Biology
It appears that extreme ___________ can alter leptin levels, leading to increased difficulty with maintaining weight loss.
Dieting
Absorption of digested food
Digested nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream Villa and microvilla increase the surface area of the small intestine for nutrient absorption
Aerobic respiration
cellular respiration that uses oxygen as the electron acceptor occurs mostly in the mitochondria requires oxygen Glucose (C6H12o6) + 6O2 ----> 6H20 + 6CO2
Substrate
chemical being metabolized
renal
comes from the Greek word for kidney
Pharynx
connects the oral cavity to the esophagus. The epiglottis is a flap of tissue in the pharynx that blocks the opening of the windpipe so that swallowed food cannot enter the lungs
Bowman's capsule
cup-shaped structure in the upper end of a nephron that encases the glomerulus
Phosphorylation
energizes the molecule that receives the phosphate. Phosphate group is transferred from ATP to another molecule Energy is transferred ADP is produced
Active site
enzyme region where substrate binds
Kidneys
filter and cleanse circulating blood Paired organs located behind the liver and stomach contain 1,250,000 nephrons (looped tubules) Supplied with blood by renal arteries Filter 1000 liters of blood every 24 hours
Nephrons
functional unit of the kidneys Combined length of 145 km (85 miles) in adult
Enzymes are proteins that are coded for by ____________.Mito
genes
Mechanical digestion
grinds down food to increase surface area begins in the mouth (oral cavity) teeth chew and grind food into smaller pieces tongue forms a bolus (ball of food) and pushes it to the back of the mouth Bolus moves to pharynx and esophagus
Pancreatitis
inflammation of the pancreas that occurs when pancreatic enzymes that digest food are activated in the pancreas instead of the duodenum and attack pancreatic tissue, causing damage to the gland
Which of the following lists digestive processes in the correct order?
ingestion, peristalsis, absorption
Breathing
inhalation of oxygen into lungs to be delivered to cells; exhalation of carbon dioxide
Metabolic rate
is a measure of his or he energy use Depends on speed and efficiency of different enzymes Changes according to activity levels
Alimentary canal
the digestive tract allows food to be exposed to actions and secretions of organs and glands
Excretion
the process by which wastes are removed from the body
Where does the urine go after it makes it to the collecting duct?
to the bladder
Esophagus
tube that connects the mouth to the stomach conducts food from the pharynx to the stomach
Body Mass Index (BMI)
uses height and weight to estimate weight-relat34.ed risk of illness and death
Secretion
wastes that are low concentration in the blood are actively secreted into the far end of the nephron. Waste then flows into the collecting duct
Peristalsis
smooth muscle contractions push food through esophagus to stomach
Gall Bladder
stores bile and empties into the small instestine removes water
binge drinking
the consumption of more than four drinks in a 2-hour time period the liver on average can only metabolize one drink per hour.
The villi that help absorb nutrients line the ________.
small intestine
Bulimia
binge eating followed by purging
Filtration
blood pressure forces plasma into the nephron through tiny holes in the adjacent capillaries
The pharynx _____________.
branches to feed into the trachea and esophagus.
Digestive System
break down food to be used for energy by the body
Health consequences of Anorexia
- Damaged heart muscles - Lack of estrogen production (due to low body fat) - Amenorrhea (cessation of menstruation) (no more menstruation) - Osteoporosis - lower bone density
Body weight and health risks
- Underweight: at risk of anorexia - Overweight: associated with less mortality than normal weight - Obesity: health consequences usually begin - Increased risk of heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes - Obesity prevention is better than yo-yo dieting - Healthy choices for food and exercise
What is the maximum number of drinks a 120 lb woman could consume over a 2-hour period to avoid becoming legally intoxicated? How many drinks can you have in a 4-hour period to avoid becoming legally intoxicated?
.08; .08
Fermentation
A process that makes a small amount of ATP from glucose without using an electron transport chain. Ethyl alcohol and lactic acid are produced by this process. Microbes transform milk sugars into lactic acid Yogurt Sour cream Cheese Yeast cells convert glucose to ethyl alcohol and CO2
Collecting duct
A structure in the kidney that accepts filtrate from multiple nephrons and transmit it to the renal pelvis. Each kidney contains hundreds of collecting ducts. The amount of water retained by the kidneys is largely controlled at the collecting duct.
How many ATP are made in the Citric Acid Cycle/Kreb?
2 ATP
How many ATP are made in the glycolysis part of cellular respiration?
2 ATP
How many ATP are made in the electron transport part of cellular respiration?
26 - 34 ATPs
The third molars are the last molars to emerge. Located at the back of the mouth, they typically appear in young adults. If a person has all of these "wisdom teeth" removed, how many adult teeth would they have?
28; third molars are found on both sides of the upper and lower jaws.
When one molecule of glucose goes through the entire aerobic cellular respiration process, how many TOTAL ATPs are produced?
30 -38 ATPs
Stage 1: Glycolysis
6-carbon glucose molecule is broken down into two 3-carbon pyruvic acid molecules Occurs in the cytosol Doesn't require oxygen Produces 2 ATP
Stored energy
A dart gun uses energy stored in the coiled spring and supplied by the arm muscle to perform the work of propelling a dart.
Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP)
A nucleotide composed of adenine, a sugar, and two phosphate groups. Produced by the hydrolysis of the terminal phosphate bond of ATP.
Anaerobic Respiration
A process of energy generation that uses molecules other than oxygen as electron acceptors During intense exercise: Muscles run low on oxygen ATP comes from glycolysis only NAD+ levels decrease Muscle cells use fermentation to regenerate NAD+
Cellular respiration produces energy cells can use, in the form of ____________.
ATP
The molecule referred to a "molecule A" in the equation below is ________. c6H1206 + 6O2 ---> 6CO2 + 6H2O + Molecule A
ATP
In the ETC, mitochondria use _________ ___________ _________________ to make ATP.
ATP Synthase Molecule
Describe the structure of ATP.
ATP is a nucleotide triphosphate. The nucleotide found in ATP contains a sugar and the nitrogenous base adenine. Cells use ATP to power energy-requiring processes. Breaking the terminal phosphate bond of ATP releases energy.
Regenerating ATP
ATP is regenerated from ADP and phosphate during the process of cellular respiration.
ATP and Cellular work
ATP powers mechanical work, such as the moving of the whiplike flagella of this single-celled green algae, transport work, such as the active transport of a substance across a membrane from its own low to high concentration; and chemical work, such as enzymatic conversion of substrates to a product. Movement of cells Active transport of substances across membranes Making complex moelcules
Enzyme-catalyzed reactions are prevented from occurring at a rapid rate at all times by the presence of a(n) ______________ energy barrier.
Activation
___________ __________ is the energy required to start a metabolic reaction.
Activation Energy
Cellular respiration requires oxygen, making it a(n) ___________ process.
Aerobic
__________ cellular respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen.
Aerobic
How does aerobic exercise like running allow the heart to pump more oxygen-containing blood per beat? How does aerobic conditioning help prevent the buildup of lactic acid during exercise?
Aerobic exercise causes faster breathing, which brings more oxygen to the blood. Aerobic conditioning helps prevent lactic acid build up because more oxygen is available for the conversion of lactic acid to pyruvic acid.
The destructive path of alcohol
Alcohol crosses cell membranes readily, leaving the stomach and small intestine and entering the liver and bloodstream before it can be metabolized. When a person drinks more rapidly than the liver can process the alcohol, typically one drink per hour, the excess alcohol is circulated throughout the entire body.
Effects of alcohol on the urinary system
Alcohol is a diuretic Promotes the formation of urine and increases the volume of urine released from the bladder Alcohol is a depressant slows down brain function; alters perceptions, reflexes, and balance Energy drinks mask intoxicating effects of alcohol Alcohol acts on pituitary to lessen antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secretion Kidneys reabsorb less water and produce more urine
Effects of alcohol on the digestive system
Alcohol relaxes the muscles for peristalsis. food spends more time in the digestive tract more enzyme exposure leads to diarrhea Food in the stomach slows the rate of alcohol absorption in the small intestine Liver metabolizes toxins including alcohol heavy drinking can cause scar tissue. (cirrhosis) Prevents proper blood flow through the liver
Metabolism
All of the chemical reactions occurring in the body
Which strategy is a safer way to engage with alcohol?
Alternating drinking water with drinking alcohol.
Gastrin release is inhibited by high concentrations of stomach acid (HCL). How might this negative feedback loop protect the stomach?
An increase in HCL would cause gastrin release to slow, resulting in a decrease in the secretion of other digestive enzymes. This prevents the pH of the stomach from getting so low that the stomach lining is damaged.
_____________ cellular respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen.
Anarobic
Self-starvation, or ___________, can lead to permanent sterility.
Anorexia
Fermentation is an example of _______________ cellular respiration.
Anorobic
An untreated bladder infection van cause kidney damage. What path would the bacteria take to move from the bladder to the kidney?
Bacteria can move from bladder through the ureters to kidney.
What does the pancreas secrete to neutralize HCL from the stomach?
Bicarbonate
Enzymes speed up chemical reactions by ____________.
Binding to substrates and placing stress on their bonds
During excretion, urine leaves the kidneys and flows to the ____________.
Bladder
Is the relationship between body weight and calories burned during exercise a negative or positive correlation?
Body weight and calories burned during exercise are positively correlated -- the more you weigh, the more calories you burn during exercise.
Lactic Acid
Builds up due to fermentation in muscle cells Is transported back to the liver for conversion to pyruvic acid Oxygen debt needs to be restored for conversion
Binge eating followed by purging is called ___________.
Bulimia
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
The energy use of a resting, wakeful person Average BMR is 70 calories/hour of 1680 calories/day
Oxygen enters cellular respiration and the gas _______________ _______________ is produced.
Carbon Dioxide
Enzymes are proteins that _________, or speed up, chemical reactions.
Catalyze
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Consists of adenine, a ribose sugar, and 3 phosphate groups Energy stored in chemical bonds of ATP Form of energy that cells can use.
________________ is a slurry of food and enzymes in the stomach.
Cyhme
Where in the cell does the glycolysis occur?
Cytosol
small intestine
Digestive organ where most chemical digestion and absorption of food takes place. Most digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats occur here. Nutrients are absorbed into the blood stream
Anaerobic respiration _____________.
Does not use oxygen as the final electron acceptor
Enzyme specificity
Each enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction based on enzyme shape and active site Each enzyme is composed of varying sequences of amino acids Genes determine the specific enzyme protein
In which phase of cellular respiration is water made?
Electron Transport Chain
Cellular respiration involves ____________.
Electron carriers that bring electrons to the citric acid cycle/krebs
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)
Empty taxicab (NAD+) picks up electrons and hydrogen ions (+) Becomes full taxicab (NADH) that carries electrons to final destination
Activation Energy
Energy required to start a metabolic reaction Amount required is decreased by enzymes The activation energy barrier present in cells can be likened to an uphill bike ride. Once you are at the top of the hill, it takes much less energy to continue moving forward. If you smooth out the grade of the hill, more people will make it. In cells, there is an energy barrier that prevents chemical reactions occurring. Adding and enzyme helps lower this barrier.
ATP Synthase
Enzyme found in the mitochondrial membrane that helps synthesize ATP.
All metabolic reactions are catalyzed by proteins called __________.
Enzymes
Which of the following is a false statement regarding enzymes?
Enzymes supply ATP to their substrates
What is the term used when describing filtrate moving from collecting duct to bladder?
Excretion
Metabolic rate is influenced by many factors:
Exercise Time Intensity Biological sex Males require more calories and energy Genetics Lower basal metabolic rates Differences in fat storage and utilization
Fermentation in yeast cells results in the formation of ______________ & ______.
Eythel & CO2
Most of the digestion of nutrients occurs across the membrane that lines the interior stomach wall.
False
People who have lost weight by extreme dieting may require __________ calories to maintain their weight than other similar sized people.
Fewer
Process waste in four phrases
Filtration Reabsorption Secretion Excretion
Microvilla (microvillus)
Fine fingerlike projection composed of epithelial cell that function in absorption.
What organ stores and concentrates bile?
Galbladder
The filtration membrane surrounds what structure in the kidneys?
Glomerulus
What are the 4 phases of the aerobic cellular respiration process?
Glycolysis, Linking Step, Citric Acid Cycle/Kreb, Electron Transport Chain
Found in the Stomach
HCL Pepsin Gastrin
Gastrin
Hormone that stimulates the secretion of stomach acid.
Metabolism of other nutrients
If carbohydrates and fats are unavailable, proteins may be used Amino group is removed Other components enter the citric acid cycle/Krebs If carbohydrates are unavailable, fats may be used Glycerol and fatty acids enter the citric acid cycle
Describe the steps in the process of urine excretion.
In the nephrons of the kidney, the process of filtration forces most liquid, but not cells or larger molecules, from the plasma into the kidney tubules. As the filtrate travels through the nephron, water, glucose, and other valuable molecules are reabsorbed through both active and passive mechanisms. Secretion occurs when waste material that did not leave with the filtrate are actively brought into the nephron tubules from the surrounding capillaries. Hormones that regulate blood pressure control the concentration of water in urine. Urine collects in the renal pelvis, then travels down the ureters to be stored in the bladder. During urination, urine is released from the bladder through the urethra and exits the body.
lower esophageal sphincter
a muscular ring that controls the flow between the esophagus and stomach keeps the acid from riding up
Pancreatitis
Inflammation of the pancreas prevents secretion of digestive enzymes
Where in the cell does the electron transport occur?
Inner Mitrocondrial Membrane
High blood pressure damages cells in the filtering structure of the nephron, making the pores between cells much larger. How is the urine of someone with damage to these structures likely to be different from someone with an undamaged filter?
It would contain larger materials such as whole proteins and perhaps some blood cells.
What organ filters and cleanses circulating blood by creating urine to be excreted?
Kidney
The paired ____________ are the filtering organs of the urinary system.
Kidneys
Major organs of the urinary system
Kidneys Ureters Urinary bladder Urethra
Fermentation in muscle cells results in the formation of ____________ _______________.
Lactic Acid
The protein hormone ____________ regulates hunger and alerts the brain if there is not enough body fat to support a pregnancy.
Leptin
Relative health risk and BMI
Less than 18.5= underweight 18.5 - 24.9 = normal weight 25 - 29 = overweight 30 - 39 = moderate obesity Greater than 39 = severe obesity
List a few ways to engage more safely with alcohol.
Limit alcohol consumption Eat food before drinking alcohol and alternate alcoholic beverages with water.
Stage 2
Linking Step
What organ makes bile?
Liver
What would happen if activation energy barriers didn't exist?
Metabolic reactions would proceed even if their products were not needed.
Found in the small intestine
Microvilli Villa Peristalsis Bile Pancreatic Juices Bicarbonate Secretin CCK
What process releases urine from the bladder?
Micturition
Cellular respiration takes place in organelles called ____________.
Mitochondria
Where in the cell does Citric Acid Cycle's/Kreb's cycle occur?
Mitrocondrial Matrix
Where does chemical does chemical/mechanical digestion begin?
Mouth
Alimentary Canal
Mouth Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine Anus
List the hollow organs a piece of apple would move through as it makes its way through the digestive system, from its ingestion in the mouth to its excretion by the anus.
Mouth pharynx esophagus stomach small intestine large intestine
Chyme
a slurry with digestive enzymes (gastric juices)
bolus
a small rounded mass of a substance, especially of chewed food at the moment of swallowing. small ball made by the tongue
The electron transport chain ___________.
Moves electrons from protein to protein and moves protons from the matrix into the intermembrane.
__________ is one of the electron carrier molecules that help in cellular respiration. (Full)
NADH
Stage 4: Electron Transport Chain and ATP Synthesis
NADH drops off electrons and H+ ions Electrons move through the chain H+ concentration increases as the ions are moved into the intermembrane space Charged H+ ions can't diffuse across the membrane Pass through ATP synthase protein channels Synthesize 26 ATP molecules Electrons eventually combine with oxygen to produce water
The looped tubules in each kidney are __________.
Nephrons
Is the enzyme itself permanently altered by the process of catalysis? Explain your answer.
No. The enzyme releases the substrate and goes back to its original shape.
Regulation of digestive secretions
Occurs hormonally Stomach produces gastrin Stimulates production of gastric juices Small intestine releases secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK) Pancreas and gall bladder increase digestive juices
In the ETC, the last transport protein donates the electrons to hydrogen and _____________ in order to form water.
Oxygen
What accessory organ produces many of the digestive enzymes used by the small intestine?
Pancreas
The _____________ branches into both the trachea and esophagus.
Parynx
Rhythmic contractions of smooth muscle called ____________ help move a food bolus through the digestive tract.
Peristalsis
What process involves the waves of smooth muscle contractions that move food down the esophagus?
Perstialsis
Specificity
Phenomenon of enzyme shape determining the reaction the enzyme catalyzes.
Liver
Produces bile to help dissolve fats
Pancreas
Produces digestive enzymes Produces a buffer that neutralizes the acidity of stomach acid
Enzyme
Protein that catalyzes and regulates the rate of metabolic reactions.
Enzymes
Proteins that catalyze (speed up) reaction rates Names for the reaction catalyzed End in suffix - ase Sucrase breaks down sucrose
In glycolysis one molecule of glucose is split into two molecules of _______________ ______________.
Pyruvic Acid
After glycolysis
Pyruvic acid loses a carbon dioxide (decarboxylated) 2-carbon fragment is metabolized inside mitochondrion
Micturition
Release of urine from the bladder. Urination
Blood is brought to the kidneys by the _____________ _____________.
Renal Arteries
Found in the mouth
Salivary glands Salivary Amylase Teeth Taste buds
Stage 3: Citric Acid Cycle/ Krebs Cycle
Series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions in the mitochondrial matrix Produces 2 ATP Releases carbon dioxide and NADH
Cellular Respiration
Series of metabolic reactions converting food energy into a usable form
Electron Transport Chain
Series of proteins in the mitochondrion acting like a conveyor belt for electrons
In which organ does the majority of chemical digestion for all nutrient types occur?
Small Intestine
Most of the nutrients absorbed into the bloodstream move through the membranes of the ____________ _____________.
Small Intestine
Villa (villus)
Small fingerlike projections on the inside of the small intestine that function in nutrient absorption
Enzymes only catalyze one reaction, a property called ___________.
Specificity
Stages of Cellular Respiration
Stage: 1 Glycolysis Stage 2: Linking Stage Stage 3: Citric Acid Cycle Stage 4: Electronic Transport Chain and ATP Synthesis
Food moves from the mouth to the pharynx to the esophagus to the ____________.
Stomach
To catalyze a reaction, the enzyme binds its ___________ and bends it slightly, placing stress on chemical bonds.
Substrate
Induced fit model
Substrate Active site Enzyme changes shape after substrate binds, which stresses the substrate bonds The shape of the substrate matches the shape of the enzyme's active site. Initial substrate binding to the active site changes the shape of the active site, inducing the substrate to fit even more snugly in the active site, stressing the bonds of the substrate. The shape change splits the substrate and releases the two subunits. The enzyme is able to perform the reaction again.
Mouth
Teeth reduce the size of food, increasing the surface area available for digestion by enzymes Enzymes in saliva then start breaking down carbohydrates
Pyruvic Acid
The 3-carbon molecule produced by glycolysis
Describe the structures and functions of the digestive system.
The digestive system is a group of organs and glands working together to break foods into their component parts for reassembly into forms that the body can use or for use in generating energy. Food moves from the mouth to the pharynx and though the esophagus to the stomach to the small intestine. Digested nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream across the small intestine and brought to cells.
What would happen if you ingested a prescribed drug that blocked the active site of an enzyme?
The enzyme would no longer be able to bind its normal substrate and convert it to product.
Urine
The fluid that collects in the renal pelvis
Absorption of nutrients in the small intestine
The foldings of the small intestine to produce finer-like projections called villa and microvilla increase the surface area across which nutrients can enter the bloodstream. Once in the bloodstream, nutrients can be transported to cells throughout the body.
Nephrons
The functional structure with a kidney where waste filtration and urine concentration occurs.
Hormonal control of the digestive system
The presence of food in the stomach causes the release of the hormone gastrin, which results in the intestinal release of the hormones secretin and CCK, which act on the gallbladder and pancreas to increase their output of bile and digestive enzymes.
What are the reactants and products of cellular respiration?
The reactants are glucose and oxygen. The products are carbon dioxide and water.
The ____________ metabolic rate is the energy use of a resting wakeful person.
basal
List the structures composing the mammalian urinary system.
The urinary system consists of the kidneys, bladder, ureters, and urethra.
Alcohol is a depressant and can cause heart rate and respiratory rate to slow down.
True
Because alcohol affects ADH secretion, you may urinate a higher volume of liquid than you consume when drinking alcohol.
True
Mixing alcohol with energy drinks may mask the intoxicating effects of alcohol.
True
Ureters
Tube that delivers urine from a kidney to the bladder
Anus
Undigested materials are excreted as feces
Urine is stored in the urinary bladder and released through the __________.
Urethra
Urethra
Urine-carrying duct that also carries sperm in males.
What is the name of the specialized structure that increases surface area in the small intestines for nutrient absorption?
Villi
large intestine
Water is reaborbed
Found in the large intestine
Water reabsorption Peristalsis
What is meant by the term induced fat?
When a substrate binds to the active site of an enzyme, the enzyme clamps down on the substrate, causing increased stress on the bonds holding the substrate together.
Explain the hormonal control of the digestive system.
When food is in the stomach, gastrin is released, which signals the release of secretin and CCK. Increases in these two hormones cause increases in bile and digestive enzymes. Digestive enzymes produced by the pancreas help break down most food molecules. Bile produced by the liver facilitates the breakdown of fats and the gallbladder stores and concentrates bile before its release into the small intestine.
Most of the energy in an ATP molecule is released ___________.
When the terminal phosphate group is hydrolyzed
Epiglottis
a flap of cartilage at the root of the tongue, which is depressed during swallowing to cover the opening of the windpipe.
Tongue
a mobile mass of muscular tissue covered with mucous membrane and located in the oral cavity Manipulates food for chewing and swallowing; a taste organ shapes food into a ball and pushes the ball of food, called bolus, to the back of the mouth
stomach
large muscular sac that continues the mechanical and chemical digestion of food. Acidic gastric juices start breaking down food. The enzyme pepsin breaks down proteins Mucus prevents gastric juices from breaking down the stomach lining The pyloric sphincter regulates the movement of food from the stomach to the small instestine
glyco
means sugar
Kidney
nephron Bile is store
Accessory organs of the digestive system
outside of the alimentary canal but produce or secrete substances for digestion liver gall bladder pancreas
reabsorption
process in the kidney that puts useful substances (water, glucose, amino acids) back into the bloodstream
itis
refers to inflammation
Urinary System
removes wastes while retaining material to be reused and recycled
Blood enters the kidneys from the ________.
renal artery
Cellular respiration
requires oxygen from breathing as part of the metabolic process; carbon dioxide waste is returned to the lungs
urinary bladder
saclike organ in which urine is stored before being excreted
What is the role of the accessory glands?
secrete substances that aid in digestion
The pancreas ____________ ?
secretes
Chemical digestion
secretions help convert polymers into subunits Begins in the mouth Salivary amylase breaks down sugars then the stomach forms chime pepsin breaks down proteins then in the small intestine intestinal enzymes and pancreatic enzymes break down all nutrient types
Anorexia
self starvation Rampant on college campuses 1 in 5 college woman 1 in 20 college men