachnoid and pia mater and inflammation of it due to viral or bacterial infection can be detected by a lumbar puncture. For 10 points, name this system of membranes that protects the central nervous system.
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One protein in this pathway has a G20210A mutant. This pathway is aberrantly activated by anti-phospholipid antibodies, while one pathway to initiate it relies on high-molecular weight kininogen. The aPTT and PT tests can be used to determine if particular proteins in this pathway are defective; said proteins include Hageman factor and another whose mutation causes Christmas disease. Most of the proteins in this pathway are serine proteases that cleave each other, one of which is bound to von Willebrand factor. For 10 points, name this cascade that includes Factors V, VIII, IX, X, etc, responsible for stopping the flow of blood at wounds.
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One system of their classification divides them into minor, replication-dependent, and replication-independent types. In the lab, they are isolated by cleavage of the source material followed by salt elution in a hydroxyapatite column. They never contain tryptophan and are usually rich in lysine and arginine. A type found in Euryarchaea may be the evolutionary precursor to those found in eukaryotes. Four of their classes form an octameric nucleosome, while the linker or H1 type regulates the formation of thirty-nanometer fibers. FTP, name this class of proteins which forms chromatin when DNA coils around them.
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Proteins destined for these structures often possess a C-terminal SKL sequence. Mutations in the ABCD1 gene lead to a demyelination disease involving these organelles called adrenoleukodystrophy. In humans, a reduction in their number is the cause of Zellweger syndrome. Beta oxidation of fatty acids to acetyl CoA occurs in these structures, which also contain the enzyme catalase, which is responsible for breaking down a certain toxic material into oxygen and water. For 10 points, name these organelles that isolate and destroy hydrogen peroxide.
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Proteins such as Swi5 and tramtrack possess examples of these which have a third beta strand, and the FYVE/PHD is a class of these which are named for their resemblance to those found in homeodomains. A related structure is found in the retroviral gag nucleoprotein and contains a CPXCG structure, which forms the "knuckle" variant of these structures. The C4 type is especially prevalent in steroid hormone receptors. These structures were first identified in the TFIIIA transcription factor, and the most common types of these structures contain two cysteine and two histidine residues, whose side chains coordinate this domain's namesake element. For 10 points, identify these DNA binding domains which contain a transition metal atom.
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Proteins targeted for either this structure or the plasma membrane are tagged with the amino acid sequence Y-X-X-phi, where X is any residue and phi is any hydrophobic residue. One protein found here, GAAP, was found in 2009 to reduce the frequency of oscillations of cytosolic calcium concentrations. In plants, hemicelluloses and pectins are created here, and it is location of sphingomyelin synthesis from ceramide. Sulfotransferases sulfate glycosaminoglycans and proteglycans in this structure. Vesicles marked with the COPII ("cop-2") protein transport molecules from endoplasmic reticulum to its cis face. This organelle is composed of flattened discs called cisternae. For 10 points, name this protein-modifying organelle named for an Italian biologist.
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Recent research from Europe suggests that Vitamin A therapy may be a future regenerative therapy for this disease, which is still regarded as irreversible. Its occurrence is elevated in patients with genetically decreased levels of alpha-antitrypsin1, since that protein usually inactivates the enzyme elastase. In most cases, environmental toxins trigger inflammation and release of proteases, which digest the alveolar walls, decreasing the total surface area for gas diffusion. Found in patients often referred to as either "pink puffers" or "blue bloaters, FTP name this chronic obstructive pulmonary disease whose incidence is greatly increased by smoking tobacco.
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Similar to hemoglobins, in these compounds a carbon-hydrogen phytol chain is attached to a porphyrin ring surrounding a central magnesium atom. The rare type e is found in golden algae while types a and b are the major forms in higher plants where it is found in chloroplasts. For ten points, name this class of pigments vitally important to photosynthesis.
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Since their DNA copying does not have any error checking, the probability of random mutation is much higher, leading to diseases such as Kearn-Sayre syndrome. Its DNA typically consists of five to ten copies, all inherited from the mother, and when they divide these copies are randomly distributed between the offspring. Some theories hold that its DNA is derived from a single source called "Eve". FTP, what are these organelles long ago incorporated into eukaryotic cells to produce energy for them?
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Six types of these formations have been listed by Robert Riding, including tufa and skeletal. First coined in name by Kalkowsky in 1908, one group of them, Conophyton, is characteristic of Late Precambrian sequences. The study of fossilized ones in general was driven by a discovery of Stanley Tyler and Elso Barghoorn in the Gunflint Formation, where these have created a namesake form of chert. A rare example of a living one of these can be seen at Shark Bay in Australia. Similar to calcretes, these organosedimentary structures typically form when cyanobacteria present in algal mats acts to trap and laminate sediment in thread-like filaments on the floor of a body of water. For 10 points, name these formations which provide the oldest macroscopic evidence of life on Earth, whose name comes from the Greek for "stony carpet."
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Sodium-mediated antiport membrane proteins in these structures can be passively inhibited through the use of digitalis extracts which block sodium-potassium ATPases. They are mechanically coupled to plasma membrane dihydropyridine receptors. Though not found in neurons, they possess ryanodine receptors which can be activated when phospholipase C cleaves PIP2 into DAG and the signaling molecule inositol trisphosphate. Depending on the cell type, extensions of these structures form dyads or triads with adjacent T-tubules and they contain the protein calsequestrin. For 10 points, name these structures found within muscle cells which store intercellular calcium and are a modified form of an organelle that is continuous with the nuclear envelope and comes in a rough form.
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The A206K mutation of this protein breaks its tendency to dimerize. Pedelacq and Cabantous developed a hyperfolding mutant of this protein, which builds on an earlier F64L mutant. Lictman and Staines used several variants of it to distinguish groups of neurons in one system, and another set of mutations causes it to become sensitive to pH changes, creating the super-ecliptic pHluorins. Its function is reliant on a F-S-Y loop embedded within a beta-barrel. Two variants of it are used in a common FRET system; those are the cyan and yellow varieties. Chalfie, Tsien, and Shimamura won the Nobel prize for characterizing, FTP, what protein used as a reporter and originally found in jellyfish, that glows a particular color?
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The AIRE gene is expressed in cells that help these cells mature. The receptor of these cells interacts with a complex that has two epsilon chains, along with a delta and gamma chain. Lck and ZAP-70 are important to this type of cell's signaling pathway. Unlike an associated class of cells, they undergo both positive and negative selection. A very small percentage of these cells are known as delta-gamma cells. FOXP3 acts as a marker for regulatory ones. They have CD3 and two major types of them are distinguished by whether they have CD4 or CD8. For 10 points, name these lymphocytes that come in cytotoxic and helper varieties, which are not B cells.
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The Drosophila X virus is thought to trigger this pathway as a means of innate immunity. This pathway is responsible for guiding H3K9 methylation in the centromeric regions of S. Cerevisiae. Disruption of P-bodies leads to blunting of this pathway, which was elucidated by the discovery of the lin-4 gene. The Flavr Savr tomato takes advantage of this pathway, which relies on exportin-5 to transport the products of Drosha cleavage to the cytoplasm. Argonaute selects the guide strand to load into the RISC complex, which then can target complementary mRNAs for degredation in this pathway. Craig Mello and Andrew Fire won the Nobel Prize for elucidating this pathway. For 10 points, name this mechanism which uses anti-sense RNA to silence a gene.
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The Gla domain in prothrombin allows it to bind to these molecules, which have been shown to form annular structures around the calcium ATPase. One example of them is formed by adding a glucose molecule to sphingosine, and cleaving one that carries an inositol group yields IP3 and diacyl-glycerol. A key indicator of apoptosis is the loss of the asymmetric distribution of them, since a certain negatively charged molecule of this class is normally concentrated on the cytosolic leaflet by flippase. For 10 points, ethanolamine, choline, and serine are common headgroups of what components of cell membranes that form a namesake bilayer?
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The Kaposi's sarcoma virus SOX protein causes overgrowth of this structure, and its formation is directed by a tripartite signal that includes efficiency and positioning elements. HEX, CPE, and Pumilio-binding elements participate in their formation, and the association of a namesake binding factor with these structures recruits eIF-4G. The transferrin receptor and several histone components use a stem-loop rather than this structure. In plant mitochondria, long ones are destabilizing, but more commonly, the lengthening of these structures enhances the stability of the molecules to which they are attached and promotes translation. For 10 points, name this structure found on the 3' (three prime) end of most mRNAs which consists of a long string of adenosines.
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The Katz-Miledi experiement concerned its vesicular transmission. It is sometimes administered during cataract surgery to contract the pupil; deadly nightshade's secretions of atropine were commonly used to dilate the pupil by blocking its metabotropic class of receptors. The ionotropic class is attacked by antibodies in myasthenia gravis, and is commonly called nicotinic, while its metabotropic receptors are called muscarinic. Through binding to those receptors, G proteins can stimulate the synthesis of adenylate cyclase, which catalyzes one step in the synthesis of cyclic AMP. When released in the pons Varolli, it stimulates the onset of REM. Pirenzepine treats stomach ulcers by antagonizing its stimulation of stomach acid secretion, and nerve gas works by preventing its hydrolysis, while one leading hypothesis suggests that a decline in this leads to Alzheimer's disease. For 10 points, identify this neurotransmitter with a namesake esterase, primarily responsible for neuron-muscle interaction.
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The Kidd glycoproteins present on their surface act as urea transporters. Spectrin and ankyrin are found in the cytoskeletal network of these cells and antibodies on their surface are detected by the direct Coombs test. They express high levels of CD47, which prevents phagocytosis by macrophages in the spleen, and kidneys release EPO which stimulate the production of these. Excess production of them results in polycythemia, and their count is depressed in anemia. Produced in the bone marrow, they are biconcave and lack nuclei. For 10 points, identify these cells that contain hemoglobin, and help transport oxygen to tissues.
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The Kyte-Doolittle scale is useful in predicting one kind of them, while the Davydov-Scott model examines the propagations of solitons along one type of them. The antifreeze family contains the cold-resistant beta variety, while fumarase C and lipoxygenase contain the pi variety. Turns of 120 degrees and i-i+3 ("i to i plus three") bonding define the more common 310 ("3 10") variety. The most common variety can form coiled coils, leucine zippers, and other protein structures. FTP, name this structure, whose alpha variety is a basic structural component of proteins.
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The Maleficent system allows this tool to be used stably in mammalian cells. Proteins from the Argonaute family and Dicer make up the RISC complex that carry out the cleavage step in this process. First studied by Jorgenson in petunias, it is known as "quelling" in Neurospora. While it is now primarily used as an alternative to gene knockout, it may someday be useful therapeutically in silencing viral gene expression. FTP, name this tool from molecular biology, so named because it uses double-stranded RNA to disrupt gene expression.
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The Mitsuda test describes of the ability of a body to participate in a cell mediated immune response against this disease, and preparations named for Dharmendra are used in that test. Lucio's name is appended to an acute form of it. It can be classified into paucibacillary and mutlibacillary based upon skin smear results, and the tuberculoid form of it results in localized skin lesions. Armadillos also harbor its causative agent, and it is sometimes named for Hansen. Resulting in skin lesions and nerve damage, for 10 points, name this disease which, like tuberculosis, is caused by a mycobacterium, and is also associated with certain "colonies" where its patients were isolated.
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The N(6)-methylation [enn six meth-uh-LAY-shun] of this chemical is mediated by dam methylase in many bacteria. Deamination of this compound's C(6) amino group by double-bonded oxygen yields the hypoxanthine found in tRNA inosine. Its N(7) and N(6) positions form additional hydrogen bonds in Hoogsteen pairing, and it absorbs at 260 nm ["nanometers"] more strongly than any other nitrogenous base. In its most common role, its nitrogen-9 is syn- or anti-linked in a N-beta-glycosyl bond to the carbon-1' ["one prime"] of a pentose by condensation of water. Containing a NH2 at C(6) of a double ring, FTP, name this purine that has bonds with thymine and uracil in DNA and RNA, respectively.
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The Portland and Gower types of this molecule are only seen in utero, and the A1C version is useful in monitoring the long-term blood sugar status of diabetics. At high altitudes its activity is inhibited by an increase in the concentration of 2,3-biphosphoglycerate, and fMRI takes advantage of its magnetic properties. Consisting of two alpha and two beta subunits of roughly 17,000 daltons each, it becomes nonfunctional if its central iron atom is oxidized to a +3 state. Thalassemia and porphyria also compromise the function of, FTP, what metalloprotein found in red blood cells, which binds oxygen?
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The RACE type of this process is a special case of the anchored type, which utilizes a universal linker. The hot-start version separates the components before the first step and the touch-down version decreases hybridization temperatures over time. The ARMS system utilizes the allele-specific type, which relies on single nucleotide distinctions near the three-prime end. Its product usually has an adenosine three-prime overhang and enzymes from Pyrococcus furiosus have been used in it thanks to their three prime to five prime exonuclease proofreading, but VENT and taq pol are also common. FTP, name this technique taking about thirty cycles; a DNA amplification method invented by Kary Mullis.
name these proteins that are produced as a result of an antigenic stimulus.
The RAG-1 gene is expressed only in the stages when recombination is taking place in these molecules. This discovery first grew out of Susumo Tonegawa's experiments on recombination's cause for their diversity. They exist as two sets of polypeptides, each present in duplicate and divided into a variable and constant region, and with the larger termed the heavy chain and the smaller termed the light chain. In humans, they are divided into five classes referred to as immunoglobulins. For 10 points
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The facial and abducens paralysis known as Millard-Gubler syndrome is caused by obstruction of blood vessels in and surrounding this structure. Acetylcholine released here induces REM sleep, and this structure sends signals to the thalamus to cause paralysis during dream states. Consisting of the upper pneumotaxic and lower apneustic centers, it plays an important role in regulating breathing, and it serves as a relay between the cerebrum and the cerebellum, the function that gives it its name. The location of the lesion in locked-in syndrome, FTP, name this structure in the brain stem located between the medulla oblongata and the midbrain, which takes its name from the Latin for "bridge."
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The family that contains this protein also contains a protein suspected to soften the pubis symphysis, which peaks during the first trimester of pregnancy and at delivery. Regulatory sequences of the gene that codes for this protein include MafA and the CAAT enhancer binding element, and NeuroD1 regulates its synthesis. The release of this hormone occurs in a three- to six-minute rhythm, and HGH induces the liver to secrete one of a family of growth factors with sequence similarity to it. This hormone is released following IP3 binding to the ER, triggering calcium release. For 10 points, name this hormone, secreted by the beta cells in the pancreas, which induces tissues to take up glucose and is administered to sufferers of diabetes.
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The first enzyme in this process uses a biotin prosthetic group to form an activated intermediate, which can only be transported by being converted to one of two products, including the result of an aminotransferase, aspartate. That intermediate then loses its newly acquired carboxyl group in a reaction that also produces a GDP. This process forms the half of the Cori cycle that occurs in the liver, and it makes use of fructose bisphosphatase, which is found on the same protein as a major enzyme in an opposite process. For 10 points, name this process in which PEPCK and pyruvate carboxylase begin the reverse of glycolysis to form "new" glucose from non-carbohydrates.
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The first examples of them were derivatives of ethylamine, while the forerunner of most modern types was an alinine derivative called Antergan. Most examples in use do not suppress gastric secretion, an exception being Tagamet, one of the H-2 blocking agents. It acts by binding to one of two receptor sites normally used by the substance whose effects it is designed to counteract, but can cause sleepiness in the process. FTP, what are these synthetic drugs used to combat inflammation and allergies?
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The first inborn error in metabolism to be characterized in humans, this disease is diagnosed with the Guthrie test. Most people with it never learn to talk and do not progress beyond a mental age of two years, with 75% of them failing to reach the age of 30. The disease causes a defect in the PAH enzyme that causes accumulation of a toxic form of pyruvic acid that, in turn, causes deterioration of the central nervous system. FTP, what is this disease which inhibits the conversion of phenylalanine to tyrosine, abbreviated PKU?
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The first type of this entity relies on TAP to transport proteasome-processed peptides, allowing them to bind to partially folded units; conversely, the second type cannot bind until its complexed invariant chain is exchanged in an endosome. Molecules of the first type become associated with CD8 receptors, while CD4 receptors affiliate with the second type. Originating from gene clusters in an eponymous region, these membrane glycoproteins are expressed codominantly and with high polymorphism. In humans, the human leukocyte antigen refers to, FTP, which adaptive immune complex, whose presentation of antigens activates T and B lymphocytes?
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The flgB ["f-l-g-b"] operon controls transcription of the distal rod protein of its blepharoplast, and fliF proteins aggregate into the MS ring of this structure. The secretion system referred to as T3SS uses a simpler version of one component of this organelle. Nexin links the components of these organelles together, preventing them from being dissolved, while its shaft passes through four rings, rather than two, in Gram-negative bacteria. In eukaryotes their motion results from the alternating movements of two sets of dynein arms, while those of prokaryotes are screw-shaped and rotate. The defining external feature of sperm cells, these are, for 10 points, what long structures in eukaryotes that whip back and forward to allow for movement?
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The formation of their secondary walls involves intense activity of dictyosomes, which produce numerous vesicles that migrate to the primary wall and fuse with the plasmalemma layer. The various types have different functions; fibers and tracheids, which are primarily used for conduction; vessel members, for support; and the only living type of cell that comprises it, also the primary food storage unit, the parenchyma. FTP, identify this mostly dead tissue found in higher plants that is the primary conductor of water in plants, and makes up the vascular system along with the phloem.
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The gene S100A8 can protect against it, and a recent study showed that melatonin can antagonize it in partheno-genetic embryos. This process can be detected via the uptake of 7-AAD during flow cytometry, the exclusion of trypan blue, and the terminal dUTP nick-end labeling, or TUNEL assay. Binding of the Fas ligand induces it, as does upregulation of proteins like BAX and BAD, while other members of the Bcl-2 family oppose it. The exact number of times this process occurs is known for the development of C. elegans, whose ced-3 proteins are the homologues of the Apaf-1-activated human caspases that are responsible for many of its effects. Also initiated by p53 upon un-repairable DNA damage, FTP, name this process of type I programmed cell death.
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The gene dcp-1 is necessary for this process to occur in Drosophila, and it can be triggered by the release of endonuclease G from the mitochondria. This process can be inhibited by a family of proteins with multiple BIRs at the amino terminus, or by a pathway involving Pl-3 kinase and Akt kinase, which phosphorylates the protein Bad. This process can be induced by hypoxia or heat shock, unless it is suppressed by Bcl-2. This process results from a release of cytochrome c into the cytosol, which triggers a cascade of caspases. Eventually resulting in the fragmentation of the cell, for 10 points, identify this process of programmed cell death.
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The gene encoding this protein is located on chromosome 3q28. Four of the five receptors for this protein do not differentiate its "14" variety from its "28" variety, the latter of which is secreted mostly in the intestine. Synthetic substitutes for it include octreotide and it acts with both endocrine and paracrine mechanisms. First identified in hypothalamic extracts, it prolongs gastric emptying and gall bladder contraction and it is used to treat acromegaly because of its most important function. FTP, name this hormone that is produced by the delta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas and that serves to suppress many hormones, including secretin and growth hormone.
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The murine gene nm23 is a prototype for suppressors of this process. Krukenberg's disease is an example of this phenomenon, and it may be studied with microcell-mediated chromosomal transfer. Stromelysin and other matrix metalloproteases promote this process by destroying collagen and other components of the extracellular matrix, allowing cells to proceed through steps like intravasation and extravasation that permit their travel through the bloodstream. FTP, identify this process by which cancerous cells migrate from a primary tumor to other sites in the body.
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The name of its discoverer, the Italian anatomist Varoli, is sometimes included in this body part's full name. It consists of the tegmentum, and a larger part composed of masses of neurons that lie among bundles of fibers. The tegmentum includes the reticular formation, which helps facilitate motor function. FTP, identify this tract of fibers that links the medullar oblongata to the midbrain, serving as a bridge to relay impulses between different parts of the brain.
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Their haploid gametophyte stage is the dominant generation in their alternation, a feature that distinguishes this division of plants from red and brown algae. They have rootlike organs called rhizoids instead of vascular tissue, and their cells form tissues called parenchyma. They are usually terrestrial but they remain dependent on their aquatic ancestry. For 10 points, name this division of 25,000 species of liverworts, hornworts, and mosses.
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The quartet1 mutation can be used to study "tetrads" in this tissue, and T. fornieri has been used to study the attractant effects of LURE proteins upon it. The S RNase arrests the growth of one of its components. The action of callase is critical for its maturation, and at maturity it is surrounded by two cell walls, the intine and the exine. Following hydration, a tube grows from this structure to direct the delivery of its generative cell through a micropyle; the POP2 and POP3 gene products are important for this process in Arabidopsis. Microsporangia are sacs containing this substance, which has frills or wings in many gymnosperms. For 10 points, name this powdery substance found on anthers, which contains the male gametes of plants and is the allergen that triggers hay fever.
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The red viscacha-rat was recently discovered to exhibit this phenomenon, which is demonstrated in the Triangle of U for members of the Brassica family. It can also be seen in the salivary glands of Drosophila, mammalian livers, and megakaryocytes, and it can be induced in cell culture upon treatment with colchicine. The allo type of it is seen in Triticale, a derivative of rye and wheat, and it can serve as a form of speciation, especially in angiosperms. It can result from non-reduction in meiosis or endo-replication, in which replication occurs without mitosis. For 10 points, name this condition in which cells possess more than two homologous sets of chromosomes.
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The relative rate of this compound's carboxylation is varied by the YPC model parameter. In a pathway that regenerates NAD+ from NADH, this triose ketoacid is converted via acetaldehyde into carbon dioxide and ethanol in an anaerobic environment. It is also anaerobically converted into lactate during muscle contraction, and serves as an important biochemical intermediate by bonding with acetyl coenzyme A to enter the Krebs cycle. FTP, identify this molecule produced by glycolysis.
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The removal of the objects that produce them is carried out by F-E-N-one and D-N-A-two, along with R-N-ase-H. As the DNA is unzipped by helicase, new material is available for replication that is not in the path of the RNA polymerase, resulting in the use of RNA primers that work against the direction of the replication fork to create these objects. DNA ligase fills in the gaps between them after they are completely assembled on the lagging strand, allowing for the creation of a smooth DNA sequence. FTP, give the term for these relatively short portions of DNA produced during DNA replication, named for a Japanese scientist.
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The role of this pathway in Clara cell regeneration was established by Roel Nusse, One non-canonical example of this pathway activates the enzymes CamKII and PKC enzymes through PDE6, while another interacts with the JNK and PCP pathways; both of these pathways play a role in convergent extension and planar cell polarity. This pathway is named for a related family of growth factors that, canonically, bind to LRP and a cysteine-rich segment of Frizzled in developing cells. This binding activates Disheveled, which inhibits GSK-3 and leads to a build up of beta-catenin. That protein activates target genes responsible for developing dorsal structures. Like Hedgehog and Notch, this pathway is active during development. For 10 points, name this signaling pathway that is vital in establishing the dorsal-ventral axis.
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The shortest part of a larger structure, it is about 9 to 11 inches long. It sees the conversion of trypsinogen to trypsin via the enterokinase that is believed to be produced by its Brunner glands. In its descending section, acid-neutralizing bicarbonate and pancreatic juices are introduced through the duct of Wirsung. FTP, what is this horseshoe-shaped structure, the first part of the small intestine?
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The similarities between the eyes of this class and those of humans is an example of convergent evolution. Among the most intelligent invertebrates, they have tentacles around their mouths and often have reduced or absent shells. They, like gastropods and bivalves, are molluscs. For ten points, name this class which includes the extinct ammonites, the chambered Nautilus, squid, and octopi.
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The site of the mitochondrially inherited disease called Leber's neuropathy, fibers from it project to the pretectum and superior colliculus, and are important for saccadic movements and a certain reflex mediated by the Edinger-Westphal nucleus. However, most fibers from this nerve project to the magnocellular and parvocellular layers of the lateral geniculate nucleus, which integrate such information as spatial and temporal resolution, but more importantly luminance and color contrast. Crossing over occurs at its namesake chiasma, and it primarily consists of myelinated axons of ganglion cells with origin in the retina. FTP, name this cranial nerve that transmits visual signals from the eye.
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The site of the rare diseases Crigler-Najjar syndrome, Dubin-Johnson syndrome, and Budd-Chiari syndrome, it is surrounded by the Glisson capsule. This organ is divided into lobules which are hexagonal masses of tissue consisting of plates of cells surrounding a central vein. These lobules are also crisscrossed by sinusoids which also contain Kupffer cells. At each corner of the hexagon lies the portal veins, arteries, and bile ducts. FTP, name this organ, producer of bile and plasma proteins and best known as the site of the diseases hepatitis and cirrhosis.
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The smallest class of this phylum contains Chironex fleckeri, which contains poison that can be fatal to humans. The endoderm and ectoderm of members of this phylum are held together by a layer of gelatinous material called a mesoglea. A gastrovascular cavity serves as both a mouth and an anus in members, all of which exhibit radial symmetry. Members of class Anthozoa only have a polyp form, while members of class Hydrozoa have a polyp and medusa form. For ten points -- name this phylum, whose members include sea anemones, corals, and jellyfish.
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The story behind the discovery of these proteins was related in the article "How to Chase a Red Herring and Come up with a Smallmouth Bass." Mice lacking the STAT-1 protein produce roughly half as many of this type of protein as wild type mice. PLSCR-1 amplifies expression of genes whose transcription is induced by them. RIG-1 activates TBK1 and IKKe, which induce transcription of one type of them. Another transcription pathway for them is induced by Toll-like receptor 3. Plasmocytoid dendritic cells are specialized producers of these proteins, discovered by Alick Isaacs and Jean Lindenmann. The most recently discovered class of them is type III, or Type I?. Type Ia is typically produced by leukocytes, while Type Iß is often produced by fibroblasts and epithelial cells and Type I?, or Type II, is produced by activated T cells. They promote expression of MHC Class I molecules and activate natural killer cells. For 10 points, name these cytokines produced in response to viral infection, which inhibit viral protein synthesis.
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The transcription factor of one type of these is encoded by Oct-4, which in a certain species disappears without the presence of leukemia inhibitory factor. That same type can develop into a teratoma if grafted onto normal tissue, while another type can be found in places like the olfactory bulb and hippocampus. Hematopoietic ones, which were discovered in 1963, and mesenchymal ones are present in bone marrow. A 2006 study co-authored by Robert Lanza suggests that certain ones restore visual function in dystrophic rats, and they are called pluripotent if they can develop into any derivative of the three primary germ layers. FTP, identify this type of undifferentiated cell that comes in adult and embryonic varieties.
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The tyrosine kinase Lck can become complexed to these molecules and triggers the phosphorylation of the serine specific protein kinase Raf-1. One class of these molecules functions as a mannose-6-phosphate receptor, and another is a polio virus receptor. Binding class 14 of these molecules may promote neural survival in Alzheimer's disease by reducing microglial activation. TCR signaling can be used to regulate the synthesis of these molecules, which are classified based on their recognition by and reactivity with specific monoclonal antibodies. A ratio of class 4 of these molecules to class 8 of these molecules helps track the progression of infection by HIV, as HIV's gp120 interacts with class 4 of these molecules to enter helper T cells. For 10 points, name these membrane bound glycoproteins, whose class 4 and class 8 recognize MHC antigens presented to helper and cytoxic T-cells, respectively.
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The use of this amino acid, in combination with lipotropic combinations or liver-detoxifying products, has been proposed for treatment of endometriosis, a disease of the uterus. Individuals with high histamine levels are often deficient in it, which leads to the inability to use folic acid. In eukaryotes it is represented by the codon AUG and in all forms is only one of two essential amino acids that contains sulfur. FTP, name this amino-acid that is always the first one present in peptide formation.
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The usual form of this procedure takes the form of two transesterifications: the first transesterification has a branch-point two-prime hydroxyl making a nucleophilic back-attack to form a so-called lariat intermediate that is then liberated by a the second transesterification. That so-called canonical pathway for this process makes use of the accessory enzymes SF1 and 2 and BBP, which work in complement with the major catalyst, a protein-RNA complex comprised of five snRNPs and named for this process. Sections to undergo this process are marked by a three-prime AG and five-prime GU. For 10 points, name this genetic process whereby a transcript RNA is prepared for translation by the removal of introns.
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The virus that causes this disease encodes a G-protein coupled receptor responsible for activating p38-MAP Kinase and a namesake spindle-cell growth factor, and also codes for a Fas-ligand inhibiting protein. This disease's causative agent causes multicentric Castleman's disease when it expresses interleukin-6, and when co-infected with Epstein-Barr virus causes primary effusion lymphoma. Chang and Moore used Representational Difference Analysis to show that Human Herpesvirus 8 causes it, and its chief symptom is a series of black or purple papular lesions in the mouth and skin. FTP, name this disease first described by a Hungarian doctor, a certain sarcoma commonly found in AIDS patients.
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The work of Gaspar Casal, following a 1735 visit to a town in the Iberian Peninsula, constituted the first medical identification of this malady, and its characteristic neck lesions are called "Casal's necklace" in his honor. For the next 200 years it spread, primarily afflicting poor people forced to survive on a diet lacking milk or meat. Known as the "disease of the three Ds" -- dermatitis, diarrhea, and dementia -- it has often ended in a fourth "D", death. FTP, identify this non-contagious disease studied in 1915 by Joseph Goldberger and finally cured in 1937 by Conrad Elvehjem with his discovery of the vitamin niacin.
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The zero-length column method was designed to measure this process within zeolite crystals. Its rate is the denominator of the Thiele modulus. The effective constant for it is a function of its bulk constant along with tortuosity and hindrance factors. Large scale enriching uranium is accomplished using centrifugation or this process. The mass flux is a function of the partial derivative of concentration with respect to length in Fick's law describing this. Osmosis is this of water across a membrane. For 10 points, name this phenomenon resulting from the random movement of particles that sees transfer between regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration.
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The zero-nu mutant of this organism fails to transcribe rRNA. Gurdon developed a method for exogenous mRNA expression in this organism, and Keller explants are a system used to study cell movement in it. Brachet's cleft and Spemann's organizer are developmental structures in this model organism, which is not genetically tractable but is often used to study gastrulation and embryonic development. A protein complex containing p34Cdc2 and B-type cyclins, discovered in this vertebrate, was originally called maturation promoting factor. Microinjection of DNA into animal caps or oocytes is a common experimental technique in this organism, and species of this model organism include tropicalis and its tetraploid relative laevis. For 10 points, name this amphibian genus of model organisms.
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Their advanced eyes had structures similar to the Descartes and Huygens designs for minimal-aberration lenses. The early Redlichiida order had a simple glabella and small pygidium. Agnostida was smaller than a centimeter, and the other six orders of this class were the Corynexochida, Asaphida, Ptychopariida, Proetida, Lichida and Phacopida. Because their hard exoskeletons are easily preserved and dated, their fossils are often used as chronological markers. FTP, name this class of extinct "three-lobed" arthropods.
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Their discovery by Hamilton Smith, Werner Arber, and Daniel Nathans led to the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Often found in various bacteria or yeast cells, they are divided into three classes with the first and third classes being similar in that all methylase activities are conducted by one complex. Common examples include Bam-H-1 and Eco-R-1, the first to be discovered. The key component of gene splicing, they target specific short sequences in a DNA strand that are usually palindromic. Designed to chop up foreign DNA that may be detrimental, they cleave around those palindromic sequences. FTP, name this class of enzymes.
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Their namesake enzyme is generally found in unicellular eukaryotes and the cells of the germline, including embryonic stem cells. That enzyme, a reverse transcriptase, lengthens the strand before replication, allowing cells to compensate for their shortening during DNA replication. They possess sequences of a rich G-strand and a rich C-strand and almost all are found to have the TTAGGG simple sequence repeat. FTP, name these structures associated with aging, the physical ends of linear eukaryotic chromosomes.
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Their synthesis branches off the mevalonate pathway and starts with isopentyl pyrophosphate, which becomes isopentenyl adenine and eventually one of their three forms. After being detected in coconut endosperm, the first one to be isolated was zeatin, extracted from corn by Miller in 1961. In addition to stimulating the conversion of etioplasts into chloroplasts, they make stomata open larger and promote shoot and bud formation, leaf expansion, and cell division. FTP, name these plant hormones, manufactured in the root meristem, which exhibit an adenine-like structure.
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Theophylline is a drug that can be used to raise this compound's serum levels because it inhibits the phosphodiesterases that participate in this compound's breakdown. Its formation is driven by the hydrolysis of pyrophosphate to phosphate and only occurs with the presence of an adenylate cyclase. It works by activating Protein kinase A, and is itself activated by the binding of a hormone to a cell receptor. G proteins perform similar functions as does calcium to a certain extent. FTP, name this foremost of the body's second messengers, a derivative of ATP.
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These are defined by the presence or absence of a "sticky site" for an endonuclease, and are generally named for the endonucleases used to create them, so common types include BamHI and Mspl. These indicators are mainly found in non-coding genetic material, so their discovery greatly expanded the fraction of the genome that could be analyzed. Many, but not all, of them arise from single nucleotide polymorphisms, and they comprise the major DNA markers, along with VNTR's and microsatellite polymorphisms. FTP, name these DNA markers that may be analyzed by Southern blotting and that are defined as differences in nucleic acid sequences that give rise to different fragment lengths under the action of a restriction enzyme.
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These are thought to have evolved in North America, where the genus Thlaedon is the largest member of its class from the Cretaceous. South American representatives include the extinct carnivores Borhyaena and the sabre-toothed Thylacosmilus as well as the rat-like Caenolestes. They are distinguished by the presence of epipubic bones and the lack of a corpus callosum, as well as by the distinctive pouch. FTP, name this mammalian superorder with living representatives concentrated in Australia.
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These bodies exist in a precisely folded three-dimensional L-shaped structure, and about 25 percent of its bases are unusual in being modifications of the four standard bases, such as methylations. Typically 70-90 nucleotides long, they are able to recognize the proper amino acid activating enzyme so that the proper amino acid will be sent to its free 2 prime or 3 prime OH group. Acting as adapters that translate nucleotide sequences of mRNA into protein sequences, FTP, what are these structures that carry amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis?
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These cells are infected in Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia. Belimumab is used to inhibit the growth of these cells, which express TNF receptor superfamily 17 genes when mature and requires Pax5 expression for differentiation. These cells express CD20 throughout their lifetimes, and use somatic hypermutation in one important process, which also sees a recombination between V, D and J exons of a certain gene cluster. They are partitioned into plasma and memory types, and are usually activated by helper-T cells in response to an infection. Usually produced in the bone marrow, FTP, name these antibody-producing lymphocytes, the basis for humoral immunity.
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These cells are responsible for providing immunity in mice lacking the RAG-1 or RAG-2 recombinase, while the lack of these in humans is the cause of Chediak-Higashi syndrome. Discovered by accident in the 1970s, these cells display the CD16 receptor and C-type lectins for MHC class I-mediated inhibition, but do not display the CD3 receptor or standard surface immunoglobulins. Induced in response to interferons alpha and beta and macrophages, they are the only cytotoxic cells to act early in infection, primarily through the production of interferon gamma. Characterized by their ability to kill cells which lack "self" markers even without activation, these are, FTP, what cytotoxic lymphocytes that participate in innate immunity against tumors and virally infected cells?
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These compounds affect gene transcription by diffusing across the plasma membrane and causing receptor zinc-finger transcription factors to migrate into the nucleus. They all have a cyclopentanophenanthrene nucleus, and in fungal cell membranes, some of these terpenoids act as precursors to vitamin D. They are used to boost livestock production, maintain blood volume, and treat inflammatory and degenerative diseases such as asthma, arthritis, and AIDS wasting. The hormones cortisol and progesterone are examples of, FTP, this class of compounds that all share the fused four carbon-ring structure of cholesterol, best known for their illegal bodybuilding effects.
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These compounds derive from members of the form-class Deuteromycotina. Like the cephalosporins, they have a beta-lactam ring which interferes with the final step in the assembly of bacterial cell walls by inhibiting the enzyme transpeptidase. For ten points, name these mold-derived compounds whose antibiotic properties were discovered in 1928 by Alexander Fleming.
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These plants have a reproductive organ called a strobilus, a terminal cone with whorls of sporangiophores. The single genus of these plants is Equistem. They develop by alternation of generation and are related to club mosses. For ten points, name these pteridophytes, or featherplants, which are members of the class Spenopsida, and which resemble parts of certain animals.
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These creatures come in three different body types known as the asconoid, syconoid, and leuconoid, all of which feature an exit system known as an osculum. They also feature an area between the gelatinous protein matrix called the mesoglea or mesenchyme, an epidermis of flat pinocytes, and interior surfaces lined with choanocytes, or collar cells, that create currents. Composed of four classes including Calcarea and Hex-acti-nel-lida, it is equivalent to the subkingdom Parazoa. Most are hermaphrodites, and all adults are sessile suspension-feeding animals with radial or no symmetry. FTP, name this invertebrate phylum whose members have a skeleton composed of spicules, which are commonly known as sponges.
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These cytokines were first recognized in 1957 by Alick Isaacs and Jean Lindenmann. The beta, or fibroblast varieties, are made by skin cells; white blood cells make the alpha varieties. The gamma varieties are made by lymphocytes after antigen stimulation and are also called interleukins. For ten points, what class of compounds inhibits the transcription of viral nucleic acid, thus giving them their name.
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These entities can have an anti-terminator, such as LicT protein for sacPA, which stabilizes a secondary RNA structure. Early termination of their processes, which can occur via an alternate loop structure with excess of a particular amino acid, is known as attenuation. They can be inducible, as by IPTG for a well known example, and they can contain two kinds of repressors: a translational one, and a better understood transcriptional one, which binds to the operator site. All of them must have these operator sites, as well as promoter sites where RNA Polymerase originally binds. FTP, name these prokaryotic strips of DNA that regulate expression of related genes, which include the trp [trip] and lac varieties.
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These members of order Anoplura seldom grow over 1/12 of an inch. They are capable of spreading themselves in cramped living quarters over 50 degrees Fahrenheit, especially near towels, bedding, and toilets, and can cause skin irritation and eczema. On occasion they may be found on eyebrows, eyelashes, and armpit hair, but as their scientific name Phthirus Pubis indicates, they are most often spread from genital region to genital region by means of close sexual contact. FTP, identify this type of louse, given its popular name because its front legs resemble the claws of a certain crustacean.
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These microstructures are normally guarded from damage from neutrophil elastase buildup by the protein alpha-1 antitrypsin. Adhesive atelectasis is caused by underproduction of surfactant by their * Type II cells. Cytoplasmic extensions of their type I cells form their epithelium, which separates them from the capillary endothelium and allows their primary function. The termination point for bronchioles, FTP, name these small cup-shaped sacs of the lungs, the site of diffusion of oxygen into the bloodstream.
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These molecules are approximately 70 nucleotides long and possess such unique nucleotides as pseudouridine, hypoxanthine, and inosinic acid. One terminus ends with the pCpCpA sequence while the other ends with pG. Also of structural note are the D loop, the variable loop, and the anticodon loop, which often experiences a wobble at the third position of the triplet code. These various parts all contribute to the accepted cloverleaf model of their configuration. FTP, name these carriers for amino acids, one of the three types of RNA.
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These molecules are linked together via DCC in the Merrifield technique. The psi and phi dihedral angles between these molecules are visualized on a Ramachandran plot. The Strecker synthesis can form them. The buildup of one of them at the blood-brain barrier causes the symptoms of phenylketonuria. The human body synthesizes the nonessential type of these molecules, which all have a central carbon bonded to an R group. They consist of carboxyl and NH2 units joined via peptide bonds. For 10 points, name these molecules, the building blocks of proteins.
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These molecules stimulate the production of protein kinase R, which acts to inhibit eIF2. First discovered in 1957 by Alick Isaacs and Jean Lindenmann, the beta 1 a type has been approved as the drug Avonex to treat multiple sclerosis. The alpha type can be used to treat genital warts and hairy cell leukemia, as well as Kaposi's Sarcoma and some forms of hepatitis. Also coming in gamma, tau, and omega types, they are primarily secreted by leukocytes, fibroblasts, and lymphocytes. Triggered by the presence of double stranded RNA, FTP name this class of proteins that most notably stimulates defensive protein production in cells infected with viruses.
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These organelles are particularly abundant in renal proximal convoluted tubule cells and liver parenchyma cells. Bound by a single membrane, they contain type II oxidases like urate oxidase, whose action produces the compound for which it is named. A predominant constituent is the enzyme catalase, which helps in the process of detoxification for which this organelle is known. FTP, what is this organelle named for the presence of the compound H2O2?
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These organisms come in three major categories: crustose, foliose and fruticose. They sometimes reproduce by releasing small bodies called soredia or by the detachment of outgrowths known as isidia. Belonging to the phylum My-co-phy-co-phy-ta, their hardy nature allows them to thrive in extremely cold and exposed regions, but some species are extremely sensitive to air pollution, leading to their use as indicator species. FTP, name this symbiotic combination of a fungus and an alga.
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These organisms produce a prolamin storage protein called zein which is used to synthesize vicara fibers. Experiments by DeVries and Correns explained the "xenia" effect observed in this organism by invoking double fertilization. These organisms, which have distinctive male inflorescence are closely related to the "teosinte" grasses. Experiments on the triploid aleurone layers of its endosperm led to the discovery of the Ac/Ds system which confers varying colour patters in this organism; that experiment led to a Nobel Prize for Barbara McClintock's discovery of transposons. For 10 points, identify this crop which provides the ingredients for tortillas.
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These organisms, which produce the acetylcholine-like compound anatoxin-a, cycle through a dormant akinete cell stage. Some members of the family Nostocaceae of these organisms are motile due to filamentous hormogonia, while heterocysts enable nitrogen fixation by members of this phylum. Phycobilins are associated with their pigmentation, and their evolution has resulted in an oxidizing atmosphere. Endosymbiosis of these organisms is thought to be the source of chloroplasts, and these organisms account for the majority of photosynthesis in the ocean. Appearing in green algal blooms, for 10 points, identify this phylum of photosynthetic bacteria, also known as blue-green algae.
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These structures are notably absent in dogs and cats with the Pelger-Huët anomaly, and they are absent in flies and C. elegans because, in those organisms, their major function is performed by the Sxl and sdc-2 proteins, respectively. Boggs et al. hypothesized that these structures may be characterized by hypoacetylation of core histones, and Mermoud et al. showed that the histone macroH2A1.2 relocates to these structures after they are formed. Their formation is opposed by the gene TSIX, which inhibits the production of siRNA by the gene XIST. They are formed by lyonization, named after Mary Lyon, who hypothesized that they are responsible for dosage compensation. These structures are absent in Turner's syndrome, while multiple ones of them occur in Kleinfelter's syndrome. For 10 points, name these inactivated X chromosomes.
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These structures are the primary location of DHAP acyltransferase, which plays a role in plasmalogen synthesis. Most proteins imported into this organelle require a serine lysine leucine C-terminal signal. One defect of this organelle is Zellweger syndrome. Along with mitochondria, this organelle converts fatty acids into acetyl-CoA in a process known as beta-oxidation. However, this organelle uses catalase for its most notable function. It is most abundantly found in the liver. For 10 points, name this organelle that get rids of a namesake group of compounds by breaking it into water and oxygen.
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These structures may dimerize, forming G-quartets, which may mediate the process of recombination. The TRAP assay is used to detect activity of their namesake enzyme, a form of reverse transcriptase. Ones found in Tetra-hymena contain the sequence GGGTGG, while all vertebrates have repeats of TTAGGG, and in 1998, Bodnar et al demonstrated that these structures may be maintained indefinitely in certain cell lines without becoming cancerous or losing the typical 100 base pairs per mitosis typical for somatic cells. Those found in Dolly the sheep are only 80% of their normal length, and it is thought that somatic cell clones age prematurely because of the diminished length of, FTP, what structures that prevent loss of the unreplicated 3' [three-prime] end of the lagging strand in chromosomal replication?
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They account for one-third of the cases of the second-most common cause of illness in the U.S. Although humans are their only hosts, shellfish living in contaminated waters have been known to carry these members of family Calciviridae. Also found in fresh fruit, salad vegetables and cake frosting, they are usually transmitted by a fecal-oral route, and cause intense stomach cramps, diarrhea, and vomiting. Named for the town in Ohio which first experienced such an outbreak, FTP, name this common cause of viral gastroenteritis, which has recently been seen in passengers on cruise ships.
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They often stand out in electron micrographs because of a crystalloid core made up of urate oxidase. In germinating seeds, they are called glyoxysomes, since they convert fats to sugars as part of the glyoxylate cycle. Remarkably adaptable, they are small in yeast cells grown on sugar, but grow large if the yeast is transferred to methanol. For 10 points-name these organelles that break down many molecules by producing hydrogen peroxide.
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This amino acid is highly abundant in motifs that bind to SH3 protein domains. It is synthesized from glutamate, and some of it may be further converted to a hydroxyl- form common in collagen. Although it is the most unlikely amino acids in a beta-sheet and an alpha-helix, it is plentiful in adjacent "turn" or "loop" regions. The most sterically hindered amino acid, FTP, name this compound, unique in that its R group forms a 5-membered ring with its amino group, and whose one-letter abbreviation is "P".
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This anatomical body produces the chemical DMT, a psychedelic drug that has been linked to certain types of dreams. Also known as the epiphysis, it is known to have a completely different function in ancient amphibians, where it acted as a light receptor in an orifice in the top of the skull, leading to it occasionally being known as the "third eye." In humans it regulates the circadian rhythm via the secretion of its chief product. FTP, name this small endocrine gland that produces melatonin.
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This anatomical structure is involved in the Jod-Basedow and Wolff-Chaikoff effects. The gene Pax8 is required for the formation of its follicular cells, and antibodies are produced against its namesake peroxidase enzyme in an autoimmune disease named for Hashimoto. The iodination of tyrosine is involved in creating its namesake hormones, deficiencies of which in newborns can lead to cretinism. Found on the ventral surface of the trachea, this bi-lobed structure produces calcitonin. For 10 points, name this gland, an enlarged version of which is associated with Graves' disease, and is known as a goiter.
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This biphasic substance damages neurons of the superior frontal cortex, Purkinje cells of the cerebellum, and pyramidal cells of the hippocampus. Abstinence from it causes an increase in cortical gray matter and a decrease in ventricular volume while its breakdown products, aldehydes, diminish. Chronic use causes thiamine deficiency and Korsakoff's syndrome. Raising the number of GABA-A receptors, it opens chloride channels and causes postsynaptic inhibition. FTP, name this substance not to be used when driving.
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This body part is divided into three parallel canals by the basilar membrane and Reissner's membrane. Those three canals, the scala vestibule, scala media, and scala tympani, contain endolymph and perilymph fluid which transmits vibrations from the oval window to the organ of Corti, whose sensory hairs produce impulses in the brain. FTP, what is this coiled, shell-like part of the inner ear responsible for transforming sound waves into nerve impulses?
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This body part regulates fluid intake and feelings of thirst, contains a center that determines wakefulness and sleep, regulates body heat in response to variations in external temperature, and influences caloric intake and weight regulation by establishing a stable "set point" for individual weight gain. It is connected by both nervous and chemical pathways to the pituitary, and triggers the pituitary's release of growth hormone, oxytocin, and vasopressin. FTP, what is this region of the brain making up the floor of the third cerebral ventricle, named for its location below the thalamus?
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This condition can be created artificially by treatment with colchicine, a drug that prevents the formation of a spindle. Examples of its use in botany include the Russian geneticist Karpechenko's 1928 creation of a cabbage-radish hybrid and Digby's 1912 production of the hybrid Kew primrose. The latter resulted from Hugo de Vries's identification of a mutant form of the evening primrose, reproductively isolated from the parent species by its extra chromosomes. FTP, in this common condition of plant species a cell possesses more than two times the haploid number of chromosomes.
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This body's postlateral fissure provides a convenient means of dividing it into three lobes, the anterior, posterior, and flocculonodular. Containing several masses of grey matter, the largest of which is known as the dentate nucleus, it is located above the fourth ventricle. Covered by regular, nearly parallel grooves called folia, it is connected to the rest of the brain by three fiber bundles called peduncles. Divided in two by a wormlike structure called the vermis, it is the motor feedback center for the body responsible for the coordination of muscular activity. FTP, what is this area in the back of the brain whose name appropriately means "little brain"?
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This broad group, which is now considered paraphyletic, does contain what modern taxonomists regard as a monophyletic subgroup known as the tricolpates, a name that describes the distinctive three apertures that characterizes the group's pollen grains. Distinctive families within this group include the Ranunculaceae, Brassicaceae, and Asteraceae. Known formally as the class Magnoliopsida, organisms in this class tend to develop their roots from the radicle, possess flower parts in multiples of four or five, and maintain reticulate or netlike leaf venation. FTP name this class of plants, home to more than 190,000 species of angiosperms and named for its having two embryonic leaves.
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This class of molecules shares its name with a protein that associates with BiP and calnexin in the endoplasmic reticulum after being produced in the secretory pathway of the vesicular stomatitis virus. One protein in this class induces membrane ruffles upon injection into fibroblasts, and another mimics the effects of the chemokine LPA. In another one, replacement of the glycine at position 12 keeps it in the active state, leading to uncontrolled cell growth. Effectors associated with this class include adenylyl cyclase and phospholipase C, and the trimeric form breaks into a beta-gamma dimer and an alpha subunit, which activates a second messenger to begin a signal transduction cascade. For 10 points, name this class of proteins, monomeric forms of which include Rac and Ras, which, when active, hydrolyze guanosine triphosphate.
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This compound acts as a neurotransmitter by inhibiting the transmission of nerve impulses in the substantia nigra, basal ganglia, and corpus striatum. A catecholamine, it is formed as an intermediate compound from dihydroxyphenylalanine during the metabolism of tyrosine, and is the precursor of epinephrine and norepinephrine. FTP, what is this nitrogen-containing organic compound whose deficiency leads to Parkinson's disease?
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This compound consists of A and B chains linked together by three disulfide bonds, which are conserved through most species, particularly the C-terminal residues of the B chain. Existing naturally as a monomer or dimer, lispro is a commercial hexamer of this enzyme that facilitates slow diffusion in the blood. It works by binding to specific tyrosine kinase receptors in target cells, causing glucose transporters to fuse with plasma membranes. Secreted by the islets of Langerhans, FTP, identify this enzyme important in regulating the body's sugar levels.
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This compound is converted to ascorbic acid in the Reichstein process. It is the input molecule in a process that includes the regulatory enzymes hexo-kinase and phospho-fructo-kinase. Its sixteen structures were studied by Emil Fischer. It is converted into two pyruvate molecules in glycolysis. The right-handed form of this molecule is dextrose. Carbon dioxide and water combine with light energy to produce this molecule in photosynthesis. For 10 points, name this molecule with formula C6H12O6, a simple sugar.
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This compound is synthesized in the liver by the reaction of CO2 and ammonia with a methylene tentrahydrofolate derivative, and in porphyrin synthesis this compound reacts with succinyl-CoA to form aminolevulinic acid. A disruption in its receptors causes hyperekplexia, and its function is also inhibited by strychnine. Transamination of glyoxylate results in this compound, and in the spinal cord, it opposes glutamate as an inhibitory neurotransmitter. Thirty-five percent of the collagen helix contains this amino acid, although the entropy cost of including it in many structures is quite high. FTP, name this only achiral amino acid with side chain H.
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This compound is used in the manufacture of levothyroxine, a thyroid deficiency drug. Its two subunits are joined by an acetal oxygen bridge in the beta orientation and it is dextro-rotatory. On a scale of relative sweetness, where sucrose is 100, it ranks below maltose and galactose at 15. When undigested, it ferments in the colon and causes abdominal pain, bloating, gas, and diarrhea. Consisting of glucose and galactose this is, FTP, what disaccharide that comprises 4-6% of cow's milk.
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This compound promotes the dephosphorylation and activation of enzyme HMG-CoA to favor cholesterol synthesis and a phenylalanine for leucine substitution at residue B25 results in its "Chicago" variety. Its biosynthesis involves an excision of the C-peptide, and the compound functions by binding to tyrosine kinase receptors on cell surfaces. Sanger's improvement upon the methods of Edman degradation involved its sequencing, and its production occurs primarily in beta cells on the islets of langerhans. For ten points, name this pancreatic counterpart of glucagon used to regulate blood sugar, deficiencies of which are found in sufferers of diabetes.
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This compound's direct form is prefixed with the term "azo," and very high levels of it can induce Dubin-Johnson or Crigler-Najjar syndromes. It is acted upon by its namesake oxyreductase and, like phytochrome, consists of a tetrapyrrole, though it does not form a porphyrin ring like heme. It is made soluble in water when conjugated with glucuronic acid, which can then be metabolized to stercobilinogen by bacteria in the colon. It is formed in the body when erythrocytes undergo heme catabolism, and its light sensitivity results in a water-soluble isomer that mitigates jaundice in newborns. FTP, identify this compound that gives a yellow-brown color to bile.
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This concept was verified by Herman Branson, though later work by Ramachandran, who showed the need for nonpolar bonds in cyclic peptides, and Pople, who showed that gas phase peptide bonds can rotate as much as forty degrees, demonstrated this idea's weakness. It is comprised of three rules that state that peptide bonds are planar, that all amino acid residues are equivalent with respect to backbone conformations, and that each nitrogen-oxygen bond is at a fixed distance. FTP, identify this concept named after its two discoverers that governs the secondary structure of proteins.
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This condition can be divided into "android" and "gynoid" types. It can be induced by a mutation in the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma-2 or the melanocortin-4 receptor, or by a lesion in the ventromedial hypothalamus. This condition can be diagnosed with an abnormally high value on the Siri or Brozek indices, which correlate well with Quetelet's Index. This condition was observed in mice deficient in leptin, though treatment with leptin was not found to reverse the severity of this condition, which is also commonly observed in sufferers of Cushing's Syndrome. This condition leads to increased risk for Type II diabetes and cardiovascular disease. For 10 points, name this condition in which a person is massively overweight.
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This disease causes fibroblasts containing IGF-1 receptors to express IL-16 and RANTES in the presence of Immunoglobulin G, and roughly three percent of sufferers also exhibit the related Marine-Lenhart syndrome. CTAL-4 and HLA are two genes known to be associated with this disease, and it is associated with an increase in estrogen receptor expression, possibly explaining why it occurs in seven times as many females as males. Patients exhibit the "Merseburg triad," named after the town in which Carl von Basedow first described it, and in some parts of Europe this disease is known by his name. That triad includes heart palpitations, exophthalmos, or protruding eyes, and goiter. For 10 points, name this disease named after an Irish doctor, an autoimmune form of hyperthyroidism.
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This disease comes in two distinct types, a milder strain induced by bacteria of the genus Shigella and a more dangerous form transmitted by the amoeba Entamoeba histolytica. The disease, in one form or another, has been responsible for the untimely ends of such historical notables as the late Roman Emperor Majorian, Henry V of England, and Thomas Jefferson. Both strains can be transmitted from person to person, or contracted by ingestion of contaminated food or water. Its many strains share some common symptoms, including an inflamed and ulcerated large intestine that leads to its trademark bloody stools. FTP, identify this abdominal disorder which causes electrolytic imbalance and severe dehydration.
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This disease comes in two varieties known as urban and jungle that are differentiated by the means of transmission. The urban version's only vector of transmission is the Aedes aegypti mosquito, as discovered by Walter Reed, knowledge that has prevented an outbreak in the United States since 1905. After an incubation period of several days, those infected suffer headache, fever, and vomiting, which is soon followed either by recovery or worsening fever, vomiting of dark, altered blood, and even death. FTP, what is this fever whose associated jaundice provides the skin coloration that gives it its name?
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This disorder usually occurs due to abnormally low activity of the enzyme hexosaminidase A, allowing the sphingolipid ganglioside to accumulate in the brain. The affected patient loses motor abilities, develops a red spot on the retina, and eventually suffers paralysis before death. FTP, name this autosomal recessive disorder also called Amaurotic Familial Idiocy, most frequently found among people of eastern European Jewish origin.
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This drug has antiinflammatory properties useful in treating leprosy and rheumatoid arthritis, and is useful in treating AIDS due to its ability to inhibit the function of the Tumor Necrosis Factor protein, and may even inhibit replication of HIV. Developed in the 1950s in West Germany, it was not approved for use in the US until 1998. It is now known to exist as two enantiomers, one of which is believed responsible for its sedative effects, the other for its notorious side effects. FTP identify this drug, taken off the market in 1962 because it caused thousands of birth defects.
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This event sees the non proteolytic dissociation of a majority of cohesins from chromosomes by Polo-like kinase in Xenopus. Plant cells sometimes also need a phragmosome to split large vacuoles during it, and this stage sees the use of Gamma Tubulin to drive the centrosomes apart. The nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear during this stage, which also sees the connection of two sister chromatids at a centromere. The chromatin material condenses into chromosomes in, for 10 points, which first stage of mitosis, which is followed by metaphase?
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This group of substances was first isolated after identification of a compound that produced the opposite phenotype, fusaric acid. Their actions are inhibited by flurprimidol and ancymidol. Various oxoglutarate dioxygenases catalyze the interconversion of different members of this group of compounds. These compounds act by enhancing SCF ubiquitin ligase-dependent degradation of DELLA proteins, and their biosynthesis involves the formation of ent-kaurene, which is exported from the proplastid. They stimulate the production of alpha-amylase, promote flowering, and stimulate cell division. FTP, name this class of plant hormones first isolated from a fungus that causes foolish seedling disease, and which cause stem elongation.
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This hormone is composed of nine amino acids with a proline-arginine-glycine tail branching from a ring structure. It is secreted with a carrier protein called neurophysin from the posterior pituitary and serves its primary function by inserting aquaporins into the membranes of the distal tubules of the nephron. The cause of diabetes insipidus, this hormone's alternate name refers to its ability to constrict arterioles. With a primary function of conserving the body's water by reducing the output of urine, FTP, identify this hormone alternately known as vasopressin.
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This membrane surrounds and supports the large venous channels or "sinuses" named for it and is prolonged into seven septa, including the falx cerebri, the falx cerebelli, and the tentorium cerebelli. It functions as the periosteum of the skull's inner surface and is fused with the arachnoind meninx at the so-called arachnoid villi or granulations, which are involved with the movement of cerebrospinal fluid. FTP identify this membrane also known as the pachymeninx, whose thickness led to its Arabic name, al-jaalfiya, which, like the Latinate name by which it is better known, means "hard mother".
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This messenger's system is antagonistic to that of dopamine, so malfunction of it is linked with epilepsy, while destruction of this chemical's producers in the striatum results in Huntington's disease. In insects, this neurotransmitter mediates muscle activation nerve-muscle synapses, while its brain levels in humans are controlled by glutamate decarboxylase. In all cases, it works by causing hyperpolarization of postsynaptic membranes by opening chloride channels. Ionotropic and metabotropic are among the three general classes of receptors for it known. FTP, name this ubiquitous and almost always inhibitory neurotransmitter this is popularly sold as a neuotrophic supplement.
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This molecule exerts its effects by binding to its eponymous transmembrane protein receptor, which inactivates CTR1 to initiate a signal cascade, resulting in EIN3 turning on relevant gene expression. Silver salts inhibit its actions by binding its receptor, and it is responsible for the formation of the apical hook of many eudicot seedlings. Sometimes called the "senescence hormone," it promotes stem swelling but inhibits stem elongation, but is best known for its promotion of leaf abscission and fruit ripening. FTP, name this plant hormone, a simple gaseous molecule with formula C2H4.
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This molecule is found in high concentrations in the basal nucleus of Meynert. One class of receptors for it is antagonized by the likes of mamba toxin and gallamine and contains five different members based on the alpha subunit of their associated G proteins. Another class of receptors for it is ionotropic and is targeted by auto-immune antibodies in myasthenia gravis. Its muscarinic receptors bind it at the end of parasympathetic nerves, while the nictonic receptors for this molecule, whose release is blocked by botulinum toxin, are found on muscle cells. For 10 points, name this neurotransmitter depleted in Alzheimer's disease, which is cleaved by its namesake -esterases.
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This molecule's biosynthesis requires the removal of the c-peptide. Its namesake “growth factors†are located in the p13 and p15 subsections of chromosome 11. In the body, the concentration of this hormone oscillates with a period of three to six minutes before returning to base levels. Glucagon counteracts the effects of this hormone, the lack of which causes hyperglycemia. It is produced by the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. For 10 points, name this mammalian hormone that regulates the levels of glucose in the body, which some diabetics must inject.
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This muscle shares its name with structures known as the pelvic and urogenital types that perform their functions using similar actions. It features holes that allow for the passage of the vena cava, aorta, and esophagus. It aids in the digestive process by stimulating the stomach and liver, and performs its most famous job by contracting its dome-shaped structure. FTP, what is this muscle separating the chest and abdomen whose contractions are essential for breathing?
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This organ can be inflicted with Ivemark syndrome, which is characterized by the presence of Howell-Jolly bodies, and it is also subject to storage diseases such as Niemann-Pick and Gaucher. Embryologically it derives from islands of mesenchymal tissue in the left side of the dorsal mesogastrium that coalesce. Its inner surface is indented by a linear hilum and is characterized by a maze of spongelike spaces called sinusoids. Also of note are the germinal centers that produce lymphocytes and the white and red pulp. Known as the site of red blood cell destruction, FTP, name this purplish organ that sits to the left of the stomach and below the diaphragm.
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This physiologist first showed that an egg is a single cell that eventually develops into a complex organism, and he also coined the term "metabolism." In 1836, he discovered pepsin, the first enzyme to be isolated from animal tissue, and, before the work of Pasteur, he showed the role of yeast cells in producing fermentation. His most important work culminated in the 1839 Microscopical Researches on the Similarity in the Structure and Growth of Animals and Plants, where he concluded that all organisms consist entirely of cells and that the life of each cell is subordinated to that of the organism. FTP, identify this scientist who also discovered the eponymous satellite cells that envelop many peripheral nerve axons.
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This process can be observed in the population of elephant seals, in which it is caused by selection pressure in the form of overhunting. One instance of it explains the high instance of Huntington's disease in the Dutch Afrikaners and occurs when a small group forms an isolated population of lesser diversity; a phenomenon known as the founder effect. FTP, name this mechanism of evolution that describes changes in the frequencies of alleles in a population that occur by chance, rather than via natural selection.
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This process is enhanced by proteins such as AP-1 and NFkappaB The sigma factor is required for it to be efficient in prokaryotes, and it can be inhibited by alpha-amanitin, and in eukaryotes it is followed by a processing step that includes cap synthesis and splicing. In eukaryotes that step removes introns and links the remaining exons together in the resultant molecule. FTP, identify this biological process by which messenger RNA is generated.
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This process is terminated by dephosphorylations following inactivation of the kinase MPF through proteolysis of its cyclin subunits. It can be suspended by treatment with colchicine or taxol, which interfere with the polymerization and depolymerization of the tubulin subunits that treadmill continuously from the equator to the poles of the spindle. Size checkpoints for entry occur at G1 and G2 of interphase. Preceded by chromosome condensation, FTP, name this nuclear division process which begins with prophase.
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This process requires Polo-like kinases and the formation of a complex including the proteins Incenp, survivin, and Aurora B. In Arabidopsis, this process requires the syntaxin-related protein KNOLLE. During this process, E-C-T-two in conjunction with RhoA activates non-muscle myosin II and targets anillin, cofilin, and other actin-binding proteins, which have been localized to an area partially determined by astral microtubules. This process occurs via phragmoplast formation and Golgi body vesicle fusion in plants, creating the cell plate. In animal cells, it involves the formation of a contractile ring. In both cases, it requires the formation of a cleavage furrow. For 10 points, name this process of dividing a cell's cytoplasm to form two daughter cells.
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This process solves one of the problems which plants face on land: rubisco can bind oxygen as efficiently as carbon dioxide. In order to gain a higher concentration of CO2, plants assimilate CO2 at night when their stomata are open and use PEP carboxylase to fix CO2 into OAA, which is reduced to malate. For ten points, name this photosynthetic process that separates rubisco from O2 over time and which uses its namesake acid to do so, a process often confused with C4 photosynthesis.
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This process's distinguishing fluctuation is governed in part by the permeability of inositol 1,4,5 P-gated tonoplastic calcium channels, which control the phosphorylation of PEPC through PEPC Kinase, and thus, sensitivity to allosteric inhibiters like isocitrate. Isocitrate, along with the more common malate, must be stored in this process, explaining the large vacuoles of the cells that employ it prior to decarboxylation to OAA. Its low transpiration rate is achieved through nocturnal activation of stomata. FTP, name this water-efficient biological process common in cacti, named for the acid to which CO2 is appended in storage.
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This process, which can be set in motion by a variety of external and internal stimuli, was not recognized until 1972 when researchers Kerr, Wyllie, and Currie differentiated it from its counterpart. The difference lies in the activation of a suicide pathway which encodes for proteins to destroy the cell's genetic material. With a name from the Greek for "falling off," FTP, what process, also called programmed cell death, is an analogue to necrosis?
name this protein, abnormal forms of which are implicated in about half of all human cancers.
This protein is highly multifunctional and consists of a transactivation domain, a proline rich domain, a DNA binding domain, and a C-terminal regulatory region. Somatic mutations in this protein can be accompanied by the loss of the short arm of chromosome 17, while a large fraction of sufferers of Li-Fraumeni (lee-froh-may-nee) syndrome have a germline mutation in the gene coding for this protein. It stimulates production of another protein that complexes with cdk2 to halt cell division. The wild-type allele is a tumor suppressor, while some mutant varieties are oncogenes. For 10 points
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This protein is the first in a pathway that activates the Gli class of zinc finger transcription factors. It is autocatalytically cleaved by a C-terminal intene, and has palmitate added to its N-terminus so it can tether strongly to the floor plate, explaining Wolpert's French flag model for its mechanism of action. Acting with bone morphogenetic proteins rostrally, it differentiates floor plate cells and motor cells. Its mutation results in holoprosencephaly and it affects dopaminergic development. Released by the Spemann Organizer and the notochord and binding to the Patched receptor, FTP, name this morphogen protein acting ventral to the neural tube named for a video game character.
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This protein is the target of glycosides such as digitalis that improve heart performance, as inhibiting this protein increases the concentration of calcium ions, causing stronger muscle contractions. Essential for maintaining osmotic balance and therefore cellular volume, in the gut, ionic gradients maintained by this protein are used for import of glucose. Consisting of two subunits, it is important in neurons for the creation of action potentials and for maintaining the resting state. Requiring the hydrolysis of ATP for function, FTP, name this enzyme located in the cell membrane that moves two cations into the cell for every three cations that are exported.
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This protein's namesake prosthetic group is synthesized in a pathway that includes 5-aminolevulinic acid as an intermediate. 2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate alters its binding ability, but has less interaction with a version of this protein using zeta and epsilon chains. That form is found in the embryo, and separate versions of this protein are expressed in the fetus and in adults. When the glutamic acid at position six of this protein is changed to a valine, a disorder that results in increased malarial resistance occurs. This protein is a tetramer, and defects in this protein yield thalassemia and sickle cell anemia. For 10 points, name this protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen.
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This protein's substrate can also be processed by cytochrome P450 2E1. Lactobacillus kefir's use as a biocatalyst is due to the broad substrate specificity of this enzyme, other catalytically useful examples of which come from Thermonanaerobium brockii and horse liver. Potent inhibitors of this enzyme include CNAD and pyrazole. Types of this enzyme include cinnamyl ones in plants and dimeric ones in mammals, which can include EE, ES, and SS varieties depending on whether they include steroid-active monomers. In its active site, Cys-146, Cys-174, His-67, and Ser-48 coordinate a zinc atom. Its sigma-sigma form is found in the stomach. A hepatic form of this oxidoreductase can lead to blindness by catalyzing the oxidation of methanol to formaldehyde. For ten points, name this enzyme which in yeast can generating NAD+ and its namesake product during fermentation.
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This raw material is springy and can be molded into a variety of shapes using heat, and commercial uses include knife handles and brushes although the most common use of it was in the production of corsets. In its unprocessed form, it consists of two triangular-shaped, hairy, horny plates containing parallel slats, which together form a sieve. Found in rorquals and other members of the sub-order Mysticeti, its previous common use was for corsets. FTP, name this specialized structure used to strain plankton and small crustaceans by toothless whales.
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This scientist contributed to studies explaining the absorption properties of coals while a member of the British Coal Utilization Research Association, and after working with Jacques Mering, researched the structural changes caused by the formation of graphite in heated carbons. Before dying at age 37, this scientist collaborated on studies showing that the RNA in the tobacco mosaic virus is embedded in its protein and that RNA is a single strand helix, but she is best known for establishing the helical conformation and density of DNA. FTP, name this scientist who applied X-ray diffraction methods to the study of DNA.
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This scientist discovered parthenogenesis in aphids, as well as protozoa, which he called animalicules. Apprenticed to a cloth maker in his native Delft, where he was friends with Jan Vermeer, in 1660 he obtained the sinecure of chamberlain to the sheriffs of Delft, after which he undertook work which led him to see bacteria, sperm, and red blood cells, achievements not repeated for more than a century. FTP, who was this Dutch pioneer in microscopic research?
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This scientist's works include the 1889 Intracellular Pangenesis, and he first described and interpreted cell plasmolysis. In 1885, he showed the plasmalemma bounding the vacuole in plant cells is semi-permeable, and a year later, noticed that the wild varieties of the evening primrose differed markedly from cultivated species. Identify this man that helped rediscover Mendel's principles of heredity, FTP, a Dutch botanist who used the primrose to discover the phenomenon of mutation.
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This square planar compound preferentially reacts with nitrogen seven of two adjacent guanine nucleotides on the same DNA strand, leading to the inhibition of DNA repair and cell death. Its therapeutic effect was first serendipitously discovered in the early 1960s, when scientists found that the electrodes they were using caused E. coli cells to elongate without dividing. FTP, identify this anticancer agent, whose two chloride ligands are replaced by water molecules in its active form and also contains a central platinum ion.
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This structure is found in old world porcupines; rabbits; and, notably, humans but not monkeys, and its most common tumor is carcinoid. Containing large aggregations of lymphoid tissue in its walls, this organ's blood supply derives from its meso-mesenstery. The major disease that affects this can be diagnosed by palpating McBurney's point and is often caused by obstruction by a fecalith, leading to bacterial proliferation, congestion, and, eventually, performation or abscess. A diverticuli connected to the blind end of the cecum, FTP, name this vestigial structure of the intestinal tract.
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This structure's unmyelinated fibers surround the fourth ventricle and it is odd in that its white matter lies on its outside, while its gray matter lies on its inside. Difficulties with swallowing and gag reflex can indicate damage to the lateral portion of this process, from which seven of the cranial nerves emerge. Connected by the pons to the midbrain, this constituent of the brainstem merges with the spinal cord at the foramen magnum. FTP, identify this lowest part of the brain, a controller of autonomic nervous functions that lies anterior to and coordinates movement with the cerebellum.
name the substance essential for bacterial viability that is the major bacterial instigator of sepsis and fever.
This substance is one of the causes of the Schwartzman reaction and, following its massive release into the blood stream, it activates B cells and induces macrophages to release interleukin-1, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor. Consisting of the core, O antigen, and Lipid A, this amphipathic molecule is found on the outer leaflet of the membranes of gram negative bacteria. For 10 points
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This substance was found to be Griffith's “transformation agent†in rats by MacLeod, McCarty, and Avery. Hershey and Chase carried out an experiment employing bacteriophages that determined that this molecule contained phosphorus. Chargaff's rules govern the proportions of this molecule's bases. The Meselson-Stahl experiment proved the semiconservative nature of its replication, a process that forms Okazaki fragments. For 10 points, name this molecule made up of thymine, adenine, cytosine, and guanine, which carries the genetic code of all organisms.
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This sweet-tasting compound was first isolated by Drechsel in 1889, and it had its structure determined in 1902. It produces cadaverine when decarboxylated which helps produce the smell of a decayed organism, and also the metabolite carnitine. It is the limiting amino acid in all cereal grains and it helps in fighting herpes by competing with arginine necessary for viral replication. Along with leucine, this amino acid is ketogenic and is unable to contribute to glucose production. An amino acid on which protein acetylation occurs, FTP, identify this essential amino acid coded by two adenines followed by a purine, with an R group of a positively charged butyl amine, symbolized by the letter K.
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This technique was partially introduced to replace the use of PAM matrices and the FASTP program, and Progeniq has developed an FPGA version of this algorithm. The position-specific iterative version creates a list of strings closely related to the input, constructs a profile based on the list, searches the database, and repeats. The default value for the seed length in the first step of this algorithm is 11, and in the third stage uses the Smith-Waterman Algorithm to compute the MSP score. Inputs are commonly given in the FASTA format, and this algorithm is commonly used in evolutionary studies to construct phylogenetic trees. Also used to find relatives of genes and developed by Meyers and Altschul, for 10 points, name this bioinformatics algorithm used to compare protein or nucleotide sequences.
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This term is still used to describe the contents of the tubelike structures, or hyphae, of which fungi are composed. In cellular biology, it has generally been replaced by the term cytoplasm, though that term does not include the cell nucleus. FTP, identify this term once used to describe the ground substance-the living material-of cells, which included include the complex colloidal organization of substances making up a cell's nucleus, cytoplasm, plastids, and mitochondria.
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When produced by the submaxillary glands and Brunner's glands, one class of these entities acts on mesenchymal, glial, and epithelial cells, while a related alpha variant produced by carcinomas can induce a transform phenotype in non-neoplastic cells. Varieties such as track A and track B have been identified as proto-oncogenes and act on nerve cells. Another type derived from platelets is composed of two different protein chains that form AA, AB, and BB dimers. Mutations in the receptor for the fibroblast variety result in achondroplasia, a bone development disorder. For 10 points, erythropoietin and the insulin-like somatomedin C belong to what class of proteins that bind to cell surface receptors and trigger cellular proliferation and differentiation?
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When the word "genomic" is placed in front of this term, the phrase denotes an epigenetic modification where activation of a gene depends on the parent from which it was received. Johnson and Bolhuis identified two mechanisms for two independent neural systems that may control its filial variety, and it serves as an explanation of monogamy in some animals. The critical time period for it in humans is around eight months of age, and it was co-discovered by Oscar Heinroth and first observed in the greylag goose. FTP, name this phenomenon where a young animal establishes a behavior pattern of attraction to another animal as a substitute parent, first investigated by Konrad Lorenz.
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Wild plants on islands off the Pacific coast of Canada demonstrate this phenomenon because the range of seed size is much smaller than the range of the same wild plants on the Canadian mainland. It has also been observed in the Finnish people as they exhibit considerably less genetic variation than other Europeans, supporting the hypothesis that Finns are descended from a small group of people who settled in Finland 4000 years ago. FTP, name the genetic drift that results when a small number of individuals from a large population colonize a new area.