Biology Flashcards - ALL

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How does RNA transcribe?

"""Unzips"" the hydrogen bonds between bases "

What is salatory conduction?

"""leapfrogging"" of action potentials from node to node of a mylenated neuron"

What are the differences/similarities between glucokinase and hexokinase?

"- Both convert glucose into glucose-6p - Both their activity increase as glucose concentration increases - Glucokinase not inhibited by glucose-6-phosphate - Glucokinase found in liver and β-cells in pancrease. hexokinase found in all cells - allows liver to respond to glucose levels (at low glucose, very little is taken up by liver, allowing glucose to prioritize other tissues then go to liver) - Liver uses the excess glucose to convert to glycogen for storage <img src=""paste-0c29b07aaa650d33d1d292d8af6a3ccc003e81d8.jpg"">"

Squash W_ blocks any pigment from forming (white) ww allows pigment (yellow or green) to form Y_ corresponds to yellow pigment yy corresponds to green pigment What will the phenotypic ratio be? what type of epistasis is this?

"12:3:1 dominant epistasis <img src=""paste-f42d236ad0e10acc98d13685a4552195070acd1f.jpg"">"

In terms of independent assortment, how many different combinations of sperm could a human male produce?

"2n, so 223 combinations"

State the autoionozation of water equation.

"2H2O⇄H3O++ OH- (H3O+=H+) <-- same thing"

What do nucleosomes coil into? Keep going until you reach chromosomes.

"30 nm fibers ...form 300 nm loops ...compressed into 250 nm fibers ...coiled into 700 nm chromatids/1400 nm chromosomes <img src=""18847_6.jpg"">"

How many gametes per germ cell in spermatogenesis? Oogenisis?

"4 per spermatogenesis 1 per oogenesis (+ 3 polar bodies that die) <img src=""paste-e232004f327d450c2e05b9eef1ddd43ffaf7512c.jpg""> <img src=""paste-315b4c5a7c769ce5df6143380eb52dd31d5c900f.jpg"">"

Describe the process of ubiquitination.

"4-step process <img src=""paste-62c9b46189561de95778d57838538f2d12cc75bb.jpg"">"

What is a nucleosome?

"8 histone bead DNA wraps around Basic (first) unit of DNA organization <img src=""Nucleosome_organization.png""> (this is really a chromatosome, the next level of organization, because it has an H1 histone attatched to it)"

lots of genetics / meiosis questions

"<a href=""https://poway.instructure.com/courses/112553/pages/review-genetics"">https://poway.instructure.com/courses/112553/pages/review-genetics</a>"

incredible video for understanding cis vs trans regulation and how to tell which is which on an frq!!!

"<a href=""https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U4FDz6tq-U4"">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U4FDz6tq-U4</a>"

What is a monophyletic group?

"<div>consists of a common ancestor + all descendants from that common ancestor</div>"

Why can we date all nodes given a time estimate for one + all other branch lengths?

"<div> because the rate of molecular change should be constant across all branches.</div>"

What is homoplasy cause by? (3 things:)

"<div>convergent evolution, parallel evolution, or character reversal.</div>"

What are synapomorphies?

"<div>shared, derived characters. Shared by all descendants in a clade, including the ancestral taxa.</div><ul><li><div>Clades must share at least one synapomorphy. The more, the better.</div></li></ul>"

What is a paraphyletic group?

"consists of common ancestor but not all descendents. Incorrect grouping."

What is a polyphyletic group?

"consists of two descendants, but not their common ancestor. Incorrect grouping."

Is the rate of mutation the same universally throughout an organism?

"Rates of mutation are different between proteins, but seem to be self-consistent within a single protein."

What must be true to be able to rely on the molecular clock?

"the protein should not be coding for or being selected by anything -- function and tertiary structure of the molecule must remain unaltered."

What are thylakoids, grana, and stroma?

"Thylakoids are the inner membranes of plastids which are stacked to form grana and surrounded by stroma, a gel-like material. <img src=""Plastids.png"">"

How do microarray assays function?

" mRNA is isolated and converted to cDNA, and then labeled with a fluorescent dye. The cDNA is hybridized to a glass gene chip containing sequences representing all or a subset of genes in the organism. The amount of mRNA expressed from each gene is determined by quantitation of fluorescence intensity of the cDNA bound to each probe. <img src=""paste-de1bc2be3ef6cd940462334838f90c0454123600.jpg"">"

External signals affect the cell cycle. What are growth factors?

" protein signals released by body that stimulate other cells to divide; coordination between cells density-dependent inhibition: crowded cells stop dividing, each cell binds to a bit of growth factor so it's not enough to trigger division anywhere anchorage dependence: to divide cells must be attatched to a substrate; ""touch sensor"" receptors"

difference between keystone species and foundation species>

"Keystone species do not form the ecosystem but keep it going. Whereas a foundation species provides the foundation of a habitat."

Describe how RTKs function. (receptor tyrosine kinases)

"<img src=""300847023.jpg"">"

What is a neuron's cell body?

"<img src=""400px-neuron.svg.png""> part of the neuron that contains the nucleus and conencts to dendrites"

What is a neuron's axon?

"<img src=""400px-neuron.svg.png""> output structure that carries messages (spikes) from the cell to dendrites of other neurons"

What is an enhancer? What does it apply to?

"<img src=""500px-Regulation_of_transcription_in_mammals.jpg""> eukaryotes only (bacteria have operons)"

Where is the axon hillock in a neuron?

"<img src=""640px-Axon_Hillock.png"">"

Draw a ribose.

"<img src=""843px-d-ribose_haworth.svg2167303530846368621.png"">"

What is overshoot/undershoot?

"<img src=""AP.gif""> Where the membrane potential actually becomes positive in comparison to the outside of the cell undershoot is hyperpolarization because K+ channels are slow to close after the peak. Sodium-potassium pumps work against this until they close"

Draw a glucose.

"<img src=""Glucose-formula.jpg"">"

Where are the palisade and spongy form relative to each other?

"<img src=""Leaf_Tissue_Structure.svg"">"

What does APC stop? What does the thing it stop do?

"<img src=""Network_picture.png""> APC degrades securin (ubiquitin), which normally binds separase. Once securin is degraded, separase is released and degrades cohesin linking two siter chromatids. End result: sister chromatids separate"

What is the overall respiration equation?

"<img src=""Screen Shot 2014-09-30 at 1.13.44 PM.png"">"

Define plesiomorphy, apomorphy, and synapomorphy

"<img src=""Synapomorphy.jpg"">"

Cis vs Trans linkage

"<img src=""ap-biology-ch-12-gene-linkage-groups-and-chromosome-maps-6-638.jpg"">"

Describe the structure of an operon (or just look at this)

"<img src=""e0376f58ef7d9cff0024ade7f0935d179dbad789.png"">"

What does the CAP-cAMP complex do?

"<img src=""figure-16-02-02.jpeg""> lac operon attenuation <div> </div>"

Water Use Efficiency is calculated how?

"<img src=""full-301equ1.jpg"">"

Inducible vs repressible operon? give examples of both and describe them

"<img src=""image004.png""> <img src=""OSC_Microbio_11_07_trp.jpg""> <img src=""OSC_Microbio_11_07_lacrep.jpg"">"

THIS

"<img src=""meiotic-sister-chromatids_med.jpeg"">"

Describe population size as a function of r.

"<img src=""paste-015ffc32648035ebff846ef3555129e0293e27f2.jpg"">"

Describe the amount of DNA present during the cell cycle

"<img src=""paste-0ce6e83bc4dbb299c6a3cd2524429e45e6ff1471.jpg"">"

Study this graph (ATP Synthase free energy)

"<img src=""paste-16a710f432ef1b5fd2b16b170d9fb71e237fc94a.jpg"">"

ugh (look at this diagram)<div> </div><div>FACS</div>

"<img src=""paste-1ae4ed09dca988cc869978ae2e65cedc4ae14165.jpg"">"

What are excitatory postsynaptic potentials? (EPSPs)

"<img src=""paste-1c44a5bc752a795b04b5a30847573d47c89b7e31.jpg"">"

Hydroxyl group

"<img src=""paste-1d728273cb8de338999dbea1fce981b320182adf.jpg""><div> </div><div>Acts as base</div><div> Polar, forms hydeogen bonds with water which helps dissolve its attatched compounds Alcohol</div>"

what is a karyotype?

"<img src=""paste-1f7ab64bfb78c848851799fe9c290f8d56d257b2.jpg"">"

Carbonyl group

"<img src=""paste-2ad56adfffc3ba2be21dfc763a7206f92bff2565.jpg""><div> </div><div>Acts as base Ketone (if carbonyl is within carbon skeleton) Aldehyde (if carbonyl is at the end of a carbon skeleton)</div>"

Describe E3 structure/how it functions

"<img src=""paste-430830521fb1c4445cf4fd0f3bb4c6ee06791957.jpg""> <img src=""paste-f9af4cf5b700771c8cd31da6298181a4d5815df0.jpg"">"

Describe how fluorescent activated cell scan/shorters (FACS) works

"<img src=""paste-4860e9656eb6ccdfeb6cdd63f8c19043dfb39c96.jpg"">"

What is a kinase?

"<img src=""paste-4b2cd7ea544541617843acb7f8a4cf0e7eb5b941.jpg"">"

What is the primary difference in terms of niches between specialist and generalist species?

"<img src=""paste-5264a121ff7422029a63e1a299735d4b2fa93ed1.jpg"">"

How are poly-ubiquinated proteins recognized? What happens to the ubiquitin?

"<img src=""paste-5473fc3283eca6e7eaf85a42a716998699725337.jpg"">"

Why doesn't natural selection result in the perfect organism? (4 reasons)

"<img src=""paste-588e8a3758aefe43603b5926d58c5b4215328530.jpg""> <img src=""paste-4d63a373daa64ee93dafec21808d4172505ab1d1.jpg"">"

Amino group

"<img src=""paste-5928694d4977cbb5ab6533e5aeb96544929a4043.jpg""> Acts as a base"

"<img src=""paste-5a2d710d6b43defc839c626f506eaf2e7d78fccd.jpg"">"

Sulfhydryl group

"<img src=""paste-6eb51ee0359edaa7a3aa89e73ffe1368c1b73d52.jpg""> Two sulfhydryl groups (thiols) can react to form a disulfide bond"

"<img src=""paste-6fd90873f07414a2e0cc69c67a7ab1f4f232d16f.jpg"">"

"<img src=""paste-7460042aeead2a8abfca13f719a368fcad89ae86.jpg"">"

How is Cdk regulated by phosphorylation?

"<img src=""paste-7f8c4f22d2dfdb48c0d71a0ff8e6305ccd7805ac.jpg"">"

What determines the realized niche?

"<img src=""paste-8115004553652f24ba14e347f5224844a9e67da9.jpg"">"

look at the diagram

"<img src=""paste-8aa104084462eff6f7aaba31be8ae34d3bde5e58.jpg"">"

What were the Wee 1 mutants and cdc25 mutants?

"<img src=""paste-998e98f234de2b576862671d0319e331b6884d4b.jpg""> <img src=""paste-21f7d55957c5e5ed4240eabd2f1c34ae0bd6f958.jpg"">"

Phosphate group

"<img src=""paste-99fbc356dbb557e6593e4142eb564c67ea7ae795.jpg""> Contributes a negative charge; gives attatched molecule the ability to react with water to release energy"

List the stages of cell plate formation.

"<img src=""paste-a175dc3123ce9a42b1f812f13156788d1df586c2.jpg""><div>Don't forget about phragmoplast shenanigans </div>"

Carboxyl group

"<img src=""paste-b60f667d69b7f88f23485578bbe457d157c46cd1.jpg""> Acts as an acid (because OH bond is so polar)"

Methyl group

"<img src=""paste-b963e84b2af3d4ef33baeb851a4b900b836d1fcf.jpg""> not reactive, but recognizable tag on biological molecules Affects gene expression and sex hormones"

"<img src=""paste-c76d862f3878864f04fd542d8452d6d033393925.jpg""> <img src=""paste-1f4a1c4f2ba02dfc54ebee789ba0d12725a96902.jpg"">"

Birth and mortality rates are density dependent. Describe both of their relationships with density.

"<img src=""paste-d28b9efea89345bf69a71521732f19e2f9470a6f.jpg"">"

get it? Pay special attention to how the centrifuge works 

"<img src=""paste-dfb92ece5db4525d6cfdaf799bf11cf9001436cf.jpg""> Remember that RNase is an enzyme that breaks done all RNA so there is no more RNA being created in these cells"

just look at this. beautiful.

"<img src=""paste-e1772c8252406805aabb59bb061e4277b34124bb.jpg"">"

there were a ton of slides on this, so just know it well enough

"<img src=""paste-e610c9e1d73efc7419ee3f31c67bbebfd354dddc.jpg""><img src=""paste-93fb7453d0cf028907773201e8b83285d2b63859.jpg""><img src=""paste-ffcfce79b131e03f0943f4e657f5afbd96c3b1ce.jpg""> G6PD+ and G6PD- are just different variants, but they function pretty much the same"

What would happen if we used mitosis instead of meiosis?

"<img src=""paste-ea199be07f6dad20e5b4477d32f3dd47b0f8078c.jpg"">"

What are inhibitory postsynaptic potentials? (IPSPs)

"<img src=""paste-f86d1bf91c9147ec6ab1032b942aafe4c0915c91.jpg"">"

What is a cyclin?

"<img src=""paste-f9105a5fa15d36c360af81fab4b4cc5cc66b636c.jpg""> "

How does the environment affect phenotype?

"<img src=""paste-ff54387a7bb8fc29c3a1d0125282ea9c7c272056.jpg""><img src=""paste-d9ae8fb7989fb78a44e449513dc23a54730a7889.jpg"">"

What is frequency-dependent selection? What is a good example of this?

"Frequency-dependent selection occurs when the fitness of a phenotype is dependent on its frequency relative to other phenotypes in a given population. ex. scale eating fish, where the less-common variant is favored because hosts are more vigiallent towards the most common variant."

"How does increased insulin lead to increased glucose uptake in muscle and adipose (fat) cells?"

"GLUT4 is stored in the cell in transport vesicles, and is quickly incorporated into the plasma membrane of the cell when insulin binds to membrane receptors."

Trisomy vs triploidy

"With trisomy, the fetus has an extra chromosome, meaning they have 47 chromosomes instead of 46. Triploidy, on the hand, means that the fetus has three sets of chromosomes or 69 chromosomes."

What are the five hardy weinberg assumptions?

"(1) random mating (i.e, population structure is absent and matings occur in proportion to genotype frequencies), (2) the absence of natural selection, (3) a very large population size (i.e., genetic drift is negligible), (4) no gene flow or migration, (5) no mutation"

What is TfR?

" a cell surface receptor necessary for cellular iron uptake"

What is a cline?

" a measurable gradient in a single trait of a species across its geographical range."

why is nucleic acid hybridization used?

" often we will get plasmids that have taken up the wrong fragments cut by the right restriction enzymes"

What is a ring species?

"a ring species is a connected series of neighbouring populations, each of which interbreeds with closely sited related populations, but for which there exist at least two ""end"" populations"

What is a genomic library?

"collection of DNA fragments that make up the full-length genome of an organism."

What are centrosomes?

"A pair of centrioles that form an L shape. They organize microtubules, and are where spindle microtubules originate from.<div>Duplicate during S phase<img src=""image-7647e4bee905935bdb95a54a139b39dc87bebc4f.png"" style=""color: var(--field-fg); background: var(--field-bg);""></div>"

cotransport/symport is?

"A transport protein couples the passage of one solute to the passage of another <img src=""paste-be7af84ab63b7f7807bdf7bbd92a22788b1b5653.jpg"">"

What does ATP become when it is broken down for energy?

"ADP (adenosine DIphosphate -- loses 1 phosphate) Then AMP ""mono"""

What are glucose transporters called?

"All isosomes of each other, they start w/ ""GLUT"""

"<img src=""paste-68bd0a0e168dcab10ef86fb30dde9db7b983a8e6.jpg"">"

"Amino group Acts as a base Amine <img src=""paste-85d16e6bd44cc323763c52c76222185ea6e3e9d2.jpg"">"

What does Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution state?

"As the temperature increases the probability of gas molecules having higher energy increases <img src=""1280px-Maxwell-Boltzmann-Distribution-simple-axis-labels.svg.png""> (area under curve stays the same)"

What colors do carotenoids absorb?

"Blue/green, + some violet <img src=""5714e9cbaa03ca0ae8d180492db1c91d.jpeg"">"

What are Cdks regulated by?

"CKIs (cyclin dependant kinase inhibitors) produced when dna is damaged<div> </div><div>basically pauses cdk activity/cell cycle <img src=""paste-8491c25b79adcf28513474384ae128701aa90b77.jpg""></div>"

What does the G1/S checkpoint look for?

"Can DNA synthesis begin? (Has the cell reached an adequate size/maturity? is the environment favorable?) G1/S is most critical checkpoint. ""Go"" signals: size & nutrition (promoting factors) and growth factors<div> </div><div>p53 looks to make sure DNA is ok to be replicated in the first place</div>"

What did Rao and Johnson do?

"Cell fusion (cytoplasmic exchange) experiments Concluded that S phase nucleus contains something that drives G1 into S (and that something can diffuse freely between nucleus and cytoplasm) <img src=""paste-7aa0b4c1a54f85ad4c843149c16c009ec0f31cd4.jpg"">"

What is the endodermis?

"Cell layer surrounding vascular cylinder of root. Line with the casparian strip. <img src=""paste-ded869e6744635d0dd4d9f3ca06b67ab2aae8097.jpg"">"

What is genetic drift? In what kind of population does it most often occur?

"Changes in allele frequencies of a gene pool due to chance. Small populations more prone. <img src=""paste-16f69ea39c001fb8e644b6797709aa2ee9143bf3.jpg"">"

What is a plesiomorphy?

"Character state found in ancestor of group <img src=""Synapomorphy.jpg"">"

What is a probe in southern blotting?

"Complementary to gene of interest<img src=""paste-7758c0ee8ac8aec21d232d3f96b32fd731034367.jpg"">"

What is Km?

"Concentration at which rate of reaction is 1/2 Vmax <img src=""paste-2aaa38de6ff6e12d1a0bc91ea6d546c061f0831f.jpg"">"

What is the pac-man model?

"Depolymerization at kinetochore (kinetochore ""eats"" up the microtubule) <img src=""paste-a80ef836436ce89ba51e5ce93bf0a4a603627986.jpg"">"

What is the inward/poleward flux model?

"Depolymerization of microtubule at pole (microtubule ""reeled"" in and excess is trimmed as it comes in at the end) <img src=""paste-a6d166320ddb39fe2f0d27b95d7d57767a35a7aa.jpg"">"

What is spatial summation?

"EPSPs are produced nearly simultaneously by different synapses on the same postsynaptic neuron, which add together to produce an action potential <img src=""paste-a7dad9658ffa18b0ce5bb2f9e5f0ac98e852c200.jpg"">"

Describe Sutherland's experiment. What did he conclude?

"Epinephrine is a stress hormone that regulates the degredation of glycogen to glucose in the liver when a ""fight or flight"" situation is presented in order to provide a boost of energy. Sutherland found that Epinephrine will not activate its final target enzyme, phosphorylase, directly, because it only worked when epinephrine was added to intact cells. Therefore, there must be an intermediate step or steps occuring inside the cell. Additionally, the plasma membrane must be involved in transmitting the epinephrine signal. He discovered the three stages of cell communication (reception, transduction, response)"

What did Robertson do?

"FIFTH (1960) Proposed the theory of the ""unit membrane"" where there is a universal pattern of protein arrangement surrounding the membrane. Disproved by freeze-fracturing which showed that proteins are asymmetrically distributed in the bilayer. <img src=""none"">"

What is haploid-diplody in bees?

"Females are ""normal"" diploids and have 2 copies of each chromosome Males are haploid and only have one copy of each chromosome from their mother (no father)"

What is the accepted model?

"Flux-Pacman <img src=""paste-a622a53694cea65730187d7e07a0bde224755f86.jpg"">"

What is the phragmoplast? How does the cell plate form from it?

"Forms during late cytokinesis, microtubule/microfillament/ER scaffold that forms in two oposing sets from the mitotic spindle. Cell plate forms beginning as a disc inside the two phragmoplast halves. As the cell plate grows outwards, the phragmoplast's center disappears and reforms on the edges, creating a dougnut-shaped structure that grows outwards with the cell plate until they reach the outer wall. <img src=""paste-478dc98aa9107c9cfb48656789762cf8cd835f7c.jpg"">"

What is the rhesus (Rh) blood trait?

"If you have rhesus, you're ""positive"" (ex. B positive) vice versa, and you're negative. Negative blood is very rare, so it's very valuable (because the people who need it can't get blood from anywhere else)"

What are tumor-suppressor genes?

"Inhibit cell division if switched ""off"" cancer is caused"

When will an action potential occur?

"Initiated by ligand-gated Na+ channels opening -- if depolarization occurs to a great enough extent, voltage-gated Na+ channels will open and an irreversible ""all or nothing"" spike of depolarization will occur. This is the action potential"

What does myelination do to the conduction of a nerve impulse?

"Myelin acts as an insulator which allows nerve impulses to ""jump"" (well, rapidly conduct) quickly through mylenated areas much faster than non mylenated areeas"

What are the electron carriers in respiration?

"NAD+ and FAD+2 Reduced: NADH and FADH2"

What are forward and reverse primers for in PCRs?

"PCRs need to replicate both strands so there should be a primer on both of the 3' ends of target DNA. these 3' ends are different so require different primers <img src=""paste-ece22944f67d6ff2f5a88f83af857ceadcf0ee6b.jpg"">"

What type of inhibition does pyruvate kinase display?

"Product inhibition by ATP Feed-forward activation of itself when it senses a lot of fructose 1,6 bisphosphate  (earlier step in glycolysis, activates because it knows more is coming) <img src=""paste-029f1d35aaa044f91ac56f259c5438280c5d150d.jpg"">"

What are proto-oncogenes? oncogenes?

"Proto-oncogenes are normal growth factor genes that activate cell division. Becomes cancer-causing when mutated (switched ""on"")"

What experiment did Tim Hunt do? What did he find?

"Pulse-chase experiment to tag proteins created after fertilization. Followed them through SDS-PAGE and autoradiography. Found that there were specific proteins whose populations diminished or rose at specific points in the cell cycle. ""Cyclins"" "

What do platelet derived growth factors (PDGFs) do?

"Released by platelets when they break at a lesion ""made by platelets in blood clots"" seal wounds"

Describe Paul Nurse's experiment, what he found, and his conclusions. (Hartwell was his boss)

"Selected for conditional (temperature sensitive) mutants in yeast that will arrest the cell cycle at specific stages at elevated temperature but progress normally at lower temps. First step was to create the mutants, which he did using tedious genetic screening of mutagenized yeast (yeast used for its robustness) Found Wee1 mutant and cdc25 mutant, called them cell division cycle (cdc) mutants<div> </div><div>They act on cdc2, which is half of the MPF (G2/M!) <img src=""paste-55d82e85196570e169f5a7b4790cc62eb71ec650.jpg""></div>"

What happens if nondisjunction occurs in the 2nd meiotic division?

"Sister chromatids don't split in meiosis II, so that one gamete gets two sister chromatids and another gets no chromatids of that type. The resulting zygote has either: three homologous chromosomes of the same type -- two sisters result from nondisjunction in one parent's gamete, and one donated normally from the other parent's gamete. This results in trisomy OR One chromosome of the type affected by nondisjunction -- the aneuploid gamete gives no chromosomes of that type, and the euploid gamete gives just one, resulting in monosomy <img src=""paste-4819a7aa8985c6809ba2975d1bb3cfca29aa9f0e.jpg"">"

"<img src=""paste-fc6050ca3566989807518137894db8edff28d1ef.jpg"">"

"Sulfhydryl Group (thiol) Two -SH groups can react to form a ""cross-link"" to stabilize protein structure. (Disulfide bridge) "

What is osmosis? How does it work?

"The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Diffusion aims to reach equillibrium of solute concentration. If the semipermeable membrane can't let solvent out, then water diffuses in. Once osmosis is complete, the water levels will be unequal, but concentration will be equal. <img src=""400px-0307_Osmosis.jpg"">"

What are tolerance limits?

"The limits of a species' fundamental niche<img src=""paste-20e4dc8e31a987441452a2bc46b2f9fbd050f4df.jpg"">"

What happens if nondisjunction occurs in the 1st meiotic division?

"The tetrad doesn't split during anaphase I, and at the handover from meiosis I to meiosis II, the resulting haploid cells have either an entire tetrad or nothing. Meiosis II occurs normally (or as normally as possible) so that two nonsister homologues end up in two of the four gametes and the other two gametes get no chromosome of that type the resulting zygote has either: three nonsister homologues -- two from the aneuploid gamete and one from the euploid gamete. Trisomy OR one chromosome -- only from the euploid gamete, as the aneuploid in this case has contributed nothing. Monosomy <img src=""paste-d5d2be75489641d86d05314ba8bfc18597778ff0.jpg"">"

How do animal and plant cells engage in direct-contact cell-cell communication?

"They both have cell junctions that directly connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells, allowing exchange of signals/proteins. Animals - gap junctions, membrane-bound surface molecules <img src=""paste-91cc719b7c1df4771e63974317ee066f061a6e1b.jpg""><img src=""paste-a25dd6c7c49841b9832ddcde445baabdd65da577.jpg""> plants - plasmodesmata <img src=""paste-d329c4ff131ad70d85bd05c2f99fdb633efa09bb.jpg"">"

Gause studied predator-prey cycles. What did he do and what was the outcome of his first experiment? How did he change it? And then what did he do to solve the following complications?

"Tried to culture paramecium (prey) and didinium (predator). Could only get one predator prey cycle before the didinium overhunted the paramecium and they all died He then added a refuge for the paramecium to hide in the petri dish, but then a portion of the paramecium was able to hide completely and grow to its carrying capacity w/o predation could only get the system to cycle when providing simulated immicgration when either the predator or prey neared extinction<img src=""paste-6f24d1ee377949f8f4d0ec69038af0f1c54b8282.jpg"">"

What is temporal summation?

"Two EPSPs that are produced in rapid succession, where their additive effects trigger an action potential <img src=""paste-7263cbc7b590b6037f591f5e23cacae9da3453b5.jpg"">"

what is a pair of homologous chromosomes?

"Two chromosomes (one maternal one paternal) BOTH ARE HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOSMES <img src=""biology-diagram-present-structure-of-homologous-chromosome-in-living-vector-id1296363509.jpg""> The ""X"" shaped ones are just in metaphase!"

How does thermogenin (UCP-1) work?

"Uncoupling protein takes H+ in the intermembrane space and pumps it right back out, which generates heat as a byproduct present in brown adipose tissue <img src=""paste-a009fa1a74a46dcd900008452b8e8fc9e30eb287.jpg"">"

Chlorophyll a best absorbs what colors?

"Violet-blue, reddish-orange<img src=""5714e9cbaa03ca0ae8d180492db1c91d.jpeg"">"

What is pressure flow?

"Water from xylem osmoses into phloem around the source where sugar concentration is high. This builds pressure and pushes the water towards the sink where there is lower pressure <img src=""Translocation-of-sugars-photoassimilates-in-plants-Pressure-flow-hypothesis-Muench.ppm"">"

Do all cells have regulatory proteins (CDKs and cyclins)?

"YES <img src=""paste-5fa24c7049201d25cea8bf3bc0b03863c88cb5be.jpg"">"

"What is the ""coattail"" effect of cotransport?"

"a neutral solute (ex sugar) hitches a ride along with solutes targeted by cotransport <img src=""paste-8e374c556039acde0552778d615ca9dd00356a9c.jpg"">"

Chlorophyll b absorbs what colors?

"blue and orange/a little red<img src=""5714e9cbaa03ca0ae8d180492db1c91d.jpeg"">"

What is cdc2 and what regulates it?

"cdc2 is a cdk part of the MPF complex (g2/M) wee 1 inhibits, cdc25 activates When you BREAK wee1, cells divide unregulated = tiny cells. when you overexpress wee1, cells are overcontrolled and get too big. similar case w/ cdc25 <img src=""paste-188a36cd23c8304a991ba670b999fd3bf73be94a.jpg"">"

How do dyneins drive cilia and flagella?

"coordinates their ""walking"" motion on one side of the cell at a time in such a way that they sway the cilia/flagella appropriately."

What is an apomorphy?

"derived character state in descendants of group <img src=""Synapomorphy.jpg"">"

"<img src=""paste-f10b089c1017323e0a58db4ae8b1c1f1c0aa571e.jpg"">"

"environmental resistance ""pushes down"" this curve."

What is the dominance hierarchy in rabbit coat colors?

"full color > chinchilla > himalayan > albino C > cch > ch > c <img src=""paste-2e40b0aabfaef8aabdfdb7f9c35188cb0d8c140d.jpg"">"

What does flow cytometry give us?

"histogram of # of cells vs amount of DNA/Cell % of cells in individual phases of the cell cycle <img src=""paste-ad8ef611af4959313f7763b84d1441bb190f7510.jpg"">"

what does synapsis do?

"homologous chromosomes bind closely together, pairing at equivalent locations. allows crossing over to occur"

What is a tetrad?

"homologous pair of 2 homologous chromosomes (and their sisters) linked at chaismata (singular: chaiasma) <img src=""paste-b175501682a6f5f7286f2424107b5df234254660.jpg"">"

what does allolactose do to the repressor? what is allolactose called in this sense?

"inactivates it. called ""inducer"""

Who can't individuals in a ring species reproduce with?

"individuals from the other end of the ring. <img src=""1200px-Ring_Species_(gene_flow_around_a_barrier).png"">"

Where does the mitotic spindle attach?

"kinetochores, which is attached at the centromere <img src=""Difference-Between-Centromere-and-Kinetochore_Figure-1.jpg"">"

What is a reciprocal cross?

"same traits, reverse gender <img src=""MB_1129011_002.jpg""> sheds light on sex-linked inheritance, I suppose"

What is relative fitness?

"the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation, relative to the contributions of other individuals. this is not direct competition! THat's why ""descent with modification"" is better than ""survival of the fittest"""

What is a barr body?

"the inactive x chromosome in a female <img src=""paste-3a25cb65e1256cac956b98d25c3a6a9d7010d279.jpg"">"

What is a synapse?

"the site of communication between two cells -- formed when an axon of a presynaptic cell ""connects"" with the dendrites on the head of a postsynaptic cell"

if an action potential was triggered artificially midway through an axon, would it go both directions?

"yes, because even though it might technically be going ""backwards"" an action potential hasn't recently been triggered anywhere the new action potential is propagating, so there is no refractory period to block the signal's flow"

When do hydrogen bonds form?

 When a hydrogen covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to the negative pole of another polar molecule.

What do similar embryos indicate?

 a shared set of genes between groups of organisms, suggesting common ancestry.

What is the heterozygote advantage? What is the best example of it?

an individual who is heterozygous at a particular gene locus has a greater fitness than a homozygous individual. If the heterozygous phenotype exhibits incomplete/codominance, this is stabilizing selection. If it's the same as the dominant homozygote, it is directional selection. Sickle cell anemia

Nucleic acid hybridization is what?   

 nucleic acids (rna or dna) annealing to another rna or dna (doesnt have to be the same type I think)

What is r in growth rate equations?

(births- deaths)/population size

During what mitotic phase does the DNA coil into chromasomes?

(early) prophase

How are y-linked traits passed down?

(rare) from all male descendants of an affected male

"<img src=""paste-119d0bd9f408dda9c727795ce4a4b73d98275d73.jpg"">"

What are the types of plastids (plant structures)?

- Amyloplasts store starch - Chromoplasts create pigments - Chloroplasts store chlorophyll and function in photosynthesis. GREEN

What problems were there with historical models of the cell membrane?

- Assume constituents of the membrane are static - Do not account for differing permeability of certain solutes (ions vs water vs polar molecules) - Did not account for differing methods of diffusion (transport proteins, osmosis, etc)

Smooth ER

- Attatched to the ends of the rough ER - Makes membrane lipids (steroids) - Regulates calcium (muscle cells) - destroys toxic substances (liver)

What do cilla and flagella have in common?

- Made of microtubules (9+2 arrangement) - Function in moving cells, fluids, or small particles across cell surface.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

- Protein/lipid synthesis - Network of hollow membane tubules - Continuous w/ nuclear membrane

Rough ER

- Ribosome-studded - Makes membrane proteins and proteins for export

What are the ways membrane proteins can move?

- Rotation (rapid) - Lateral diffusion (slower than lipids) - No flip-flopping

What are the ways membrane lipids can move?

- Rotation (rapid) - Lateral exchanges (rapid) - Flip-flopping (rare)

What happens for the shift from metaphase to anaphase to occur?

- Triggered when tension on spindle fibers is right - MPF levels are high atm - APC causes MPF to break down by breaking down cyclins via their D-box (APCs are E3 proteins!! (ubiquination)) - APC breaks down securin, which locks up separase, whioch separates sister chromatids

What occurs during prophase I?

- nucleus and nucleolus disappear - spindle form - chromosomes coil/condense - synapsis occurs, forming tetrads - crossing over occurs

What occurs during metaphase I?

- tetrads align at the equator - independant assortment occurs

What is a cell's approximate resting membrane potential?

-60 or -70 mV (not fixed, and different approximations are given throughout Mr. Shakked's lectures)

The pressure potential of a solution in an open container is?

What is the specific heat capacity of water?

1 Calorie

one centiMorgan is equal to what?

1 map unit/1% recombination frequency

What happens to 1,3 Biphosphoglycerate to convert it to G3P? How many G3P per 1,3 Biphosphoglycerate?

1,3 Biphosphoglycerate takes 6 NADPH and gives off 6 NADP+ and 6 Pi  One G3P (only one leaves per 6 G3P produced)

What activates pyruvate kinase?

1,6 fructose bisphosphate

Who can ABs' donate blood to? B's? O's?

1. AB 2. B, AB 3. A, B, AB, O

How do you perform southern blotting?

1. Cleave using restriction enzymes 2. Separate strands w/ alkali substance 3. blot gel on nylon filter paper to transfer DNA 4. expose filter to radiolabled probes (probe is of gene of interest) 5. expose filter to x ray film to see radiolabled DNA

List three possible cellular responses to signals (not limited to this, this is just what he had on the slides)

1. Cytoplasmic activity regulation 2. Cell metabolism regulation 3. Nuclear transcription regulation

What are the five forms of evidence for evolution?

1. Fossils 2. Geographical distribution 3. Embryology 4. Comparative anatomy 5. Molecular and genetic

Who can O's recieve blood from? A's? AB's?

1. O 2. A, O 3. A, B, AB, O

List the stages of the signalling pathway.

1. Reception 2. Transduction 3. Response

What does the high heat of vaporization of water do? Why is the heat of vaporization so high?

1. Water resists evaportation 2. Because of hydrogen bonds

What are the five factors that can influence biotic potential?

1. age of reproduction 2. frequency of reproduction 3. number of offspring produced 4. reproductive life span  5. average death rate under ideal conditions

What are the steps to RNAi?

1. dsRNA diced by dicer into siRNAs 2. antisense strand of siRNA guides newly rejected mRNA to the RNAi silencing complex for cleavage

"<img src=""paste-f1748245f1c7be30559e59173d58681acbee8d4c.jpg""> This is a graph of brainstem activity in response to the same audio. What do puppies 1-4 display?"

1. hears perfectly 2. unilateral hearing (right) 3. unilateral hearing (left) 4. deaf

What are causes of microevolution? There are 5 of themmmm

1.  Genetic drift 2. gene flow 3. mutations 4. nonrandom mating 5. natural selection

How many ATP per FADH?

1.5, about

A mother is a carrier of an x-linked recessive trait. What proportion of her sons are affected?

1/2

How many H+ are transported per NADH?

How much energy is transferred between trophic levels?

10%

What percent of the energy taken by consuners are used to build new tissue?

10%

How many NADHs go into the electron transport chain per glucose?

10 (2 from glycolysis, 2 from link, 6 from Krebs)

When comparing 3 phenotypes from hardy weinberg problems via chi squared, how many degrees of freedom do you use?

1<div> </div><div>(Although you would expect 2 because it is 3 phenotypes (homozygous dominant, heterozygous, homozygous recessive) you are really calculating it using just 2 allele frequencies, so it is a df of 1)</div>

How many alleles per gene with humans?

What are the products of glycolysis?

2 ATP 2 NADH 2 pyruvate

How many G3P per glucose?

2 G3P per glucose because 3 carbons per G3P, 6 carbons per glucose

What is water broken into?

2 e-   2 H+ 1/2 O2 (one oxygen atom)

What goes into NADP+ reductase and what comes out?

2 electrons + H+ + NADP+--> NADPH (I think, textbook doesn't give an exact equation)

 What is a diploid cell?

2 homogolous chromosomes of each type Cells are still diploid even while duplicating

What is the shape of water determined by?

2 negative lone pairs pulling away from the positive hydrogens

How many G3P are produced per ONE cycle? (That is, how many are produced per CO2?)

2. 3 CO2 must go in to output one extra G3P for sugar synthesis, because RuBP needs 5 G3P.

How many ATP per glucose in oxidative phosphoryllation?

24-28

What do you add to Celcius to get Kelvin?

273

What are the products of the link reaction?

2CO2, 2 NADH, 2 Acetyl CoA (for two pyruvates)

What is the formula for hydrogen peroxide into water?

2H2O2 --> 2H2O + O2      --catalase-->

what does 2n and n represent?

2n = # of chromosomes in diploid cell n = # of chromosomes in haploid cell/also equals number of pairs of homologous chromosomes

2n and n = what in humans? 

2n = 46 n = 23

What occurs during G2 of interphase?

2x the amount of a G1 cell because S has completed. Currently growing and making final preparations to begin mitosis.

How many H+ per ATP in ATP synthase?

3 H+

What does a sodium-potassium pump exchange? What is the resulting charge?

3 Na+ ions for two K+ ions less charge inside than out

What is a triacylglycerol?

3 fatty acids linked to a glycerol

How many carbons are in pyruvate and how many are in acetyl CoA? Where did the extra carbon go?

3 in pyruvate, 2 in acetyl CoA. The extra carbon oxidized to CO2 and left as a byproduct

In a sodium potassium pump, what goes in and out and in what quantities? What does this do overall?

3 sodium out<div> </div><div>2 potassium in</div><div> </div><div> </div><div>Reduces the charge inside the cell</div>

How many sodium ions are released and how many potassium ions are brought in?

3 sodiums out, 2 potassiums in

What direction is DNA read?

3' ---> 5'

How many ATP per glucose overall?

30-32 / 36-38 (depends on how many ATP you count per NADH/FADH)

What is the efficiency of respiration? That is, what percent of the chemical energy in glucose has been transferred to ATP?

34%

How many H+ are needed to produce 1 ATP?

How many H+ are pumped into the thylakoid space in the ETC between PS II and PS I?

How many different enzymes/hydrolases are in lysosomes?

How many chromosomes (not pairs) are in a human cell during metaphase?

What direction is DNA synthesized?

5' --> 3'

If IRP binds on the 5' end of mRNA, what will it do? 3'?

5' = inhibit translation of mRNA 3' = stabilizes

What does 5' have attached to it in DNA?

5' has a phosphate group attached to it

How many carbons are in RuBP?

5, and it need one more to start the cycle over again

what is the upper limit of centiMorgans?

50 cM; no gene can be more than 50% recombiant

How many molecules of NADPH are consumed per G3P?

What are the products of the Krebs cycle per glucose? (AP studying: no need to have exact quantities, just know what they are)

6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP, 4 CO2 (or 8 NADH and 6 CO2 if you count link reaction)

State the overall photosynthesis equation.

6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP --> C6H12O6 +6O2

How many times does a G protein-linked receptor pass through the membrane?

7 times

The octet rule is _____

8 electrons in the valence shell makes the atom stable -- lone pairs are ok!

How many molecules of ATP are consumed per G3P?

What percent of energy consumed by consumers is lost as heat?

90%

How many chromatids are in a human cell during metaphase?

What is the ratio of a mendellian dihybrid F1 x F1 cross?

9:3:3:1

in labrador dogs: bb makes brown pigment, B_ makes black pigment. E_ allows melanin to be deposited in the first place, ee blocks this (yellow). What will be the phenotypic ratio? What is this type of epistasis called?

9:3:4 recessive epistasis

Corn color is controlled by 2 genes. For purple to be expressed, progeny must have at least 1 copy of a dominant allele per gene. (A_B_) Otherwise, it will be white. (aaBb, AAbb, etc) what is the phenotypic ratio of purple to white if a true breeding purple corn is bred with a true breeding white corn? And what type of epistasis is this?

9:7 double recessive (another example of this are snail shells)

What are integral membrane proteins?

Embedded into the membrane. Polar edges, nonpolar body.

What do peroxisomes do?

- Converts hydrogen peroxide to water, - breaks down fatty acids via oxidayion, - synthesize colesterol, bile acids, myelin - Breaks down excess purines to uric acid when malnourished, but uric acid is poisonous

What is rubisco?

Enzyme responsible for fixing CO2 during the Calvin Cycle An enzyme that fixes ONE CO2 to RuBP, creating a short-lived intermediate that splits into 3-Phosphoglycerate

What is the bombay (Hh) blood group? What's so special about it?

H deficiency is an example of epistasis. H antigen is coded by a recessive allele and is needed to build ABO blood group antigens. People without it will not have them. People without the H antigen can only get transfusions from other people without the H antigen (ABO blood, including O, has the H antigen and will all trigger a reaction) Blood tests do not test for the presence of the H antigen, just the absence/presence of A and B antigens, which is how H deficient blood can be misidentified as O type.

What does phosphofructokinase (PFK) do? (respiration - ap study in bold)

Key control point. Catalyzes the first unique and irreversible reaction in glycolysis. - catalyzes at the 1 position of fructose-6p - phosphorylates an already phosphorylated compound --> biphosphorylation - ATP/citrate/lactic acid inhibits it, AMP activates it

What is the cohesion-tension theory?

Root pressure - Water osmosing into the roots causes pressure to build up in the root, which pushes water up through the xylem Transpiration - Evaporation of water at the stomata creates tension that pulls water upwards. The water is connected by cohesion so everything pulls along.

What is polarity in macroevolution?

Who is an ancestor/ what is an ancestral trait vs who/what is derived

What is penetrance?

group % of individuals with a particular genotype who exhibit the expected phenotype associated with it. If some people with the variant do not develop the phenotype, the condition is said to have reduced (or incomplete) penetrance use if ever faced w/ a question where the phenotype doesnt match the genotype

what is expressivity?

individual the degree to which a character is expressed use if ever faced w/ a question where the phenotype doesnt match the genotype

DNA is read:<div>DNA is synthesized: </div>

List what each represents. I P O Z Y Oc Is

I - Inhibitor P - Promoter O - O Z - lacZ Y - lacY Oc - constitutive operator = always on bc it doesnt bind to repressor Is - super inhibitor = inhibitor always on, nothing will prevent its binding other than a constitutive operator

How much energy does FADH2+ provide relative to NADH? (know the bold)

<div></div><div></div>less 2/3 the amount of energy<div></div>

What is punctuated equillibrium?

<div><div><div><div><div><div>the hypothesis that evolutionary development is marked by isolated episodes of rapid speciation between long periods of little or no change. </div></div></div></div></div></div>

Which g-protein subunit binds the GTP/GDP?

α subunit

<div><div>What happens first when a phage infects a bacterial cell and is going to enter a lysogenic cycle?</div></div><div><div></div></div>

<table><tbody><tr><td>Linear DNA circularizes.</td></tr><tr></tr></tbody></table>

<div><div>RNA viruses require their own supply of certain enzymes because</div></div><div><div><div><div><div> </div></div></div></div></div>

<table><tbody><tr><td>host cells lack enzymes that can replicate the viral genome.</td></tr><tr></tr></tbody></table>

What is pinocytosis?

A cell continually gulps extracellular gluid into tiny vesicles, obtaining the molecules dissolved in the fluid. The vesicle and the pit in the membrane that is formed as the vesicle is forming are coated.

What is phagocytosis?

A cell engulfs a particle by extending a pseudopodia arouind it and packaging it within a membranous sac called a food vacuole.

What is a character? Trait? Alleles?

A character is a heritable feature Trait is a variant of a character An allele is an alternative form of a character

What is a thiol

A chemical that contains a sulfur-hydrogen bond, also called mercaptans.

What is a peptide bond?

A combination of amino acids by a dehydration reaction

What is a centromere?

A constricted region of the chromosome linking 2 sister chromatids, containing 2 discs of kinetochores

what does a corepressor do?

A corepressor activates a repressor allosterically

Gamma radiation emits ____. Why?

A gamma-ray (photon) / to lose excess energy

What is the trans face?

A golgi body's shipping side

Describe, in short, an electron's journey through the two photosystems.

A high energy electron is fed into PS II, and as it falls, it creates an electron gradient which pumps H+ into the thylakoid space. It is boosted up again by PS I, where it is used to create NADPH.

What is the difference between hypotonic and hypertonic? What is isotonic?

A hypotonic solution is less concentrated than the cell, a hypertonic solution is more concentrated than the cell, and isotonic is balanced between the cell and outside solution

What is indirect synaptic transmission?

A neurotransmitter binds to a receptor on the postsynaptic membrane that is not part of an ion channel, activating another kind of signal transduction pathway

What is a glycoprotein?

A protein with carbohydrates covalently bonded to it. Often secratory proteins

What is a ligand?

A small molecule which binds to receptor, either intracellular (must be hydrophobic, eg. steroids) or extracellular (usually hydrophillic)

How does a supercharged engine work like a C4 plant?

A supercharged engine increases O2 pressure going into the engine. A C4 plant separates CO2 so the calvin cycle is only exposed to concentrated CO2.

What are giberellins?

A type of plant growth hormone that stimulates cell division

Describe the relationship between the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle.

A virus could immediately enter the lytic cycle by immediately hijacking the replication machinery. Or, it could enter the lysogenic cycle by incorporating its DNA into the host cell's as a prophage which remains silent until environmental factors trigger their activation and the lytic cycle commenses.

What is a buffer?

A weak acid and its conjugate base Donates an H+ when solution is too basic, and accepts H+ when it's to acidic

Which are control points in glycolysis?

ALL IRREVERSIBLE STEPS 1. hexokinase (Glucose to Glucose -6p) adds a phosphate to prevent it leaving the cell (investment) 3. Phosphofructokinase (Fructose 6p to Fructose 1,6 biphosphate) responds to AMP activation/ATP inhibition by lowering KM in response to AMP/heightening in response to ATP 10. Pyruvate kinase (1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate to 3-phosphoglycerate) releases phosphate to create ATP with an ADP

What are the 6 key mutations that cause cancer?

ALL of these have to be present for cancer to occur - unlimited growth - ignore checkpoints - escape apoptosis - immortality - promote blood bessel growth - overcome anchor & density dependence

What activates PFK-1?

AMP and fructose 2,6 bisphosphate

What inhibits pyruvate kinase?

ATP

What is GTP converted into?

ATP

What inhibits PFK 1?

ATP and citrate

What are the reasons the amount of atp generated varies so widely?

ATP synthesis and the use of NADH are not directly coupled to each other, so the number of ATP per NADH is not a whole number<div> </div><div>ATP yield depends on what molecule (FADH or NADH) electrons in the NADH produced by glycolysis in the cytoplasm attaches itself to</div><div> </div><div>Proton pumping powers other work than just ATP synthesis</div>

How many ATP per NADH?

About 2.5

What are checkpoints triggered by?

Accumulation of signal molecules

What is the difference between biomagnification and bioaccumulation?

Accumulation pertains to harmful substances in a living organism's body and its effects. Magnification deals with the substance being passed along the food chain.

What is epistasis?

Action of genes at one loci modify (may prevent) expression genes at another loci

What does CSD (complementary sex determiner) activate?

Active in bees feminizer is activated, activating female doublesex (dsxf), which turns the bee into female. if there is no feminizer present, male dsx is activated, turning the bee male

How does Xist RNA work?

Acts as a cage enveloping the inactivated X chromosome causes methylation of DNA on the inactive chromosome (Xist RNA is never translated into a protein, just does these functions)

What elements would be involved in an oxidation reaction and how?

Add O or remove H

Purines

Adenine and Guanine Two rings

How is Ras activated?

After a series of phosphorylations originating from the activated RTK, Ras is given GTP and will function

Where is oxygen produced in photosynthesis?

After the splitting of H2O, one oxygen atom is left over as a byproduct. (water must split 2 times to form O2)

What are the products of alcohol fermentation? Lactic acid fermentation?

Alcohol: 2 Ethanol, 2 CO2 Lactic acid fermentation: 2 Lactate

Define an ecosystem.

All the organisms in a community plus abiotic factors

Alpha radiations emits a ______

Alpha partical, which is a helium nucleus (2p & 2n)

What are two human examples of the founder affect?

Amish: polydactylity, dwarfism Native americans: no blood type b

Why are cascades advantageous to an organism?

Amplifies a signal from very little stimuli provides control points

What does 3' have attached to it in DNA?

An -OH group

What is an amino acid comprised of?

An amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen, a carbon (α carbon) and an R group

What is aposematic coloration?

An animal advertizing that it is unpallatable

What absorbs photons from light? How is this energy transferred where it needs to go?

An electron from a pigment gets excited when a photon hits it, which transfers this excitement to an adjacent pigment as it falls back to its ground state

What is hyperpolarization?

An increase in the potential difference between inside and outside of the cell (membrane potential goes down)

Bat wings vs bird wings are an example of what kind of relationship?

Analogous

What does APC mean?

Anaphase promoting complex

Glycogen

Animal version of starch; predominant stoprage form of glucose and carbohydrates in animals Branched glucose polymer

Question: What is genetic diversity?

Answer: The variability within a species due to differences in alleles.

What does the spindle checkpoint (also called APC) look for? What does it trigger (occur between)?

Are all chromosomes attached to the spindle? Metaphase-->Anaphase

How does an action potential propagate?

As depolarization around it occurs, more voltage gated channels will be triggered to open

What is it called when individuals mate with those that have the same phenotype? Does this increase or decrease the diversity in a population?

Assortive mating -- decrease

What is the function of lipid rafts (cholesterol)?

At high temperatures, cholesterol reduces the fluidity of the membrane. At low temperatures, cholesterol increases the fluidity. It acts as a buffer.

When does the cell commit to mitosis?

At the G2/M checkpoint

"<img src=""paste-1a40e7567603b368e007581059669df894fad862.jpg""> 6 is the _____"

Atomic number

Autosomal vs Somatic

Autosomal refers to an autosome -- a chromosome that is not X or Y. Somatic refers to a cell -- a cell that is not a sex cell.

What is bacterial transformation?

Bacterial transformation is a process of horizontal gene transfer by which some bacteria take up foreign genetic material 

Heterozygous advantage and frequency dependents selection are examples of what?

Balancing selection

What is a centriole?

Barrel shaped organelle found near nucleus comprised of 9 bundles of 3 microtubules.

Why aren't identical female twins exactly identical?

Because X chromosome inactivation is random and autonomous

why are levels of enzymes encoded by genes on the X chromosome the same in both males and females even though males have 1 X chromosome and females have 2?

Because all but one X chromosome is inactive in females as Barr bodies

Why is green light reflected in plants?

Because it's useless to photosynthesis, so it isn't absorbed.

Why can only female cats be calico?

Because males only have one X, and so cannot be heterozygous (calico is codominance)

Why are species' fundamental niche often different than their realized niche?

Because of pressure from, and interactions with other organisms (e.g. superior competitors), species are usually forced to occupy a niche that is narrower than their habitat, and to which they are highly adapted.

Why do fats produce ~2x more ATP than carbs?

Because there is more C in a gram of fat and more O in a gram of carbs (making it already partly oxidized)

Why aren't all plants CAM or C4?

Because they both require high energy investment (especially CAM), which makes them uncompetitive in better conditions.  Ex. CAM plants will do well in heat because other plants will just die, but they will be outcompeted in lower temperatures

Before what are the 2 ATPs invested in glycolysis?

Before it splits to continue along the chain in producing 2 pyruvate

What are site-specific inhibitors?

Block enzymes in the ETC from picking up their electrons

Where must an enzyme be for G subunits to interact with them? What might it do to spread the message it receives?

Bound to the plasma membrane Activate intracellular signalling molecules (second messengers) such as cAMP, PIP, kinases, etc

What are the only nonpolar covalent bonds?

Br I N Cl Ho (holmium) F

What is endocytosis?

Bringing material into the cell

How is the Xi (inactive X chomosome) silenced?

By being coated/surrounded by a could of Xist RNA

How do CAM plants segregate CO2 consumption from O2?

By only opening stomata at night (guard cells are flaccid during the day because it's hot). Stomata take in and fix CO2 into malic acid at night which is stored in cell vacuoles. The malic acid is turned into CO2 during the day to fuel the calvin cycle.

How are cyclins signaled to be destroyed?

By using the D-Box, a section in the cyclin protein. D-box is recognized by enzymes which will add ubiquitin molecules to lysines elsewhere in the cyclin protein.

What are carbohydrates comprised of?

C, H, O

When is CAP active?

CAP is only active when glucose levels are low (cAMP levels are high)

What is the warburg effect in photosynthesis?

CO2 uptake decreases with higher O2 concentration because of photorespiration

What is the complementary sex determiner (CSD) and what does it determine?

CSD determines the sex of the bee. If the bee zygote has two copies of CSD (heterozygous) it must've gotten another from a sperm and will develop into a female.  If there is only one copy of CSD (hemizygous), it has not been fertilized and will develop into a male. If there are two copies of CSD, but the allele is identical between both of them, they're technically male but will be neglected and cannibalized.

What is the warburg effect? (rrespiration)

Cancer cells switch to fermentation, which takes a lot more glucose and causes patients to loose weight.

Cis-trans isomers

Carbons bond to the same atoms, but these atoms differ in their spacial arrangement about double bonded carbons.

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Carbonyl<div> </div><div> If this is within a carbon skeleton, it is a ketone (ketose) If this is at the end of a carbon skeleton, it is an aldehyde (aldose)</div>

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Carboxyl Acts as an acid (can donate H+) because the bond between the O and H is so polar

Digestion is catabolic or anabolic?

Catabolic

What do hydrolytic enzymes do and where are they located?

Catalyze hydrolysis, located in lysosomes

What is the endosymbiont theory?

Cell engulfs an oxygen-using non-photosynthetic prokaryote (mitochondria) or a photosynthetic prokaryote (chloroplast) forming an endosymbiont and eventually evolving into a single organism.

What is plasmolysis?

Cell shrinks and shrivels

What is cytolysis?

Cell swells and bursts

What is a turgid cell?

Cell swells as the central vacuole grows - too much water

What occurs during metaphase?

Centrosomes are on opposite poles of the cell Chromosomes are at the metaphase plate

What is cell motillity?

Change in location and in cell part location. Requires aid of motor proteins

What does gene flow result in?

Changes in gene frequencies within a population. •  Immigration often brings new alleles into populations increasing genetic diversity.

What is the plasmodesmata?

Channels between cell walls in plant cells

What is the difference between character displacement and resource partitioning?

Character displacement is an evolutionary change in response to competitive exclusion resource partitioning is the action of changing one's niche in response to competitive exclusion. the best way to describe it is that character displacement is related to evolution

Define electrochemical gradient

Chemical force: concentration gradient Electrical force: the membrane potential's affect on the ion's movement

What organelles with membranes aren't part of the endomembrane system?

Chloroplasts and mitochondria

chromatid vs chromosome?

Chromatid is specifically one strand, chromosome may refer to either one or a duplicated set of two chromatids

Difference between chromatin and chromosomes?

Chromatin: spread-out, present in non-dividing cells Chromosomes: DNA is condensed and wrapped around proteins that support its structure

What is nondisjunction?

Chromosome abnormalities in gametes

What occurs during prophase?

Chromosomes condense Nucleoli (singular, nucleolus) disappear Mitotic spindle forms (microtubules lengthen) propelling centrosomes away from each other Nuclear envelope fragments Kinetochores form, and kinetochore microtubules attach to them

What are the differences between cillia and flagella?

Cillia are shorter and more numerous, flagella are longer and fewer (1-3 per cell)

Describe the cisternal maturation model.

Cis (receiving) cisternae are formed by fusing incoming vesicles from the ER with their proteins inside which move forward and mature into trans (shipping) cisternae, which then pinch off.

What is autophagy?

Cleaning out damaged cell parts, regulated by lysosomes

Why does nondisjunction increase as maternal age increases?

Cohesin between sister chromatids deteriorates and makes sister chromosomes/tetrads more susceptible to nondisjunction

What occurs during anaphase?

Cohesin proteins are cleaved using separase, allowing the two sister chromatids to part, each becoming their own full-fledged chromosome. new chromosomes move towards opposite poles (pac-man model vs inward-flux model) Nonkinetochore microtubules elongate the cell

What is the secondary structure?

Coils and folds in proteins as a result of hydrogen bonds between the polypeptide backbone (not r-groups yet)

What are companion cells?

Companion cells swirl the cytoplasm to push sugar up or down

What does glucose 6-phosphate isomerase do?

Converts between glucose 6-phosphate and fructose 6-phosphate

What does the mitochondria do?

Converts energy (ex. glucose) into ATP

What is a glysodic linkage?

Covalent bonds formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction

What is a monohybrid cross?

Cross involving 1 trait. P generation is crossing true-breeding (homozygous) strains (ex. yy x YY)

What is a dihybrid cross?

Cross involving 2 traits. P generation is always crossing true breeding (homozygous) strains (ex. YYRR x yyrr or yyRR x YYrr)

Which is broken down to control the cyclical behavior of the cell cycle - CDKs or Cyclins?

Cyclins

What is the symplast?

Cytoplasmic continuum connected to each other by the plasmodesmata

Guanine pairs with

Cytosine

Pyrimidines

Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil Only one ring

What occurs during S of interphase?

DNA replication (but it's still chromatin!!!!)

What does molecular evidence of evolution look at?

DNA simillarity Protein simillarity

What is a type I curve? Give example.

Death mostly in later life Humans

What are the symptoms of multiple sclerosis and what causes it?

Demylenization of neurons muscle weakness, fatigue, loss of vision

What are the types of plant tissue?

Dermal - outer protective layer Vascular - phloem and xylem Ground - not dermal or vascular, does storage, photosynthesis, etc

Structural Isomers

Differ in the covalent arrangement of their atoms

What do lysosomes do?

Digest food

What did Howard and Pelc do?

Discover there was a distinct S-phase

What did Masui and Market do?

Discovery of MPFs Presence of progesterone in frog eggs trigger the release of something else (cyclins) in the cytoplasm that triggers cell division tested this by inkecting progesterone exposed cytoplasm into naive eggs, which triggered mitosis. Proved this factor was made in the cytoplasm by extracting the nucleus and it still worked

What is the cause of aneuploidity?

Disjunction

What is EDA? (hint: has to do w/ x-inactivation)

Disorder where skin has no sweat glands. Expressed on the entirety of a male's body, as they only have one X chromosome, but only in patches in females, wherever their carrier gene was expressed.

How do perms work?

Disulfide bonds connecting keratin in hair is broken by ammonium thioglycolate (thiol). The hair is then manipulated then treated with hydrogen perozide which is an oxidizing agent that reforms the disulfide bonds in the desireable position.

How is a disulfide bond broken?

Disulfides love thiols and will react with anything with an SH (thiol) stuck to it. This breaks the S-S bond.

What will happen if you inject double stranded RNA for a muscle protein into C. elegans? Single stranded sense or antisense RNA? Why?

Double stranded RNA will activate RNAi, which will destroy all muscle protein mRNA and cause twitching. Single stranded is accepted normally.

What do proton pumps do? (not how they function)

Drive the active transport of many different solutes

What is the story of Napoleon III?

Elected president after Revolutions of 1848, took power in 1851 as Emperor. Conservative realpolitik, so supported nationalism because it made France stronger/unified

What are cytochromes?

Electron carriers down the ETC, all the way until O2. Their iron atom accepts and donates the electrons.

Where does PS I get its electrons from?

Electrons coming from the cytochrome complex from PS II

What is linear electron flow in photosynthesis?

Electrons go through the light reactions (photosystems/ETC) as normal, then goes on to NADPH, then to the calvin cycle

How are electrons moved in cells and how does this effect our definition of oxidation?

Electrons must be moved as part of H atoms. Moving H = move electrons. ex. C6H12O6 oxidizes to 6CO2 (H is removed)

Eukaryotic equivalent of an operon?

Enhancer

What is a chaperonin?

Ensures proper folding by keeping the protein from disruption while folding

Hyper and hypotonic refer to the solute concentration in the

Environment

Is oxidation exergonic or endergonic?

Exergonic Releases energy

Only eukaryotes have promoters. T or F?

F<div> </div><div>Both eukaryote and prokaryotes have promoters (you may be thinking of enhancers which are eukaryote only)</div>

What did Overton do?

FIRST (1895) Cell membrane is made of lipids, so small nonpolar substances pass through most quickly

What did Danielli and Davson do?

FOURTH (1935) Theorized that proteins sandwiched the cell membrane. They were WRONG but correctly said that proteins were associated with the membrane

What are supersisters? What percent of their DNA do they inherit from each of their parents?

Female workers normally inherit just 50% of their mother's DNA and 100% of their father's. Supersisters havet the same father, and so share 75% of their DNA.

Are more females or males affected by an x-linked dominant trait?

Females (double the chance to recieve and x-linked trait as males only recieve one x and females recieve 2)

What happens to the products of glycolysis when O2 isn't present?

Fermentation, minimal ATP provided, recycles NADH and NAD+, produces lactic acid (bacteria/mold) or CO2 + ethanol (yeasts/plants)

What is a zygote?

Fertilized egg

What are demosomes?

Filiments made of keratin fasten cells together into strong sheets.

How do you calculate map units?

Find the percent of the time that two potentially linked alleles end up apart. If this percent is less than 50% (ex. 25%) they're linked and 25 map units apart. If it's 50, they're not linked and likely not even on the same chromosome.

What are cisternae?

Flattened vesicles that comprise the Golgi apparatus.

What does FRAP stand for?

Flouresence Redistribution After Photobleaching

What is the apoplastic route?

Flow through the area between the cell membrane and the cell wall. Fast, but not as clean. Can't get through the Casparian Strip

What is the symplastic route?

Flow through the symplast (inside cell membrane)

Would a membrane of shorter, less dense lipids be more fluid or more solid?

Fluid

What do lysosomes break down?

Food, bacteria, worn out cell parts

What is the preprophase band?

Formed during prophase, predicts cell division plane. Phragmoplast (scaffold for cell plate assembly) and cell plate/new cell wall form along this line during cytokinesis.

How many hydrogen bonds can a single water molecule form?

Four

What direction does mRNA read in?

From 5' to 3'

What is the molecule before the former glucose splits into two molecules on its way to producing pyruvate?

Fructose 1,6 bisphosphate

Up to 60% of all medicines used today exert their effects by influencing what structures in the cell membrane?

G proteins

What are the three phases of interphase and what do each of them do?

G1 - cell grows S - synthesis - DNA duplicates G2 - cell grows some more,  & duplicates organelles

What checkpoint do MPFs regulate?

G2/M

What does genetic drift lead to?

Genetic drift causes allele frequencies to change at random Genetic drift can lead to a loss of genetic variation within populations Genetic drift can cause harmful alleles to become fixed

What is the reducing agent in respiration?

Glucose

What is the fate of glucose in the liver?

Glycogen synthesis, pentose phosphate, and glycolysis

Describe the relationship between growth factors and cancer. What are the types of these growth factors called?

Growth factors can create cancers proto-oncogenes / oncogenes tumor-suppressor genes

How do H+ ions get into the intermembrane space?

H atoms go into the ETC, are stripped of electrons which leave the proton behind, proton is picked up by transport protein and pumped into the intermembrane space

In what direction does ATP synthase pump H+ ions in a thylakoid?

H+ ions inside thylakoid --> stroma

What is the light phase? What are its products, and what does it use?

H2O + light is converted into NADPH and ATP with the use of photosystems II and I and ETCs

Describe the photosynthesis equation

H2O and CO2 use sunlight to transform into glucose and oxygen.

"What does the G2/M checkpoint look for?"

Has DNA synthesis been completed correctly?

What are the investment steps in glycolysis?

Hexokinase, phosphofructokinase

Where is H+ concentration high and where is it low? (In chloroplasts)

High in the thylakoid space, low in the stroma

How does FRAPing work?

High-intensity lasers bleach florescent molecules. They are observed to see how the molecules move/how long it takes for them all to diffuse.

Water flows from areas of _______ water potential to ________ water potential

High<div>Low</div>

What are DNA strands wrapped around?

Histones

the bone structure of all mammals' forearms is evidence of what?

Homology

What is analogy the same as?

Homoplasy

What are peripheral proteins?

Hydrophillic and located on the surface of the bilayer. Connected by electrostatic forces.

What are lipid-anchored proteins?

Hydrophillic, attatched to the bilayer by covalent bonds to lipids in the bilayer

What kind of ligand can bind to an intracellular receptor? Why?

Hydrophobic ligands such as hormones, because only hydrophobic molecules can pass through the cell membrane.

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Hydroxyl Group<div> </div><div>Acts as base Makes molecules polar (helps the compounds dissolve) Alcohol</div>

List the stages of the cell cycle, in order.

IPMATC Interphase prophase metaphase anaphase telophase cytokinesis

What does IRP 1 do when its environment is saturated with iron?

IRP 1 will bind to the iron rather the IRE, preventing its uptake.

What happens during iron deficiency with IRP and IRE? What is the effect of this?

IRP binding to IREs causes increases in the amount of TfR on the cell membrane and decreases in the amount of intracellular ferritin, thus increasing iron uptake and decreasing iron storage.

What did Flemming do?

Identify that there were stages in a cell cycle

Considering the competitive exclusion principle, why may it be harmful to transport a species such as a rabbit, to another habitat where it currently does not exist?

If a new species is introduced to an area, it may occupy a similar niche as a native species and be better adapted for the niche to have no natural predators. This could drive the native species to extinction

Why would a cell enter G0?

If it does not recieve a signal at G1/S

What would happen to a cell if a protein that regulates the G2/M checkpoint was disabled?

If it fails, then the daughters end up with damaged DNA. The G2/M checkpoint ensures the proper duplication of DNA and if it fails, the cells may undergo nondisjunction of chromosomes. (basically it = mutations)

Why is the G1/S checkpoint most important?

If the cells receives a go-ahead signal, it usually completes the cell cycle and divides. If not, it enters G0

What's the difference between benign and malignant tumors?

In benign tumors, abnormal cells remain at the original site because p53 has halted cell divisions. Malignant tumors can leave the original site and may be carried by blood to start new tumors (this spread is called metastasis)

K goes<div> </div><div>Na goes</div>

In out 

Where are receptor proteins located?

In the plasma membrane, or inside the cell if the signaling molecule can diffuse through the membrane (must be small and hydrophobic, ie steroid hormones)

Where are neurotransmitters located in the pre-synaptic cell?

In vesicles, waiting for the cue to be released

What is the allee effect?

Individuals in some species are more fit when their population densities are high.

Lac is a __________  operon 

Inducible

What does cholera toxin do?

Inhibits GTPase activity of α-subunit, causing the GPCR to stay permanently on (alpha subunit permanently bound) which causes too much NA+ to be taken out, and water follows, leading to dehydration

What do C4 plants do differently?

Initially fixes CO2 using PEP carboxylase in the mesophyll

What is cyclic electron flow in photosynthesis?

Instead of feeding electrons from PS I into NADP+ reductase, ferredoxin cycles electrons back to the cytochrome complex, into PS I, and repeat. This creates a proton gradient for ATP synthesis, but no NADPH or oxygen production

What do ionic bonds form?

Ions (full transfer of electrons -- held together by the force between the oppositely charged atoms)

Where does the lost chemical energy (from the non-perfect efficiency of glucose -> ATP energy transfer) go? How is it used?

It becomes heat energy. It is used to keep a high body temperature, and any excess is disapated as sweat etc

How much ATP is invested into the Calvin cycle PER G3P, what does it do, and when?

It gives another phosphate group to each 3-phosphoglycerate, turning it into 1,3 Biphosphoglycerate 2 3-phosphoglycerate per CO2, 3 CO2 per G3P = 6 ATP<div> </div><div>Except that 3 more atp are invested to regenerate rubp</div>

What does malate do in C4 plants?

It is taken into bundle sheath cells and converted into CO2 for rubisco's use so the calvin cycle can then occur without the presence of oxygen

What does it mean when we say Ferritin is the primary intracellular storage protein for iron?

It means that ferritin is located in the cell, not floating freely

What makes C4 plants effective at stopping photorespiration?

It separates carbon fixation in the mesophyll, where O2 is also present, with the calvin cycle, which takes place in bundle sheath cells in C4 plants

What keeps O2 outside and CO2 inside the bundle sheath cells once malate is converted into it?

Its waxy exterior

K vs R species -- which are predators, usually?

K species

K vs R species -- which invests more in its young?

K species

K vs R species -- which is more suited to specialization?

K species

K vs R species -- which are individually, better competitors?

K species individuals

What happens at the peak of an action potential to repolarize it?

K+ channels are opened

Why is the neuron hyperpolarized after repolarization? What works against this hyperpolarization?

K+ channels are slow to close. Sodium-potassium pumps work against this lag in the interrum

K vs R species -- which is longer-lived?

K-species

What are the two main types of life history strategies?

K-strategists, R strategists.

What are the different roles of microtubules that extend from the mitotic spindle?

Kinetochore microtubules - attatch chromososmes to spindle pole (mitotic spindle) Overlapping nonkinetochore microtubules: elongate the cell by pushing apart from each other during anaphase Asters - who knows! They grow into contact w/ plasma membrane by metaphase, though

List the taxonomical order

Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species King Phillip Came Over From Great Spain

How does a Langmuir-Blodgett trough work?

Known amount of oil added, then a movable barrier slides to compress the oil until the maximum pressure is reached. Then there is a monolayer.

"What does ""Large, Random, MNM"" stand for?"

Large population size random mating no mutation no natural selection no migration (drift)

What are the two methods of controlling an Na+ channel?

Lf (ligand-gated) / Vf (voltage-gate) -- Na+ channels will open in response to ligands and others will open in response to voltage inactivation gate - located on the Vf channel / When the voltage becomes too positive inside the membrane, the channel will close again and stay closed no matter what for a short period of time (absolute refractory period).

List the steps of the adenylate cyclase Pathway

Ligand -> adenylate cyclase -> cAMP -> PKA -> cascade -> break down starch 

How do receptor-linked tyrosine kinases (RTKs) function?

Ligand binding causes receptor dimerization (ligand binds to two halves of a receptor, and the ligand forms a bond that makes the receptor a dimer)

What splits water in photosynthesis?

Light

How is the rate of photosynthesis affected by light intensity? CO2 concentration? Temperatrure?

Light intensity: As light intensity goes up, photosynthesis rate curves up CO2 concentration: As CO2 concentration goes up, photosynthesis is logarithmic, first going up and then levelling out Temperatrure: As temperature goes up, photosynthesis rate displays parabolic growth, with a vertex of highest efficiency.

What are steroids?

Lipids characterized a carbon skeleton of 4 rings

Where do peroxisomes function mostly?

Liver cells

What is phragmoplastin and its function?

Located across a newly formed cell plate, w/ higher concentration at the ends where vescicle fusion is most active. Disappears once cell plate is completed Function: Creating VTV (vesicle-tubule-vesicle) structures at the forming cell plate

IREs are what?

Loop configuration of nucleotides at the ends of mRNA coding for ferritin, TfR, or other related proteins. It mostly functions as the point where IRPs bind if the cell wants to increase the amount of iron uptake and use.

In the extracellular environment, K+ concentrations are ___________ and Na+ concentrations are ___________

Low high

Water goes from areas of ________ osmolarity to _______ osmolarity.

Low<div> </div><div> </div><div>High</div><div> </div><div> </div><div>(Osmolarity is level of solute concentration)</div>

How does MAP kinase activate transcription?

MAP Kinases enter the n uclous and phosphorylate specific transcription factors that will activate specific genes

What does the cytoskeleton do?

Mainain cell shape, move organelles around, made of proteins (microfilaments and microtubules), cell motillity

"Which sex ""determines"" the gender of offspring?"

Male, because for offspring to be male, the y chromosome has to be donated. other x chromosome also comes from them for females

"<img src=""paste-1a40e7567603b368e007581059669df894fad862.jpg""> 14 is the _____"

Mass number

What do mutations result in? (3)

May change gene frequencies (small population). • Source of new alleles for selection. • Often lost by genetic drift.

What are vacuoles?

Membrane-bound fluid-filled sacks for storage and digestion. Very large (70%) of plant cells, small or absent in animals, absent in bacteria

Define the fluid-mosaic model.

Membranes are a fluid mosaic of components, which keeps proteins and lipids asymmetric.

APC / C checkpoint takes place when?

Metaphase to anaphase

Which amino acids contain sulfur?

Methionine and Cysteine

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Methyl group Nonreactive but serves as a recongizable tag on biological molecules Affects gene expression when on DNA. Affects shape and function of sex hormones.

How is Xist RNA transcription prevented in active X chromosomes? (applicable to both males and females)

Methylation of the Xist gene's promoter region (XIC)

Describe what a microarray assay is and then a nucleic acid hybridization

Microarray assay is mRNA -> labeled cDNA and then see what probes it binds to<div> </div><div> </div><div>Nucleic acid hybridization is similar, but it's bacteria colonies and the probes will bind to the gene of interest</div>

What are mitotic spindles made of?

Microtubules

What are stomata?

Minute openings in leaves to allow CO2, H2O, and oxygen to diffuse in and out of the plant.

What are MPFs?

Mitosis Promoting Factor = CDK + Cyclin

Golgi bodies do what?

Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for transport outside of the cell / for storage

What are microcorrhizae?

Mutual association between fungi and roots

What direction is a protein synthesized?

N-terminus to C-terminus

Oxidized form of NADH?

NAD+ (lost electrons)

What do C3 plants do differently?

NOTHING, C3 plants are normal !! :> (wow normie much boring hey can you tell im tired and its 12:21 AM?)

The resting potential exists because ions are concentrated on different sides of the membrane. Which ions are inside and which ions are outside of a typical resting cell?

Na+ and Cl- outside the cell. K+ and organic anions inside the cell.

How do neurotransmitters propagate a signal from one neuron to another?

Neurotransmitter binding changes the receptor's shape to open an ion channel directly.

Do prokaryotic cells have lysosomes?

No (because they're membrane-bound!)

What is root pressure and guttation?

No photosynthesis at night but roots continue to take in water and minerals, which builds pressure.  When this pressure gets too large, guttation may occur.

what is the competitive exclusion principle?

No two species can occupy the same exact niche in the same habitat at the same time, so they compete for resources and mates

Do different phenotypes necessarily indicate different genotypes?

No, environment plays a role

Does GLUT4 regulate glucose uptake in the liver and brain?

No. They use others (GLUT1/2/3). Insulin is not very liver related! IT WORKS FIR FAT AND ADIPOSE TISSUE. Insulin indirectly promotes glucose uptake in liver (increased phosphorylation  (trapping) No affect on brain<div> </div><div>(If you're thinking of glycogen, that's glucokinase, which responds to glucose concentration)</div>

What is the G0 phase?

Non-dividing, differentiated, working state

What occurs during G1 of interphase?

Normal growth

What could you use if you wanted to not kill any of the bacteria but identify which colony got the gene?

Nucleic acid hybridization with rna (can you extract rna without killing cell???? Or somehow insert the labeled (due not radioactive) rna without triggering rnai )

"What is the order of the ""protein assembly line""?"

Nucleus (Transcription) Ribosomes Endoplasmic Reticulum Golgi Apparatus Vesicles

"What is the ionization constant? ""i"" in solute potential calculations...."

Number of ions an ionic compound breaks into in solution

What factors affect transpiration rate?

Number of leaves, stomata, thicker/thinner cuticle (thicker slows evaporation), light (stomata open in sunlight), temperature, relative humidity etc

What is oxidation state/number? What are the oxidation numbers of oxygen and hydrogen?

Number that represents the number of electrons lost or gained to create a perfect octet, ie form a bond Oxidation # of oxygen = -2 Oxidation # of hydrogen = 1

Define obligate anaerobe and faculative anaerobe.

Obligate = required to use fermentation to respirate, no mitochondria Faculative = advanced cells (eg muscle cfells) can switch between aerobic and anaerobic respiration according to need

What is secondary succession?

Occurs after a major disturbance happens and the soil still remains. (forest fire)

Where is the G-protein in G-protein-linked systems when it is active? Inactive?

On the interior of the plasma membrane. When active, it is bound to the activated receptor and given a GTP. When inactive, it is apart from it and is bound to a GDP

What does the principle Competitive Exclusion say will happen when 2 species compete for the same resource?

One species will be better suited to the niche, and the other species will either be pushed into another niche or become extinct

What is quartenary structure?

Overall protein structure that results from interactions between multiple polypeptides - Hydrophobic reactions - Hydrogen bonds - Ionic bonds - Disulfide bridges

What is tertiary structure?

Overall shape of a polypeptide from interactions between R-groups - Hydrophobic reactions - Hydrogen bonds - Ionic bonds - Disulfide bridges

What is the oxidizing agent in respiration?

Oxygen

"What ""pulls"" electrons down the ETC?"

Oxygen's high electron affinity (also called electronegativity/low oxidation number)

What is a redox reaction?

Oxygen-reduction reaction where - energy released by a spontaneous reaction is converted to electricity OR - electrical energy is used to make a nonspontaneous reaction occur

What is the strongest oxidizing agent in biology? Why does it need to be that strong?

P680+ because it splits H2O, which forms very strong covalent bonds, to replenish its electron. P680 must be able to pull out the electrons from the H.

What is facillitated diffusion?

PASSIVE TRANSPORT uses transport proteins to move through concentration gradient  (eg. aquaporins)

Describe what PEP carboxylase does to CO2

PEP carboxylase catalyzes CO2 --> oxaloacetate, a short-lived intermediate product that is converted into malate

Where does the excited electron eventually end, and in what molecule? Give an answer for both PS II and PS I.

PS II - P680 pair of chlorophyll a, PS II reaction center complex PS I - P700 pair of chlorophyll a, PS I reaction center complex

What does antagonism include? (3)

Parasitism • Predation • Competition

Nucleolus? What is this?

Part of the nucleus that builds ribosomes from rRNA and proteins

What is simple diffusion?

Passive down concentration gradient (eg. oxygen or water diffusing through the membrane)

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Phosphate group Contributes a negative charge and gives the attatched molecule the ability to release energy when reacting with water

What is gas exchange?

Photosynthesis and respiration (CO2 in, O2 out)

What are pioneer species? In what kind of succession are they applicable?

Pioneer species such as mosses and lichens can break down rock into smaller pieces. • When they die, their remains may mix with the pieces of rock forming a thin layer of soil • They change the ecosystem in ways that enable the support of more diverse species

What are tight junctions?

Plasma membranes of neightboring cells pressed tightly together and bound by proteins, forming a barrier to prevent extracellular fluid from getting through (eg. water on your skin)

What does the anchored-protein picket model do say?

Plasmomembrane is partitioned into domains by the actin based membrane skeleton and the proteins anchored to it. Steric hinderance: things can't diffuse through the proteins Circumferential slowing: Since these proteins aren't flowing with the rest of the membrane, they slow the flow around them.

What are the components of the ETC between PS I and PS II?

Plastoquinone (Pq) - electron carrier Cytochrome complex Plastocyanin (Pc) - protein

What are Van der Waals forces?

Polarity attraction between surfaces from random electron position. Occurs just by chance.

What are nuclear pores?

Pores to allow the entry and exit of molecules through the nucleus

What pressure (positive or negative) does the phloem utilize?

Positive pressure - pressure flow (xylem diffuses water into the sieve tube around the source which builds pressure)

What makes water potential positive? Negative?

Pressure<div> </div><div>Solutes</div>

What occurs during interphase I?

Pretty much the same as mitosis's interphase. Chromosomes replicate in S as usual

What does gene flow do to a population? Give two answers.

Prevent speciation reduce genetic variation between two populations

What is pertussis and how does it damage us?

Prevents alpha subunit from interacting with GPCRs. In this case, the alpha subunit should inhibit the effector enzyme from producing cAMP, so with pertusis we have increased intracellular cAMP levels which affects normal biological signaling pertussis toxin results in whopping cough

What does ferredoxin do?

Primary electron acceptor from PS I, feeds electrons to NADP+ reductase

How do prions differ from viruses?

Prions are infectious proteins that cause disease - contain no nucleic acid. It is a single molecule.

What is autolysis?

Programmed cell death destroyed by their own enzymes, often those released by lysosomes

What is the difference between the promoter and the enhancer? What binds to each of them?

Promoter is nearby control wehre RNA polymerase & transcription factors bind Enhancers are distant control sequences where activator proteins bind

What are promoting factors and growth factors?

Promoting factors - internal signals (ex. size, nutrition) Growth factors - external signals (ex. progesterone)

When does the mitotic spindle begin to form? When is it fully in place? When does it move the chromasomes apart?

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase

Ribosomes

Protein factories that join amino acids to make proteins.

Describe the vesicular transport model.

Proteins move across distinct regions of the golgi body, moving to each subsequent cisterna by budding off the end of the previous cisterna.  (As opposed to the indestinct constantly forward-moving cisternae described in the cisternal maturation model)

What are carrier proteins?

Proteins that change shape to move material from one side to another. Can extend through membrane or can bond to and drag things across the membrane.

The heterokaryon (fused mouse/human cell) experiment proved what?

Proteins will evenly distribute themselves across the membrane via diffusion if given time.

What is chemiosmosis?

Proton pumps pump protons against their electrochemical gradient into the cell which stores energy Subsequent protons passing down the electrochemical gradient releases energy

What are gap junctions?

Provide cytoplasmic channels from once cell to another which small molecules (eg. ions, sugars, animo acids) can pass through. Important for communication between cells.

What is turgor pressure?

Provides pressure to plant cells - maintained by water in the central vacuole Helps with structural support to hold up stems and leaves

What does the electron transport chain between PS II and PS I do?

Pumps H+ ions into the thylakoid space

What has the highest water potential?

Pure water

K vs R species -- which is more fecund?

R species

Growth factors' receptors are often what?

RTKs

How is the x chromosome that a female expresses determined?

Randomly during early embryonic development (some time when there are relatively few chromosomes (estimates range from 32-400)) All cells that divide from these ~32 original cells will have the random X chromosome from the cell it originates from.   This leads to the single X chromosome's activation in patches on a female's body. It is inactivation of the one X chromosome, not the activation of one.

What are MAP kinases and what do they do?

Ras activates MAP kinases through a phosphorylation cascade, where MAP kinases go on to enter the nucleus and activate transcription

What is the driving factor from one phase to the next in the cell cycle?

Regulatory proteins CDKs & cyclins

What is/are secondary messenger(s)? What stage of the signalling pathway is this?

Relay molecules such as cAMP, Ca++ (neurotransmitters,) etc. transduction

What elements would be involved in a reduction reaction and how?

Remove O, add H

What is a pyramid of biomass/what does it demonstrate? What is its orientation?

Represents the amount of energy contained in a biomass, at different trophic levels for a particular instant. Demonstrates the amount of matter lost between two trophic levels Can either be upright or inverted (aquatic only)

What is a pyramid of numbers? How is it shaped?

Represents the number of organisms in each trophic level. Shape varies from ecosystem to ecosystem because the number of organisms at each level is variable.

Trp is a ________ operon

Repressible

What is the pasteur effect? (respiration)

Respiration (glucose consumption) is slow in the presence of oxygen. It gets faster without O2 because fermentation is occuring and less ATP is being produced, thus no PFK inhibition.

What is repolarization?

Returning to the resting membrane potential from either direction

Rf values pretain to chromatography. How do you calculate them? What does an RF value close to 1 mean, as opposed to one close to 0?

Rf value is the distance traveled by the solvent (most polar) over the solute you are interested in. An RF value close to 1 means that the solute of interest is more polar. An RF value close to 0 means that the solute is more nonpolar

There is no checkpoint in the cell cycle between ______

S and G2

Where is there not a checkpoint?

S/G2 M/C C/G1

What did Langmuir and Blodgett do?

SECOND (1917) Invented Langmuir trough which forms a monolayer of a amphiphilic molecule on the surface of water. Katherine Blodgett proved that these monolayers could be stacked to form multilayer films. Proved the orientation of amphillic molecules. (polar side faces the water, non-polar faces away)

What would cause an XX individual to develop into a male?

SRY attached to an X chromosome during cross-over

What would cause an XY individual to develop into a female?

SRY region is missing (lost in cross-over)

What is isotonic?

Same concentration in two solutions/cells

How does SDS-PAGE work?

Separates proteins according to their mass. SDS binds to proteins making them negatively charged, so they're pulled through the gel matrix at the top positive end to the negative bottom end. bigger/higher-mass proteins will travel through the gel matrix more slowly than smaller/less-mass proteins, which allows us to sort them by mass.

What is the primary structure?

Sequence of amino acids

What are STRs?

Short tandem repeats, repetitive sequences in non-coding DNA. number of repetitions vary from person to person, can be PCRd to measure differences

What can fossil evidence show us?

Show extinct species, relationships between current and ancient organisms, as well as intermediate species

What does geographical distribution (evolution evidence) look for?

Similar environments lead to similar traits. AND island species most closely resemble mainland species. plus populations can show variation from one island to another

What is a cleavage furrow?

Site at which cell stars pinching apart

What is a metapopulation? Why are they good?

Smaller, fragmented parts of a larger overall population. Members of one metapopulation will occasionally move from one to another, reducing the risk of extinction and increasing denetic diversity.

How does soap break down oils?

Soap has a polar end and a nonpolar end. The nonpolar end binds to the nonpolar oil and the polar end can dissolve in water.

Would a membrane of long, highly concentrated lipids make for a more fluid or more solid membrane?

Solid

What is hypotonic?

Solute concentration inside cell is HIGHER, so water diffuses INTO the cell. SWELLING occurs.

What is hypertonic?

Solute concentration inside cell is LOWER, so water diffuses OUT OF the cell. SHRIVELING occurs.

What is facultative CAM?

Some plants, such as ice plants, can switch to CAM when temperatures rise. As temperatures rise, photosynthetic efficiency goes down, and malic acid concentration rises.

What is receptor-mediated endocytosis?

Specialized type of pinocytosis that involves receptor proteins binding to wanted solutes that are then gulped into a vesicle. These vesicles contain some extra unwanted solutes, but many more of the wanted solutes.

What is catastrophism?

Species disappear due to a catastrophic event

What is a hydration shell?

Sphere of water molecules around a dissolved ion - surrounds each individual ion and separates them

Difference between spongy form and palisade in the mesophyll?

Spongy form: bottom of leaf, has stomata in it, few/no chloroplasts, spongy with space to trap CO2 Palisade: chloroplasts because it's exposed to the sun

An exergonic reaction is... (spontaneous/not, catabolic/anabolic, free energy?)

Spontaneous, catabolic, products have less free energy than reactants (release of energy) Complex molecule broken into simpler ones

What do golgi bodies look like?

Stacks of flattened sacs

What's the difference between steroid hormones and nonsteroid hormones?

Steroid hormones are lipids and therefore can diffuse through the cell membrane, so it can act on intracellular receptors

State the type of phosphorylation that takes place in glycolysis, link reaction, Kreb's, and the ETC

Substrate level, N/A, substrate level, oxidative

What does the phloem transport and in what direction?

Sugars and nutreints, from source to sink

What is bulk flow?

Sugars made via photosynthesis (calvin cycle) are loaded into the floem, creating positive pressure in the source which gets it to move down its pressure gradient to the sink where it is lacking.

What can G3P create?

Sugars, but also fatty acids and amino acids

Do prokaryotes have membrane?

Surrounded by a plasma membrane, but no internal membrane-bound organelles

A pairs with

T (or u)

What did Gorter and Grendel do?

THIRD (1925) Showed that the lipids specifically in the membrane were amphiphilic, and that they formed a bilayer. Used the Langmuir trough in their experiment.

What does the rate of diffusion rely on?

Temperature, electrical charges, size of molecuiles, concentration gradient

What is callose?

Temporary cellulose equivalent in damaged or stressed cell walls

What is the shape of a molecule where 4 covalent bonds are formed with carbon?

Tetrahedron

An orbital is ______

The 3D spoace where an electron is found 90% of the time.

Cooperation among species increasing fitness is an example of what?

The Allee effect

What is RuBP?

The CO2 acceptor in the Calvin cycle. Accepts one CO2 per cycle

Where does a ligand bind in G-protein-linked systems?

The G-protein-linked receptor, embedded in the plasma membrane

Why and when is a pyramid of biomass occasionally inverted?

The biomass some aquatic producers produce per year is grater than the biomass per year of the primary consumer, but the amount there at any one time is less.

What is metabolism?

The coordination of digestion and synthesis, regulated by enzymes

What is the N-terminus?

The end of a protein primary structure where the amino acid isn't part of the peptide bond.

What is the C-terminus?

The end of the protein primary structure ending in a carbonyl group

What does specific heat capacity mean?

The energy needed to raise one gram of substance by 1 Celcius

What is an effector enzyme and what does it do?

The enzyme that the α subunit activates. It will produce second messengers.

What is primary succession?

The establishment of a new biological community in an area of bare rocks

What is the founder effect, and what does it cause in a population?

The founder effect occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population Allele frequencies in the small founder population can be different from those in the larger parent population, reducing genetic diversity

What does incomplete dominance look like?

The heterozygote is a third NEW phenotype: A BLEND of the dominant and recessive phenotypes

What does codominance look like?

The heterozygote is a third new phenotype: the expression of both ex. patchy red-and-white flower ex. AB blood cells ex. speckled chicken

Why can't an action potential flow backwards?

The inactivation gates on voltage-gated Na+ channels are closed, and will not reopen for a short period of time, so that another action potential can't occur directly after the first

What is carbon fixation?

The incorporation of CO2 into organic material

What is the mesophyll?

The inner tissue of a leaf, contains the spongy form and palisade

What are sieve tubes?

The live cells lining the phloem. Sugar is loaded into them from photosynthesis at the source.

What's the difference between the lysogenic cycle and the lytic cycle?

The lytic cycle destroys the host and replicates its own DNA. The lysogenic cycle incorporates its DNA with the host's, and it gets replicated alongside the host's.

How are the nuclear envelope and endoplasmic reticulum related?

The nuclear envelope is continuous with the ER

Which compound is oxidized?

The one that loses the electron

Where are chloroplasts located?

The palisade

How do aphid stylets help researchers collect sap via stylectomy?

The phloem runs on positive pressure, and so when aphids stick stylets into them, sap naturally flows in because it has less pressure. Researchers just cut off the aphids once the stylets are inserted to collect sap.

What is diffusion?

The process by which molecules move from an area of higher concentration to a lower concentration to reach equillibrium

What is translocation?

The process of loading sugar into the phloem.

What is the force of the H+ gradient called?

The proton-motive force

What exactaly is uncoupled in uncoupling?

The rates if electron transport and ATP synthesis

What happens to the G-protein linked receptor when a ligand binds?

The receptor undergoes a conformational change, enabling it to bind to the inactive G-protein. Once bound, the G-protein ejects its GDP to be replaced with GTP, and the G-protein's α subunit dissociates from the beta and gamma subunits where they interact with target molecules within the membrane before hydrolizing back to GDP and reassocating with the other subunits.

what is Protein Kinase A (PKA)'s role in the adenylate cyclase g-protein-activated signal transduction pathway? What does it do? What activates it?

The target enzyme which phosphorylates further downstream target enzymes through a cascade, leading to the breakdown of starch into glucose<div> </div><div>cAMP activates it</div>

"Define ""life history"""

The traits that affect an organism's schedule of reproduction and survival make up

What is the membrane potential?

The voltage (electrical potential energy) across the membrane. Cells are negative on the inside, so they favor cations in and anions out

What does the mattress model say?

There are areas that are thicker and thinner in the membrane, which is caused by alpha-helixes in proteins. These alpha-helixes affect the polar/nonpolar regions of integral membrane proteins, and so the lipids in the bilayer conform to however large/small the nonpolar region is.

What is the cleavage furrow formed by?

There is a contractile ring of actin microfilaments, which interact with myosin molecules, causing it to contract like a drawstring. This contractile ring is on the cytoplasmic side of the cell.

How do G-protein complexes get shut off?

There is inherent GTPase activity involved with the g-protein, so that the GTP will automatically degrade into GDP because the alpha subunit has used up the energy from the phosphate bond (I think -- this makes GPCR desensitization and internalization sort of redundant though so I was planning on asking for clarification in class)

What methods do plants use to prevent wilting?

They close stomata, or don't have many stomata in the first place

What do mitochondria and chloroplasts have in common?

They have their own DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes, they transform energy, have two membranes, semi-autonomous (change shape, divide, and move on their own)

What does 5' and 3' indicate?

They indicate the carbon numbers in the DNA's sugar backbone. 

How do lysosomes digest?

They lyse (break open) and release digestive enzymes

How can the phospholipids in the cell membrane allow small molecules passage?

They move laterally, allowing small molecules (nonpolar especially, but water can get in because it's so small)

Describe the function of carotenoids in plants.

They protect against oxidative damage from excessive light energy

What is the function of kinetochores?

They serve as points of attachment for kinetochore spindle microtubules

What is it about double bonds? (and triple bonds etc.)

They're inflexible, so atoms can't twist around them (forms cis-trans isomers)

What are microfilaments?

Threadlike, made of actin

How do plants absorb water?

Through osmosis/aquaporins

What is the purpose of the spongy form?

To exchange gases - diffusion of CO2 in, O2 out. Controlled by guard cells and stomata

What is the folded inner membrane of the mitochondria (cistae) folded for?

To increase surface area

Why does the liver take up so much glucose and what enzyme does it use to do so?

To regulate blood sugar (takes any excess sugar out) glucokinase

What is polygenetic inheritance?

Traits controlled by more than one gene. They show continuous veriation rather than a few descrete forms. ex. eye color, height, hair color, skin color

What will happen if an enhancer fails to work?

Transcription will still occur, just slowly

What does a recptor protein do?

Transduces an extracellular signal into an intracellular signal, initiating a signaling cascade that relays the signal into the cell, amplifyng and distributing it.

"In what stage of the cellular signalling pathway is the ""cascade effect"" / ""amplification"" occuring?"

Transduction

If you have an iron deficciency, what protein will be synthesized more? Why?

Transferrin, to increase TIBC (total iron binding capacity)

What is the process of RNA giving rise to proteins called?

Translation

What is exocytosis?

Transport of large materials (hormones etc) outside the cell, vesicle merges w/ cell membrane and expells its load.

What are channel proteins?

Transport proteins embedded in cell membrane

What are glucose transporters?

Transport proteins to transport glucose through facillitative diffusion (PASSIVE)

Amino acids can be either polar or nonpolar. (hydrophobic/hydrophillic)

True

What are microtubules?

Tube-like, made of tubactin. Motor proteins move along these.

What happens during telophase?

Two nuclei begin to form Chromosomes begin to decondense   spindle microtubules depolymerize Mitosis completes

What is a contractile vacuole?

Used by unicellular protists to regulate water intake by pumping out excess (prevents them from lysing (bursting))

How are CAM plants similar to C4 plants?

Uses C4 pathways (fixes carbon with PEP carboxylase, etc)

What is active transport?

Uses energy/ATP Goes against concentration gradient (eg. pumping Na+ out and K+ in (sodium-potassium pumps))

How are Ca+2 ions involved in synaptic signalling?

Usually cells are negative (no calcium), but when depolarization occurs, voltage-gated channels let the calcium in, which triggers the release of neurotransmitters. In repolarization, calcium is actively transported back out.

How do α and a yeast cells identify each other for sexual reproduction?

Via mating factors - each cell type has a factor that may bind to receptors specific to the other type. This triggers shmoo formation. They will then combine and later split after dna mixing

What makes a viroid different from a virus architecturally?

Viroids lack a protein coat

Who did Darwin share his discovery with?

Wallace

"What does ""transpiration results in evaporative cooling"" mean?"

Water left after evaporation is cooler

What does the xylem transport and in what direction?

Water, up

What is the Casparian Strip?

Waxy layer on the endodermis preventing things from getting through the apoplast

What is the Crabtree effect?

When cells already have enough glucose, they decide it's easier (less initial investment) to just do fermentation.

Under what circumstances are you to use only one degree of freedom when calculating chi-square?

When comparing Hardy Weinberg allele frequencies.

What is feedback inhibition?

When enough final product is acheived, it limits the earlier steps

How do guard cells work?

When guard cells are turgid (are well hydrated) the stomata open.

In what cases is sickle cell anemia good?

When malaria is prevalent and when the individual is heterozygous for the trait because it is codominant (malaria cannot destroy sickle-cell RBCs) (homozygous for the trait = early painful death)

When is quorum sensing triggered?

When the concentration of signal molecules reaches a critical threshold for activation of multicellular processes

When does uncoupling occur?

When there's a leak in the proton gradient

What triggers neurotransmitter release?

Wherever the action potential is, there is a transient increase in Ca++ concentration. When this reaches the presynaptic terminal, the Ca++ triggers neurotransmitter exocytosis.

What is it when a mother passes a trait to both sexes, but a father passes the same trait to only his daughters?

X-linked 

XX chromosomes = ? XY?

XX = female XY = male

Do eukaryotes have membrane-bound cells?

Yes

Do fungi have cell walls?

Yes

is synaptic signaling an example of paracrine signalling?

Yes -- it uses neurotransmitters as the local regulator.

Do prokaryotes have cell walls?

Yes always, although there are differing types

Do plants perform cellular respiration? Do they have mitochondria?

Yes and yes

Can proteins and fats be broken down?

Yes, but they enter respiration at later stages than glucose

Can species share habitats and resources?

Yes. Competition occurs only when two species use resources in the same way.  Ex. Nocturnal vs dirunal species

When is there ZPG? What does ZPG stand for?

Zero Population Growth when B = D (Birth rate = death rate)

pH to H+ equation?

[H+] = 10-pH

What is a lethal allele? You have to do something special with it -- what?

a genotype that causes death, so the genotype will never appear. Take it out of a phenotypic ratio.

What is the cis face?

a golgi body's receiving side

What is abscisic acid?

a hormone that suspends plant growth to prepare itself for winter. Inhibits cell division, promotes seed doremancy, closes stomata

What is the relatively refractory period?

a large suprathreshold graded potential can start a second AP by activating Na+ channels which have been reset.

What does an EPSP look like?

a little blip that doesnt quite reach the threshhold for an action potential

What is an ion channel receptor?

a receptor that triggers the opening of an ion channel in response to a signal (ions can't normally diffuse over the plasma membrane because they're too polar)

What is the SRY gene?

a region on the Y chromosome encodes the testis determining factor (TDS), which directs embryonic gonads to develop into testes and begin secreting testosterone

What is the absolutely refractory period?

a second action potential will not occur until the first is over. The gates on the Na+ channel have not reset.<div> </div><div>It begins after AP trigger and goes for a short set amount of time</div>

Which type of yeast -- a or alpha -- secretes the mating factor and which has the receptor?

a secretes the mating factor, alpha has the receptor

What are RFLPs?

a techninique to use a restriction enzyme to cut DNA at specific sequences that will create DNA whose length will vary based on the person

What is p53 and what does it do?

a tumor-suppressor gene halts cell division at G1/S if it detects damaged DNA, so that damaged DNA is not replicated. Cancer cells have to shut down its activity to become cancerous.

The interior of a lysosome is _____ because _____

acidic, because the enzymes work best at this pH

cAMP activates or inactivates the lac operon?

activates

Why doesn't everything spontaneously combust in accordance with the theory of entropy?

activation energy

is the trp operon usually active or inactive?

active

What is natural selection's interaction with the phenotype vs. the genotype?

acts directly on the phenotype & indirectly on the genotype

What does thymine/uracil pair with?

adenine

What stage do MPFs trigger? How?

advancement past G2/M checkpoint. phosphorylates protein kinases. Feedback inhibition because it triggers the breakdown of cyclins to deactivate itself

How does GCPR (g-protein-linked-receptor) desensitization/internalization occur? What will happen to the GCPR following this internalization?

after dissociation from alpha subunit, the beta-gamma subunit recruits G-protein coupled receptor kinase (GRK) leading to phosphorylation of the receptor, which promotes the binding of beta arrestin which promotes the formation of calthrin coated pits and the formation of endosomes containing the internalized receptor, where it remains in the cytosol as it sheds its ligand and is dephosphorylated. At this point, the receptor is either targeted for degredation or recycled back to the membrane.

Define a niche. Specifically, what it is composed of.

all the physical, chemical and biological factors that a species needs to survive, stay healthy, and reproduce. (how it lives within the habitat)

What kinds of organisms use hormones?

all/(most all) of them -- including prokaryotes

A pride of hyenas only being able to take down their large prey, and therefore feed, when they are in large groups, is an example of what?

allee effect

How does gene flow decrease fittness of Bent grass?

alleles for copper tolerance are beneficial in populations near copper mines, but harmful to populations in other soils Windblown pollen moves these alleles between populations • The movement of unfavorable alleles into a population results in a decrease in fit between organism and environment

What are pyramids of production? What is their orientation?

also known as pyramids of energy. Represents the loss of energy with each transfer in the food chain. Always upright

what is an allele?

alternative form of a gene in the same locus on homologues

What is a fixed allele/loci?

an allele that is homozygous for all members of the population: there isn't any variation to go around

What is pleiotropy?

an allele which has more than one phenotypic effect

What does a synapomorphy consist of?

an apomorphy shared by two or more taxa 

RNA interference is activated when_______. What happens as a result?

an mRNA instruction has a suspicious shape (recognized as viral DNA), causing siRNA to block its translation

Hedgehogs and porccupines' spikes have what kind of relatiuonship?

analogous

When are chromosomes pulled apart?

anaphase

What does aneuploid and euploid mean?

aneuploid - abnormal # of chromosomes euploid - normal # of chromosomes

What type of ions do nonmetals form?

anions (gain electrons)

What are caspases?

apoptosis related enzymes

When is the population growing fastest?

at K/2

What is nitrogen's abiotic resivoir?

atmosphere

when do mitotic spindles attach? When do mitotic spindles line chromosomes up?

attach: metaphase (I believe?) line up: metaphase

How does nucleic acid hybridization work?

bacteria colonies are transferred to a multiwell plate w/ one conony to each well. Then their DNA is separated into single strands and a radioactive probe for the sequence of interest is added. Then perform autoradiography (photographic film to see where radioactivity is)

Microtubules are anchored to ____

basal bodies

inducers function how?

bind to repressors to inactivate them

the cap/cAMP together enhances what?

binding of rna pol II

Testosterone functions inside a cell by

binding with a receptor protein that enters the nucleus and activates specific genes.

Carrying Capacity (K) = 

biotic potential + environmental resistance

What limits population growth? (group of 3, then group of 2)

biotic potential, intrinsic rate of increase (r), environmental resistance Density independent and dependent factors.

What does b stand for in growth rate equations?

birth rate

Is glucose concentration higher in blood cells or intracellular area?

blood cells

What are somatic cells?

body cells

What is adipose tissue?

body fat

A snowshoe hare population that goes down in response to lynx predation, who themselves go down after they overhunt the snowshoe hares, is an example of what?

boom-bust cycle (but it's not r-selected boom bust due to lack of parental investment etc.)

in mutualism,

both benefit

What is mullerian mimicry?

both the model and the mimic are dangerous or unpalatable prey. Mutualistic relationship

Cheetas are an example of the _______ effect

bottleneck

How are proteins degraded?

by the ubiquitin-proteasome system (80-90% of the time -- the other part is by lysosomal processes, they're usually just extracellular proteins there)

What activates CAP?

cAMP

What is the second messenger in the adenylate cyclase g-protein-activated signal transduction pathway? What does it do?

cAMP activates PKA which leads to a cascade which breaks down starch to glucose at the end

what is cAMP's role in the adenylate cyclase g-protein-activated signal transduction pathway? What does it do?

cAMP is a secondary messenger which activates the target enzyme, PKA

What is a heterotroph?

can NOT synthesize their own food and are dependent on other organisms for their food

<div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div><div>The protein shell that encloses a viral genome is called?</div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>

capsid

What does K stand for?

carrying capacity

What is the cascade effect? (signalling)

cascades of enzymes activating each other, which amplified the signal from receoption by activating multiple copies of the next compound in the pathway.

What does the krebs cycle do to the 6C citrate molecule?

catabolizes it in a stepwise fashion

What type of ions do metals form?

cations (lose electrons)

What is the bottleneck effect caused by? What does it do to a population?

caused by a severe reduction in population (possibly a Natural disaster), reduces overall diversity. Surviving population may have a different gene pool than the original population

What is the plant equivalent of a cleavage furrow? What does it do and what does it develop from?

cell plate develops from phragmoplast forms center of dividing plant cell -- a precursor to the ensuing cell wall

Describe uncoupling

chemical that is a weak acid/base comes into basic mitochondrial matrix, releases an H+, diffuses out and picks up another, then comes back in. Now the ETC must work extra hard and use more glucose to maintain the electrochemical gradient.

How to distinguish between x-linked and autosomal recessive?

choose the simpler mode for the observed pattern-that is, the mode that requires fewer unrelated individuals to carry a rare allele. <div> </div><div> </div><div>Ahah also 1/2 boys will get x linked recessive</div>

what are recombiant chromosomes?

chromosomes resulting from crossing over

What is the name of the thing which can be likened to a rubber band squeezing two halves of a cell apart in cytokinesis? In what kind of cell does this occur?

cleavage furrow animal cells

What did Gause's experiment indicate? (4)

closed systems (without immigration) are prone to extinction • cycles are only likely to occur when immigration is involved in the dynamics of species • refuges for prey prevent or delay its extinction • high predator efficiency (in prey capture) is destabilizing

What is the phenotype AB blood an example of?

codominance (has both A and B antigens)

What is intraspecific competition?

competition between members of the same species

What are biotic factors, especially regarding the realized niche?

competitors, predators limiting the realized niche

What is cDNA?

complementary DNA synthesized from RNA

Prey-predator cycles / stable populations occur in (complex only/not necessarily complex) environments

complex only

What is a himalayan coat phenotype an example of?

conditional allele (specifically, temperature sensitive)

What is a Type II survivorship curve?

constant mortality squirrels

Are decomposers/ditritovores producers or consumers?

consumers

What do cyclins and Cdks participate in?

controling mitotic checkpoints

What is batessian mimicry?

convergent evolution style of mimicing, but one is harmless and the other is harmful. Antagonistic relationship ex. viceroy vs monarch butterflies

Only after new nuclei have formed (telophase) does _______ occur.

cytokinesis

What does guanine pair with?

cytosine

Where is the carboxyl end on  a g-protein linked receptor?

cytosol side

what does d stand for in growth rate equations?

death rate

"what was Darwin's phrase alternative to ""survival of the fittest""?"

decent with modification

What are detritivores?

decomposers

How is nitrogen recycled?

decomposing & nitrifying bacteria

How is phosphorous recycled?

decomposing bacteria & fungi

how is nitrogen returned to the abiotic resivoir?

denitrifying bacteria

The allee effect is a _______ dependent factor

density

What's the difference between a deoxyribose and a ribose?

deoxyribose LACKS an oxygen on the second carbon in the ring

What happens to the host DNA in the lytic cycle?

destroyed

lac gene has what function?

digest lactose

Maltose is...

disaccharide of 2 glucoses

sucrose is...

disaccharide of a glucose and fructose

Lactose is...

disaccharide of galactose and glucose

What is conjugation?

discrete transfer of genetic material between bacteria that are temporarily joined.

what are historical factors when discussing the realized niche?

dispersal limitations of what happened historically

What is a karyotype?

display of the 23 chromosome pairs

Darwin finch beaks display what kind of selection?

disruptive

Tourists make cacti exhibit what kind of selection?

disruptive

if a trait never skpis generations, what is it?

dominant

What is a provirus?

double-stranded viral DNA that has been incorporated into a host cell's genome.

When do centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell? When is this complete?

during early prophase, completes at late prophase

What occurs during/resulting from telophase I?

each pole now has haploid (1n) set of chromosomes BUT THEY'RE DOUBLED cytokinesos occurs and two haploid daughter cells are formed  (but each has  pairs of sister chromosomes, not just 1 per chromosomes like complete gametes) from here it can go into metaphase II

What do early species do for succession?

early species facilitate habitat changes to allow for later species development (change in soil ph, fertillity, light levels, etc)

what is phospholipase C's role in the phospholipase C g-protein-activated signal transduction pathway? What does it do?

effector enzyme (G-protein activates it). Cleaves phospholipids into ip3 and DAG

Gene flow [increases/decreases/either] the fitness of a population. Give example(s)

either --  decreases:The movement of unfavorable alleles into a population that doesnt need the allele results in a decrease in fit between organism and environment (eg. bent grass copper resistance) Increases: One population evolving a favorable allele may spread to others. (eg. mosquito insecticide resitance)

A male has an x-linked trait. What was his mother?

either a carrier (if trait is recessive) or affected (if homozygous recessive or trait is dominant)

the flow of ions in an ion-channel-lined receptor produces a(n) __________ effect

electrical

What is the oxidizing agent?

electron acceptor

What is the reducing agent?

electron donor

What is the X-inactivation center (XIC)?

encodes X-inactive specific transcript (XIST RNA) Xist is the only gene expressed in an inactive X chromosome but not in an active one

Is reduction exergonic or endergonic?

endergonic stores energy

activator proteins bind to what?

enhancer

Glycoproteins are only found on viruses that have _________

envelopes

What make the map between genotype and phenotype many to many?

environment, epistasis, and pleiotropy

What is a ligase?

enzyme that can catalyze the joining of two large molecules by forming a new chemical bond

How does phosphorous enter the food chain?

erosion releases soluble phosphate ▪ uptake by plants

What have cancer cells gone and done?

escaped from all cell cycle controls no density dependent or anchorage dependant inhibition don't stop dividing when growth factors are depleted immortal (keeps dividing given enough nutrients) transformation = process converting normal cell to cancer cell

Are fungi prokaryotes or eukaryotes?

eukaryotes

In energy coupling, which reactions fuel which?

exergonic (catabolic) fuels endergonic (anabolic)

A hurricane (exerts/doesn't exert) its affects on both logistic and exponential growth, because it is a  ______ factor.

exerts, density-independent

What is the realized environment?

existent conditions affecting the realized niche

What are scaffolding proteins for?

expediting transduction by putting enzymes right next to each other

What is exocytosis?

expelling contents from a vesicle outside of the cell. This occurs with neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft

If a population isn't affected by density dependent factors, it has ________ growth.

exponential

What is most time in boom-bust cycles spent doing?

exponential growth (followed by short rapid loss)

The more iron in the plasma, the more _______

ferritin synthesized

What is southern blotting used for?

finding a specific gene in a cup of DNA

How does bulk flow work?

fluid in xylem and phloem is driven by pressure differences at opposite ends of the tubes.

"What happens to a compound that is '""reduced""?"

gains an electron

What does RNA splicing do?

gets rid of introns via splicosomes

Starch is...

glucose polymer easy to digest, all units are directed in one direction and connected by alpha bonds (X\o/X\o/X\o/X)

Cellulose is...

glucose polymer units are connected by alpha-beta bonds: rigid straight structure, hard to digest (X/o\X\o/X/o\X)

What is the cell plate made of?

golgi-derived vesicles

What is gradualism?

gradual change in earth's geology

What is uniformintarianism?

gradual change in earth's geology/species (I thinkkkk)

What is an example of panacrine signaling?

growth factors

What does cytosine pain with?

guanine

What are gametes?

half the # of chromosomes produced in gonads (testes/ovaries) male: spermatogenesis (sperm) female: oogenisis (egg/ova)

males are _______ for the X-chromosome

hemizygous

Glucose is a

hexose

What is a type III curve?

high death rate early in life 

What does high-energy radiation do? chemotherapy?

high-energy radiation = kill rapidly dividing cells chemotherapy = drug to stop dna replication, stop mitosis and cytokiniseis, stop blood vessel growth

A male has an x-linked dominant trait. What will happen to his children?

his daughters will inherit the trait, but not his sons (they only get his Y chromosome)

What occurs during anaphase I?

homologous chromosomes are separated and are pulled towards the poles sister chromatids are still attached at their centromeres

What is autocrine action?

hormonal signals secreted from and acting on itself.

What is species diversity?

how many different species in a community

Where does cellular respiration occur?

in mitochondria

What is consanguinity?

inbreeding

If you generated a Ras mutant that could not hydrolyze GTP --> GDP, how would this affect the signaling pathway?

increase in ras-inducted signalling

is lac operon inducible or repressible?

inducible

how are mitochondrial traits passed down?

inherited from the mother only (our mitochondria, aside from mutations, is the same as our oldest maternal ancestor) all children will be affected by mother's mitochondrial traits expression of mitochondrial conditions is variable -- it depends on how the cytoplasm was split in meiosis

what are the second messengers in the phospholipase C g-protein-activated signal transduction pathway? What does each do?

inositol-1,4,5-Trisphosphate (IP3) & Diacylglycerol (DAG) --- Acting on a normal membrane phospholipid, active phospholipase C cleaves off IP3, which is the phospholipid's small polar head. Remaining in the membrane is the DAG, which was formerly the fatty acid tail of the phospholipid IP3 diffuses to the endoplasmic reticulum and releases Ca++ into the cytoplasm. It then activates various cellular processes. <div><div><div><div><div>Meanwhile DAG in the membrane activates protein kinase C, acting as a second messenger in other pathways</div></div><div></div><div></div></div></div><div><div></div><div></div><div><div><div></div></div></div><div></div></div></div><div><div><div></div><div><div><div> </div></div></div></div></div>

What is the enzyme that splices viral DNA into a host cell's genome?

integrase

what is protein tertiary structure? What does it form?

interactions between R groups of proteins forming alpha helices and pleated sheets

What is it called when there is competition between different species?

interspecific competition

IRP and IRE relationship and unnabreviated name?

iron regulatroy proteins (IRP) bind to iron-responsive elements (IRE)

The lac operon repressor is repressing when allolactose is or is not present?

is not

Competition (is/is not) applicable on all growth patterns because it is a density _______ factor.

is not, density dependent (density dependent causes populations to have logistic growth.)

Enantiomers

isomers that are mirror images of each other

Can a g-protein complex activate or inactivate the process it controls? Or does it vary?

it varies

What is adenylate cyclase to the adenylate cyclase g-protein-activated signal transduction pathway? What does it do?

its effector enzyme - it produces cAMP

What is hexokinase inhibited by?

its product, glucose 6-phosphate

Cyclins activate kinases (CDKs)

just know this

Ecosystem engineers are _____ species

keystone

an individual who is 47, XXY is affected by what?

kleinfelter syndrome male sterile male with many female body characteristics

Which part of cellular respiration produces co2?

krebs

cap/cAMP controls what - lac operon or trp operon?

lac

In which can a current flow faster: a large-diameter axon or a low-diameter axon?

large because theres lower resistance

List the types of gated ion channels

ligand-gated phosphorylation voltage-gated mechanical force-gated temperature-gated

Meiosis II is like mitosis how?

literally the same, but it's duplicating half the # of chromosomes because it's a haploid cell, and there's no interphase; it just goes straight into meiosis II from meiosis I

What part of the body stores cells containing ferritin?

liver

What is paracrine action?

local hormonal activity. Diffuses from the source cell to target cells in the vicinity.

What does the influx of na+ ions cause after ligand gated ion channels open?

local, transient depolarization of membrane potential a nerve impulse (action potential) may occur

Life History strategies lead to tradeoffs between __________

long life vs high reproduction rate

What is endocrine action?

long-distance hormonal signal. Travels through the blood to reach its destination

an individual who is 47, XYY is affected by what?

male Jacobs syndrome more aggressive/masculine

What do you really need to remember when labeling a pedigree/dealing with sex-linked inheritance?

males have a Y chromosome. INCLUDE IT!!

What is sexual dimorphism?

marked differences between the 2• sex characteristics

What is SiRNA?

marks suspicious (potentially viral) DNA by making it double stranded, signalling for a proteaosome degredation

What is intersexual selection?

mate choice, usually female choosing and often depends on male showiness

What is biotic potential?

maximum rate at which a population could grow given optimal conditions

What is the MSY? What does it equal?

maximum sustainable yield --- largest catch that can be removed from a population of fish every generation for an indefinite number of generations. k/2

What are the functions of miRNAs and siRNAs?

micro RNA/short interfering RNA that can degrade mRNA or block translation

What happens when you violate a HW assumption?

microevolution!!

Where does the krebs cycle occur?

mitochondrial matrix (inside the inner mitochondria membrane)

What are transfer cells?

modified companion cells These have ingrowths to increase surface area to enhance solute transfer between apoplast and symplast

What do covalent bonds form?

molecules

What is Ras?

monomeric GTPase switch protein that doesn't directly bind to receptors, but propagates signaling further inside the cell through a kinase cascade that cumulates in the activation of MAP kinases

What is monosomy, disomy, trisomy, etc?

monosomy: zygote with just one chromosome (of a certain type) disomy: zygote with two chromosomes (of a certain type -- this is the normal condition of humans) trisomy: zygote with three chromosomes (of a certain type)

gene flow is _______ likely than mutation to alter allele frequencies directly

What is a hypothesis as to how chromosomes travel to the poles on the mitotic spindle?

motor proteins walk them, and excess microtubule is depolymerized

what is iteroparity?

multiple reproductive chances before death -- few offpsring at a time

What is character displacement?

multiple species occur together, so each changes to fit a different niche

What creates the sickle-shape in blood with sickle cell amenia? And why is this shape bad?

mutant hemoglobin is hydrophobic, and this hydrophobic hemoglobin stick to each other in a rod-like structure they get stuck in small blood vessels, so oxygen cannot be delivered to the extremeties cannot carry as much oxygen as normal RBCs

What pressure (positive or negative) does the xylem utilize?

negative - water evaporates off the top creating less pressure that water flows up into

What is meant by depolarization of a nerve cell's membrane potential?

nerve cell becomes less negative

What is an action potential?

nerve impulse; rapid, self-propagating electrical signal

What do neurotoxins target? Why are they deadly, and what is one way we can stop it from being lethal?

neuronal ion channels neurotoxins permanently bind to ion chanels, inactivating(/or activating) them. We can use reversible antagonists which will unbind themselves later to compete with the neurotoxins and stop their lethality

How does nitrogen enter the food chain?

nitrogen fixation by soil & aquatic bacteria

Can a system survive if there is no migration between metapopulations?

can a son inherit an x-linked trait from their father?

are (realized) niches stable?

no -- will change over time in accordance to changing biotic interactions, realized environment (existent conditions), and time to disperse

Would darwin have said that evolution is a form of progress? I.e. would an amoeba in a puddle be just as good as a duck in a pond?

no evolution isnt for progress

What happens if the femenizer gene in bees is knocked out?

no feminizer means that no female dsx will be produced, so male dsx will be produced instead, leading to male development

do genetic drift and gene flow always lead to adaptive evolution?

no, although it may, because it can either increase or decrease the match between an organism and its environment

Are mitochondria found in prokaryotic cells?

no, because mitochondria are membrane-bound

An individual who is XXX will experience what?

not many symptoms, wilk have 2 barr bodies, will be sterile

An endergonic reaction is... (spontaneous/not, catabolic/anabolic, free energy?)

not spontaneous, anabolic, products have more free energy than reactants (absorb energy) simpler molecules combine into a higher energy complex molecule

an individual who is 46, XX is affected by what?

nothing, normal female

an individual who is 46, XY is affected by what?

nothing, normal male

Describe crossing over

occurs between nonsister chromatids at sites called chaisma  -segments of nonsister chromatids break and reattach to the other chromatid - causes genetic recombination - the spot at which the chromatids cross called the chiasma resulting chromosomes are called recombiant chromosomes

What is balancing selection? Name the two types.

occurs when natural selection maintains multiple alleles in a population Heterozygote advantage Frequency-dependent selection

What happens during cytokinesis?

often simutaneous with telophase forms a cleavage furrow to pinch the cell in two

in commensalism,

one benefits, the other is unaffected

Beta Radiation emits ___

one electron

in parasitism,

one species benefits, while the other is harmed

What is ammensalism?

one species is harmed or inhibited and the other species is unaffected

What did Huffaker introduce to Gause's experiment?

oranges/tennis balls connected by bridges to permit natural migration between mite populations. When the system got complex enough (added many oranges and vaseline barriers to force migration when one metapopulation got too dense), natural oscillations were observed

What is a cloning vector?

organism or piece of dna (virus, yeast or plasmid) that will carry inserted dna from another organism

What did Lamarck propose?

organisms adapted to their environment based on use & disuse, and acquired traits could also be passed on (clipped ear dogs could pass that on according to him)

H+ to pH equation?

pH = -log[H+]

What is a centrosome?

pair of centrioles where microtubules originate

fructose is a

pentose

ribose is a

pentose

Why is DNA negatively charged?

phosphate groups

What regulates cAMP levels?

phosphodiesterases

What are viral envelopes made of?

phospholipid membrane derived from membrane of host cell

How is APC activated?

phosphorylation of APC regulatory factors by MPF

What is an operator?

place where repressor proteins bind. located at the end of the promoter. blocks RNA pol II

Viroids affect what? Do viruses also infect them?

plants, yes plants can get infected by viruses too

In chromatography, which substance travels farther up the paper? Polar or nonpolar? Which one remains stationary?

polar nonpolar

What is a climax community? In which type of succession does this status come faster?

populations of plants or animals remain stable and exist in balance with each other and their environment secondary succession

What are nodes of Ranvier? Why do we need them?

portions of a mylenated axon lacking a myelin sheath. High concentrations of Na+ channels are found here to reinforce the depolarization. These nodes keep the amplitude of the action potential constant, but slows the current flow due to a loss of charge to the extracellular fluid

What is a locus?

position of an individual gene, in the same position on homologues

What is a locus? 

position of an individual gene. Located in the same position on homologues

positive assortive mating vs negative assortive mating?

positive: loss of heterozygosity and variation. Leads to fixed alleles negative: increase in genetic variation

What is monosomy?

possessing just 1 copy of a chromosome

What is PTGS? relationship to RNAi?

post transcriptional gene silencing. RNAi is a form of this

What happens at the G2/M checkpoint?

prevents cells from entering mitosis if DNA is damaged

How do/what are CKIs' function?

produced when DNA is damaged Can either cause cells to fix DNA (might go wrong) or if in serious trouble: promotes apoptosis (cell death) This protects against cancer

Who was Joseph Goebbels?

propaganda minister weaponized Hitler's successes via art, film, and other media during the Third Reich.

DNA incorporated into the host genome through the lysogenic cycle is called what?

prophage

When do mitotic spindles form?

prophase

When does the nuclear membrane disappear?

prophase

What is the proteasome?

protein complex that functions as a cellular garbage can for degrading polyubiquitin chains (proteins with many ubiquitins attached to it, tagged for destruction)

What is protein quartenary structure?

protein structure relating to a protein that consists of more than one amino acid chain

What is cohesin?

protein that holds sister chromosomes together at the centromere. (also helps hold homologues together during meiosis but I don't think that was anywhere in the slides so probably don't worry about that one)

What do you do after autoradiography in southern blotting?

put x-ray film over filter paper, so that the probes will create a dark band wherever they are located

K vs R species -- which is the better colonizer?

r species

K vs R species -- which lives through boom-bust cycles?

r species

K vs R species -- which is typically on a lower trophic level?

r strategists

A population is increasing when r

r>0

a population is decreasing when r

r<0

In succession (primary and secondary) early species are ____ selected

r-selected

K vs R species -- which is better for general activity within a niche?

r-strategists

a population size is constant when r

r=0

Does heat raise or lower the rate of diffusion?

raise (faster)

Why is prokaryotic mRNA so short lived? Why isn't eukaryotic mRNA short lived

rapid response to environmental changes - prokaryotes eukaryotes want to maintain constant internal conditions bc no need for rapid response

What is an example of gene flow?

rat snakes rat snakes have different subspecies with different appearances, but remain similar and can interbreed

What are a neuron's dendrites?

receive inputs from other neurons, perform spatio-temporal integration of inputs, relays them to the cell body

If a trait ever skips generations, what is it?

recessive

recombination frequency equation?

recombiant progeny/total progeny

What is independant assortment?

recombinant chromosomes separate randomly causing genetic recombination occurs during metaphase  (this isn't when they're pulling apart and going into gametes)

What is it called when NAD becomes NADH?

reduction

Mitosis I is ______

reduction (in the number of chromosomes; haploid --> diploid)

What does GLUT4 do?

regulated by insulin levels, responsible for glucose uptake into fat and muscle cells. When insulin is high, Vmax of glucose goes up (more insulin = more glucose intake)

What is erythropoietin (EPO) and what does it do?

regulates blood cell proliferation (more EPO = blood cell creation) when oxygen levels fall, EPO goes up

List the components of the operon

regulatory gene (+ its promoter), promoter, operator, structural genes

What happens in translational control (blocking initiation of translation)?

regulatory proteins attach to 5' end of mRNA ◼ prevent attachment of ribosomal subunits & initiator tRNA ◼ block translation of mRNA to protein

exergonic reactions ______ energy

release

What will terminate the signal of a ligand-binding receptor?

removal of the ligand

is trp operon inducible or repressible?

repressible

Regulatory genes produce what proteins?

repressors

Why is trisomy 21 tolerated better than other aneuploidity?

results in down syndrome, chromosome 21 is relatively small so humans can still function

How are genes inserted in gene therapy?

retroviruses

cyclin levels ______ throughout interpgase, then _____ during mitosis.

rise fall

which rna polymerase transcribes mrna?

rna polymerase II

What is phosphorous's abiotic resivoir?

rocks, minerals, soil

What is photorespiration?

rubisco tries to act on O2 rather than CO2

What is in situ hybridization? What is it's function?

see/compare gene expression probes that have been labeled with fluorescent dye are added to the intact organism. The tissues in which the probes have attached to the DNA will have a particular color based on the probe.

What is intrasexual selection?

selection within the same sex -- eg. there is an alpha male and only he gets to mate

IRPs do what?

sensor of cell iron to modulate the synthesis of iron regulatroy proteins by binding to IREs

What is protein primary structure?

sequence of amino acids

what is protein secondary structure?

sequence of amino acids and structure made by hydrogen bonding between them

what are gametes?

sex cells, 1/2 # of chromososmes

What is a graded potential?

signals from stimulus that are not strong enough to reach the threshhold to fire an action potential

What is the hypervolume?

similar to a niche (I don't fully understand the distinction, but it seems unlikely that the differences will be on a test)

What are we looking for in embryology?

similar/identical larvae/embryos, different adult body forms

What is semelparity?

single reproductive episode before death -- many offspring at a time

what is the nucleoli?

site of ribosome genisis

Do bigger molecules diffuse faster or slower?

slower

What is an SNP?

small genetic variation within a certain type of organism that can make organisms unique

What is mobbing behavior?

sometimes large predators will only be able to focus closely on a single prey item. To prevent the predator from getting to it, single species or even mixed-species groups will mob the predator to confuse it

What are northern blots? western?

southern blotting but with DNA (northern) or proteins (western)

What is allopatric speciation?

speciation occuring because a given group has been separated from the parent group

what is sympatric speciation?

speciation occuring without physical separation

What was innovative about Lamarck?

species aren't fixed, evolution uses natural processes, link between an organism's environment and body structures

what is a hybrid zone?

species that are partially/in the process of separating, who may cross over to each other's habitats and create hybrids (there is a cline between the two species). Species on either side are subspecies.

what is the chiasma?

spot at which chromatids cross (plural: chiasmata)

an individual who is 45, X is affected by what?

sterile female Turner syndrome

What are microarray assays useful for?

studying an entire genome of an organism at once to find out all genes active at a time

Why should extinct armadillo-like species & armadillos be found on same continent?

succession of types

What is the gap between the axon of a presynaptic neuron and the dendrite of a postsynaptic neuron called?

synaptic cleft

ubiquitin does what? and is associated with what organelle?

tags proteins for degredation in proteasome

endergonic reactions _______ energy

take in

Where do the golgi body's proteins come from?

the ER

What is signal transduction in cellular signaling?

the ability of a cell to translate receptor-ligand interaction into a change in behavior or gene expression

What was Mendel's law of independent assortment?

the alleles of two (or more) different genes get sorted into gametes independently of one another

What's an ester bond?

the bond between a hydroxyl group (-OH) and a carboxyl group (-COOH) formed by dehydration synthesis. They hold together lipids.

What is the light independant phase?

the calvin cycle

What is a trophic cascade?

the cascading effect that a change in the size of one population (usually an apex predator) in the web has on the populations at lower levels.

What would happen if cyclin-b (metaphase cyclin) didn't have a D-box?

the cell would be stuck in metaphase

What is the composition of a community describing?

the dominant species, most abundant by biomass, keystone species, and the changes in a community over time (succession)

in feedback inhibition,

the enzymatic activity is regulated by the amount of the enzyme's end product that is present

Define meiosis

the form of cell division by which gametes w/ half the # of chromosomes are produced. sexual

Define the fundamental niche

the full spectrum of environmental factors that can be potentially utilized by an organism

what is biological succession?

the gradual change in an ecosystem in which one biological community is replaced by another.

What is a Ras/MAP kinase pathway?

the kind of pathway RTKs signal through

What happens when a cell is in an excess of iron?

the lack of IRP binding to IREs results in less iron uptake and more apoferritin availability for iron storage

"What is the ""primary messenger""? What stage of the signalling pathway is this?"

the ligand reception

What is a local current?

the method by which an action potential propagates -- the depolarization of adjacent channels cause depolarization and opening of further adjacent channels

Where is genetic information stored in prokaryotes?

the nucleoid region, without a membrane separating it from the rest of the cell

Where is genetic information stored in a eukaryote?

the nucleus

"What will happen to the pH inside of a thylakoid that is exposed to light?"

the pH will decrease

Transcription of the structural genes in an inducible operon starts when _______

the pathway's substrate is present

What determines barnacle shape? This is an environmental affect.

the presence of predators causes barnacles to become bent rather than straight. They will not do this in the absense of predators because bent barnacles are less fecund.

What is the addition rule? [probabillity]

the probability that any one of two or more exclusive events will occur is calculated by adding together their individual probabilities

What is the multiplication rule? [probability]

the probability that two or more independent events will occur together is the product of their individual probabilities

What is biomagnification?

the process by which a toxic substance is passed along the food chain in small amounts at the start, but by the end has bioaccumulated into the predator animal in high quantities.

What is niche partitioning?

the process by which natural selection drives competing species into different patterns of resource use or different niches

What is the synaptonemal complex?

the structure between homologous chromosomes in tetrads that mediates synapsis (helps them match up their loci I think)

What was Mendel's law of segregation?

the two alleles for a character are separated (segregated) during gamete formation and end up in different gametes

Exponential growth is when a species grows at _______

their full biotic potential

Why is it more common to have sex-linked recessive traits in males?

there is no second X chromosome to "mask" a recessive gene. If they get an X with the disorder, they have it. Girls must inherit defective X's from both parents.

What do neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine do?

they are ligands to open ligand-gated Na+ channels on nerve/muscle cells, allowing for the action potential to propagate from one neuron to another.

What does adenine pair with?

thymine/uracil

What is aneuploidity?

too many/too few chromosomes

What makes up the transcription initiation complex?

transcription factors, enhancer, activator, rna polymerase II

what are the two gene-introducing pathways that are essentially the same

transfection and transformation technically transfection is mamaillian and transformation is bacteria/yeast/plants...

What is gene flow?

transfer of alleles from one population to another as a result of movement of fertile individuals or their gametes (ex. pollen or migration)

Horizontal DNA transfer is

transfer of dna from one bacteria to another, but not reproduction

What is the protein that transports iron into cells called?

transferrin

What does the APC/C checkpoint control?

transition from metaphase to anaphase

Iron regulation is an example of control at what stage?

translation

Transport protein ___ vs motor protein ____

transport proteins are conductors PASSIVE TRANSPORT through the cell membrane. Motor proteins are those walking things that travel along microtubules.

what activate trp repressor

tryptophan

Cis isomers have...

two of the same element on the top side

trans isomers have...

two of the same elements on opposite sides (diagonal to each other)

What does the E2 enzyme do? [Ubiquitylation]

ubiquitin conjugating enzyme

What does the E3 enzyme do? [Ubiquitylation]

ubiquitin protein ligase substrate specific transfers ubiquitin to a lysine residue of the substrate (lys-e-amino group)

What does the E1 enzyme do? [Ubiquitylation]

ubiquitin-activating enzyme, non-specific

What is ubiquitin?

ubiquitous; distributed to all cells Tags proteins for degredation by poly-ubiquitin chains

What is a testcross?

unknown genotype x known homozygous recessive individual

List characteristics of the phloem.

up and downward movement (source to sink) comprised of sieve tubes (ALIVE)

List characteristics of the xylem.

upward movement dead at maturity vessel elements (pitted cell wall aids adhesion)

How might you dissect a complex signaling pathway?

use a knockout mutation or constitutive expression mutation and see what goes wrong

What is RT-PCR? What is it useful for?

use mRNA to create cDNA and PCR that. Do this at different points in developmental processes to tell which genes are active when.

Why are ion channel receptors used in neurons?

very fast, controllable response to stimulus

Quorum sensing can trigger _______

virality

what is transduction?

virus-assisted genetic material transfer

when are cAMP levels high?

when glucose levels are low

When do daughter chromosomes form new nuclei?

when they reach the poles during telophase

When is the trp operon inactive (not producing tryptophan)?

when tryptophan is present

What does a lack of production of melanocytes during development cause? What is this an example of and what is it caused by? 

white fur inabillity to transmit electrical signals to brain from cochlear hair cells in the ear pleiotropy piebald gene/merle gene

Drosophila eye color is what?

x-linked (white is recessive)

Are lysosomes enclosed by a membrane?

yes

Can a single signal produce different responses in different cells?

yes

Can metapopulations go extinct without the whole population doing so?

yes

Can you add centiMorgans to find combined distance of two genes?

yes

Does prey have to have some advantage (refuge etc) to survive at all?

yes

With the exception of the x chromosome, is monosomy fatal in humans?

yes

Does the father have to be affected if he has an x-linked dominant trait? What if it's recessive?

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